In general terms, the main linguistic features of the artistic style of speech include the following:
1. Heterogeneity of the lexical composition: combination book vocabulary with colloquial, vernacular, dialect, etc.
Let's turn to examples.
“The feather grass has matured. The steppe was clad in swaying silver for many versts. The wind accepted it resiliently, swooping in, roughening it, bumping it, driving gray-opal waves first to the south, then to the west. Where a flowing air stream ran, the feather grass inclined prayerfully, and a blackening path lay for a long time on its gray ridge.
“Different herbs have blossomed. On the crests of the nikla is a joyless, burnt-out wormwood. The nights faded quickly. At night, in the charred-black sky, innumerable stars shone; month - the Cossack sun, darkening with a damaged sidewall, shone sparingly, white; the spacious Milky Way intertwined with other stellar paths. The tart air was thick, the wind was dry and wormwood; the earth, saturated with the same bitterness of the all-powerful wormwood, yearned for coolness.
(M. A. Sholokhov)
2. The use of all layers of Russian vocabulary in order to implement the aesthetic function.
“Daria hesitated for a minute and refused:
No, no, I'm alone. There I am alone.
Where "there" - she did not even know close, and, going out of the gate, went to the Angara.
(V. Rasputin)
3. The activity of polysemantic words of all stylistic varieties of speech.
“The river boils all in a lace of white foam.
On the velvet of the meadows poppies are reddening.
Frost was born at dawn.
(M. Prishvin).
4. Combinatorial increments of meaning.
Words in an artistic context receive a new semantic and emotional content, which embodies the figurative thought of the author.
“I dreamed of catching the departing shadows,
The fading shadows of the fading day.
I went up the tower. And the steps trembled.
And the steps under my foot trembled.
(K. Balmont)
5. Greater preference for the use of specific vocabulary and less - abstract.
“Sergey pushed the heavy door. The steps of the porch barely audible sobbed under his foot. Two more steps and he is already in the garden.
“The cool evening air was filled with the intoxicating aroma of flowering acacia. Somewhere in the branches, a nightingale chimed and subtly trilled.
(M. A. Sholokhov)
6. A minimum of generic concepts.
“Another essential piece of advice for a prose writer. More specificity. The imagery is the more expressive, the more precisely, more specifically the object is named.
“You have: “Horses chew grain. Peasants prepare “morning food”, “birds rustled”… In the artist’s poetic prose, which requires visible clarity, there should be no generic concepts, if this is not dictated by the very semantic task of the content… Oats are better than grain. Rooks are more appropriate than birds."
(Konstantin Fedin)
7. The widespread use of folk poetic words, emotional and expressive vocabulary, synonyms, antonyms.
“The rosehip, probably, has still made its way along the trunk to the young aspen since spring, and now, when the time has come for the aspen to celebrate its name day, it all flared up with red fragrant wild roses.”
(M. Prishvin).
“New time” was located in Ertelev Lane. I said "fit". This is not the right word. reigned, ruled."
(G. Ivanov)
8. Verbal speech.
The writer calls each movement (physical and / or mental) and change of state in stages. Forcing verbs activates reader tension.
“Grigory went down to the Don, carefully climbed over the fence of the Astakhov base, went to the shuttered window. He heard only frequent heartbeats... He tapped softly on the frame's binding... Aksinya went silently to the window and peered. He saw how she pressed her hands to her chest and heard her indistinct moan escape her lips. Grigory motioned for her to open the window and took off his rifle. Aksinya opened the doors. He stood on the mound, Aksinya's bare hands grabbed his neck. They trembled and fought on his shoulders so, these native hands, that their trembling was transmitted to Grigory.
(M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don")
The dominants of the artistic style are the imagery and aesthetic significance of each of its elements (down to sounds). Hence the desire for freshness of the image, unhackneyed expressions, a large number of tropes, special artistic (corresponding to reality) accuracy, the use of special expressive means of speech characteristic only for this style - rhythm, rhyme, even in prose a special harmonic organization of speech.
Art style speech is distinguished by figurativeness, wide use of figurative and expressive means of the language. In addition to its typical linguistic means, it uses the means of all other styles, especially colloquial. In the language of fiction, vernacular and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, jargon, rude words, professionally business turns of speech, journalism can be used. Means in the artistic style of speech are subject to its main function - aesthetic.
As I. S. Alekseeva notes, “if the colloquial style of speech performs primarily the function of communication, (communicative), scientific and official-business function of communication (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact. All linguistic means included in a work of art change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style.
In literature, language occupies a special position because it is building material, that matter perceived by ear or sight, without which a work cannot be created.
The artist of the word - the poet, the writer - finds, in the words of L. Tolstoy, "the only necessary placement is the only the right words", in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express an idea, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author.
All this is available only to the language of fiction, so it has always been considered the pinnacle of literary language. The best in language, its strongest possibilities and the rarest beauty - in the works of fiction, and all this is achieved by the artistic means of the language. Facilities artistic expressiveness varied and numerous. First of all, these are trails.
Tropes - a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in figurative meaning in order to achieve greater artistic expression. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some way.
one). An epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin appositum) is a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans is a decorating epithet). Wed Pushkin: "ruddy dawn"; Theorists pay special attention to the epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and the epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. an oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: "wretched luxury").
2). Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another on some common basis (tertium comparationis). Wed Pushkin: "Youth is faster than a bird." The disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures.
3). Periphrasis (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) is a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex turns. Wed Pushkin has a parodic paraphrase: "The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously endowed by Apollo." One of the types of paraphrase is euphemism - a replacement by a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason recognized as obscene. Wed in Gogol: "get by with a handkerchief."
In contrast to the paths listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unmodified main meaning of the word, the following paths are built on shifts in the main meaning of the word.
4). Metaphor (Latin translatio) - the use of a word in a figurative sense. Classic example, cited by Cicero - "murmur of the sea." The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5). Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - the case when the whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole. The classic example given by Quintilian is "stern" instead of "ship".
6). Metonymy (Latin denominatio) is the replacement of one name of an object by another, borrowed from related and close objects. Wed Lomonosov: "read Virgil".
7). Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) is the replacement of one's own name with another, as if from the outside, a borrowed nickname. The classic example given by Quintilian is "destroyer of Carthage" instead of "Scipio".
eight). Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - a replacement representing, as it were, a transition from one path to another. Wed in Lomonosov - "ten harvests have passed ...: here, through the harvest, of course, summer, after summer - a whole year."
Such are the paths built on the use of the word in a figurative sense; theorists also note the possibility of the simultaneous use of a word in a figurative and literally, the possibility of confluence of contradictory metaphors. Finally, a number of tropes stand out in which it is not the basic meaning of the word that changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
nine). Hyperbole is an exaggeration brought to the point of "impossibility". Wed Lomonosov: "running, speedy wind and lightning."
ten). Litotes is an understatement expressing, through a negative turnover, the content of a positive turnover (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
eleven). Irony is the expression in words of the opposite meaning to their meaning. Wed Lomonosov's characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a fearful and meek person ... ".
To expressive means language also includes stylistic figures of speech or simply figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, unionlessness, gradation, inversion, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical address, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, and intonation.
Art style serves a special sphere of human activity - the sphere of verbal and artistic creativity. Like other styles, artistic performs all the most important social functions language:
1) informative (reading works of art, we get information about the world, about human society);
2) communicative (the writer communicates with the reader, conveying to him his idea of the phenomena of reality and counting on a response, and unlike a publicist who addresses the masses, the writer addresses the addressee who is able to understand him);
3) affecting (the writer seeks to evoke an emotional response in the reader to his work).
But all these functions in the artistic style are subordinate to its main function -aesthetic , which consists in the fact that reality is recreated in a literary and artistic work through a system of images (characters, natural phenomena, environment, etc.). Each significant writer, poet, playwright has his own, original vision of the world, and to recreate the same phenomenon, different authors use different language means, specially selected, rethought.V. V. Vinogradov noted: “... The concept of “style” as applied to the language of fiction is filled with a different content than, for example, in relation to business or clerical styles, and even journalistic and scientific styles ... The language of fiction is not quite correlative with other styles, he uses them, includes them, but in peculiar combinations and in a transformed form ... "
Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast, for example, to an abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through the senses and the re-creation of reality. The author seeks to convey, first of all, his personal experience, their understanding and comprehension of this or that phenomenon. For the artistic style of speech, attention to the particular and the accidental is typical, followed by the typical and the general.The world of fiction is a "recreated" world, the depicted reality is, to a certain extent, the author's fiction, which means that the subjective moment plays the main role in the artistic style of speech. The whole surrounding reality is presented through the vision of the author. But in a literary text, we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, etc. This is connected with emotionality, expressiveness, metaphor, and the richness of the artistic style. As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms, expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech along with non-artistic speech make up two levels national language. The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function.
The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style, first of all, include the figurative means of the literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are words with a wide range of uses. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity in describing certain aspects of life. For example, L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace" used special military vocabulary when describing battle scenes. We will find a significant number of words from the hunting lexicon in the “Notes of a Hunter” by I. S. Turgenev, in the stories of M. M. Prishvin, V. A. Astafiev. In the "Queen of Spades" by A. S. Pushkin there are many words related to the card game, etc.
In the artistic style, the polysemy of the word is very widely used, which opens up additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonymy at all language levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the richness of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in the artistic text. Many words that in scientific speech act as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech act as concrete sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective "lead" in scientific speech it realizes its direct meaning (lead ore, lead bullet), and in artistic speech it forms an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead night, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech, phrases play an important role, which create a certain figurative representation.
The syntactic structure of artistic speech reflects the flow of figurative-emotional impressions of the author, so here you can find the whole variety of syntactic structures. Each author subordinates linguistic means to the fulfillment of his ideological and aesthetic tasks. In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, that is, the author's allocation of some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms. Especially often this technique is used to create a comic effect or a bright, expressive artistic image.
In terms of diversity, richness and expressive possibilities of language means, the artistic style stands above other styles, is the most complete expression of the literary language. A feature of the artistic style, its most important feature is imagery, metaphor, which is achieved by using a large number of stylistic figures and tropes.
trails - these are words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. The main types of trails are as follows
Metaphor - trope, a word or expression used in a figurative sense, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other on the basis of their common feature: And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Metonymy - a type of trail, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word: The hiss of frothy goblets and punch blue flames. (A. S. Pushkin). The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class, etc.), while metaphor is based on the replacement “by similarity ".
Synecdoche – one of the types of metonymy, which is the transfer of the meaning of one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them: And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Epithet - a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. The epithet is expressed mainly by the adjective, but also by the adverb (hotly love), noun (fun noise), numeral (second Life).
Hyperbola - a trope based on explicit and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said: Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers in such wide folds that if they were inflated, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them (N.V. Gogol).
Litotes - a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, meaning of the described: Your Pomeranian, lovely Pomeranian, is no more than a thimble ... (A. S. Griboyedov). A litote is also called an inverse hyperbola.
Comparison - a trope in which there is an assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement: Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone in the whole universe (A. S. Pushkin).
personification – trope, which is based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones:Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly (A. S. Pushkin).
paraphrase – trope, in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive turnover, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon that is not directly named: the king of beasts (lion), people in white coats (doctors), etc.
Allegory (allegory) - conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
Irony - a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit meaning: Where can we, fools, drink tea. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems.
Sarcasm - one of the types of satirical exposure, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the increased contrast of the implied and expressed, but also on the deliberate exposure of the implied: Only the Universe and human stupidity are infinite. Although I have doubts about the first one (A. Einstein). If the patient really wants to live, the doctors are powerless (F. G. Ranevskaya).
Stylistic figures – these are special stylistic turns that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expression. It should be emphasized that stylistic figures make speech information redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore for a stronger impact on the addressee.Stylistic figures include:
Rhetorical address – giving the author's intonation solemnity, irony, etc..: And you, arrogant descendants ... (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Rhetorical question - it's special construction of speech, in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. The rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement:And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom will the longed-for dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin).
Anaphora
- a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of related sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each parallel row, that is, in the repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (half-lines, verses, stanzas or prose passages):
The winds did not blow in vain,
Not in vain was a thunderstorm (S. A. Yesenin).
Epiphora - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same words at the end of adjacent segments of speech. Often the epiphora is used in poetic speech in the form of the same or similar endings of stanzas:
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me
Can't find me a place in a quiet house
Near a peaceful fire (A. A. Blok).
Antithesis - rhetorical opposition, a stylistic figure of contrast in artistic or oratory speech, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, images, states, interconnected general design or internally: Who was nobody, he will become everything!
Oxymoron - a stylistic figure or stylistic error, which is a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incongruous). An oxymoron is characterized by the intentional use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect:
gradation – grouping homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or weakening emotional and semantic significance: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ... (S. A. Yesenin)
Default – deliberate interruption of speech, based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally complete the phrase:But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus ... (A. S. Pushkin).
Polyunion (polysyndeton) - a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. Slowing down speech with pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each of the words, creating a unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech: And for him they resurrected again: both the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love (A. S. Pushkin).
Asyndeton (asyndeton)- stylistic figure: construction of speech, in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Asyndeton gives the statement swiftness, dynamism, helps to convey a quick change of pictures, impressions, actions: Swede, Russian, cuts, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, rattle ... (A. S. Pushkin).
Parallelism
- a stylistic figure, which is an arrangement of speech elements that are identical or similar in grammatical and semantic structure in adjacent parts of the text. Parallel elements can be sentences, their parts, phrases, words:
The stars are shining in the blue sky
In the blue sea the waves are whipping;
A cloud is moving across the sky
A barrel floats on the sea (A. S. Pushkin).
Chiasmus - a stylistic figure, consisting in a cruciform change in the sequence of elements in two parallel rows of words: Know how to love art in yourself, and not yourself in art (K. S. Stanislavsky).
Inversion - a stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the usual (direct) word order: Yes, we were very friendly (L. N. Tolstoy).
In the creation of artistic images in a literary work, not only figurative and expressive means are involved, but also any units of language, selected and organized in such a way that they acquire the ability to activate the reader's imagination, cause certain associations. Due to the special use of linguistic means, the described, denoted phenomenon loses the features of the general, becomes concretized, turns into a single, particular one, the only idea of which is imprinted in the mind of the writer and recreated by him in a literary text.Let's compare two texts:
Oak, a genus of trees in the beech family. About 450 species. It grows in the temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere and South America. The wood is strong and durable, with a beautiful pattern on the cut. Forest breed. Pedunculate oak (height up to 50 meters, lives from 500 to 1000 years) forms forests in Europe; rock oak - in the foothills of the Caucasus and Crimea; Mongolian oak grows in the Far East. Cork oak is cultivated in the subtropics. The bark of the English oak is used for medicinal purposes (contains astringents). Many species are decorative (Encyclopedic Dictionary).
There was an oak at the edge of the road. Probably ten times older than the birches that make up the forest, it was ten times thicker and twice as tall as each birch. It was a huge, double-girth oak, with boughs broken off long ago, apparently, and with broken bark, overgrown with old sores. With his huge clumsy, asymmetrically spread arms and fingers, he stood between the smiling birches like an old, angry and suspicious freak. Only he alone did not want to submit to the charm of spring and did not want to see either spring or the sun (L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace").
Both texts describe oak, but if the first one deals with a whole class of homogeneous objects (trees, the general, essential features of which are presented in a scientific description), then the second one speaks of one, specific tree. When reading the text, an idea arises of an oak, personifying old age immersed in itself, opposed to birch trees “smiling” in spring and the sun. Concretizing the phenomena, the writer resorts to the method of personification: at the oak huge hands and fingers, he looks old, angry, contemptuous freak. In the first text, as is typical of the scientific style, the word oak expresses general concept, in the second it conveys the idea of a specific person (author) about a specific tree (the word becomes an image).
From the point of view of the speech organization of texts, the artistic style turns out to be opposed to all other functional styles, since the fulfillment of the aesthetic function, the tasks of creating an artistic image allow the writer to use the means of not only the literary language, but also the common language (dialectisms, jargon, vernacular). It should be emphasized that the use of non-literary elements of the language in works of art must meet the requirements of expediency, moderation, and aesthetic value.Free circulation of writers to linguistic means of various stylistic coloring and various functional and stylistic correlations can create the impression of “variation in style” of artistic speech. However, this impression is superficial, since the attraction of stylistically colored means, as well as elements of other styles, is subordinated in artistic speech to the performance of an aesthetic function : they are used to create artistic images, to realize the ideological and artistic intention of the writer.Thus, the artistic style, like all others, is formed on the basis of the interaction of extralinguistic and linguistic factors. Extralinguistic factors include: the sphere of verbal creativity itself, the peculiarities of the writer's worldview, his communicative attitude; to linguistic ones: the possibility of using various units of the language, which undergo various transformations in artistic speech and become a means of creating an artistic image, embodying the author's intention.
INTRODUCTION
The study of the stylistic stratification of the Russian language is carried out by a special science - stylistics, which studies various questions concerning the rules and features of targeted use various words and forms of the national language in various kinds of statements, in speech. Its appearance is quite natural, since the definition of the boundaries of a particular functional style, its features has always seemed very important for linguistic science, since the definition of the rules and laws of the language has always gone along with the definition of the norms for the use of certain elements of the language in specific speech contexts. According to linguists, normative grammar and stylistics, lexicology, lexicography and stylistics are long and firmly connected.
Among the works of domestic linguists, research and articles on Russian stylistics occupy a prominent place. Here one can distinguish important works, as the articles of Academician L.V. Shcherba (especially "Modern Russian Literary Language"), and numerous large and small studies, monographs and articles by Academician V.V. Vinogradov. Various studies and articles by A.M. Peshkovsky, G.O. Vinokura, L.A. Bulakhovsky, B.V. Tomashevsky, V.A. Hoffman, B.A. Larina and others. In these studies, for the first time, theoretical basis raised questions about the allocation of artistic style in separate category, about its specificity and features of existence.
However, linguists have not yet found agreement and unity in understanding the essence of the "language" of fiction and its place in the system of styles. literary speech. Some put the "style of fiction" in parallel with other stylistic varieties of literary speech (with the style of scientific, journalistic, official business, etc.), on a par with them (A.N. Gvozdev, R.A. Budagov, A.I. Efimov, E. Rizel, etc.), others consider it to be a phenomenon of a different, more complex order (I.R. Galperin, G.V. Stepanov, V.D. Levin).
But all scientists recognize the fact that, in essence, the "language" of fiction, developing in the historical "context" of the literary language of the people and in close connection with it, at the same time, as it were, is its concentrated expression. Therefore, the concept of "style" as applied to the language of fiction is filled with a different content than in relation to other functional styles of the Russian language.
Depending on the scope of the language, the content of the utterance, the situation and goals of communication, several functional and stylistic varieties, or styles, are distinguished, characterized by a certain system of selection and organization of language means in them.
Functional style is a historically developed and socially conscious variety of the literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain area. human activity and communication created by features the use of linguistic means in this area and their specific organization.
The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of the language, the topics determined by it and the goals of communication. The areas of application of the language are correlated with the types of human activities corresponding to the forms public consciousness(science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative-legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish styles of official speech (bookish): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic). They are opposed to the style of informal speech - colloquial and everyday.
The literary and artistic style of speech stands apart in this classification, since the question of the legality of its allocation into a separate functional style has not yet been resolved, since it has rather blurred boundaries and can use the language means of all other styles. The specificity of this style is also the presence in it of various figurative and expressive means to convey a special property - figurativeness.
Thus, in linguistics, the specificity of the artistic style is noted, which determines the relevance of our work.
The purpose of our study is to determine the features of the artistic style of speech.
The object of research is the process of functioning of this style in the Russian literary language.
Subject - specific linguistic means of artistic style.
Consider the general concept of "style of speech";
Reveal features artistic style of speech;
Analyze the features of the selection and use of various language means in this style.
The practical significance of our work lies in the fact that the material presented in it can be used both in the study general course stylistics of the Russian language, and in the study of a separate topic "Artistic style of speech".
CHAPTER… General concept of speech styles
Functional style is a kind of literary language that performs a specific function in communication. That is why styles are called functional. If we consider that the style is characterized by five functions (there is no unanimity among scientists about the number of functions inherent in the language), then five functional styles are distinguished: colloquial-everyday, scientific, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, artistic.
Functional styles determine the stylistic flexibility of the language, the diverse possibilities of expression, variation of thought. Thanks to them, the language is able to express a complex scientific thought, philosophical wisdom, draw laws, reflect the multifaceted life of the people in the epic.
The fulfillment by the style of one or another function - aesthetic, scientific, business, etc. - imposes a deep originality on the whole style. Each function is a certain setting for a particular style of presentation - accurate, objective, concrete-pictorial, informative-business, etc. And, accordingly, with this setting, each functional style selects those words and expressions, those forms and constructions from the literary language , which can best fulfill the internal task of this style. So, scientific speech needs precise and strict concepts, business speech tends to generalized names, artistic speech prefers concreteness, figurativeness.
However, style is not only a way, a manner of presentation. Each style has its own range of topics, its own content. The conversational style is limited, as a rule, to everyday, everyday subjects. Official business speech serves the court, law, diplomacy, relations between enterprises, etc. Newspaper and journalistic speech is closely connected with politics, propaganda, and public opinion. So, there are three features of the functional style:
1) each functional style reflects a certain side public life, has a special scope, its own range of topics;
2) each functional style is characterized by certain conditions of communication - official, informal, laid-back, etc.;
3) each functional style has general installation, main task speech.
These external (extralinguistic) features determine the linguistic appearance of functional styles.
The first feature is that each of them has a set of characteristic words and expressions. So, the abundance of terms, special vocabulary to the greatest extent characterizes the scientific style. Colloquial words and expressions indicate that we have a colloquial speech, a colloquial everyday style. Artistic speech is replete with figurative, emotional words, newspaper and journalistic - in socio-political terms. This does not mean, of course, that the functional style consists entirely of characteristic words specific to it. On the contrary, in quantitative terms, their share is insignificant, but they constitute the most significant part of it.
The bulk of the words in each style are neutral, interstyle words, against which the characteristic vocabulary and phraseology stand out. Interstyle vocabulary is the guardian of the unity of the literary language. Being general literary, it unites functional styles, not allowing them to turn into special, hard-to-understand languages. Characteristic words constitute the linguistic specificity of the style. It is they who determine its linguistic appearance.
Common to all functional styles are grammatical means. The grammar of the language is the same. However, in accordance with its setting, each functional style uses grammatical forms and constructions in its own way, giving preference to one or another of them. So, for the official business style, which is repelled from everything personal, vaguely personal, returnable constructions are very characteristic, passive turns(reception is made, certificates are issued, money is exchanged). Scientific style prefers direct word order in sentences. The journalistic style is characterized by rhetorical figures: anaphora, epiphora, parallelisms. However, in relation to vocabulary, and especially in relation to grammar, we are not talking about absolute, but about relative assignment to one or another style. Words and grammatical constructions characteristic of any functional style can be used in another style.
In terms of language, functional styles also differ in terms of imagery and emotionality. The possibilities and degree of figurativeness and emotionality in different styles are not the same. These qualities are not typical in principle for scientific and official business styles. However, elements of figurativeness, emotionality are possible in some genres of diplomacy, in polemical scientific writings. Even some terms are figurative. For example, a strange particle in physics is called so because it really behaves in an unusual, strange way.
Other functional styles are more supportive of emotionality and imagery. For artistic speech, this is one of the main language features. Artistic speech is figurative in nature, essence. Figurativeness in journalism has a different character. However, here it is one of the important terms of style. It is quite predisposed to figurativeness and especially to emotionality and colloquial speech.
Thus, each functional style is a special influential sphere of the literary language, characterized by its own range of topics, its own set of speech genres, specific vocabulary and phraseology. Each functional style is a kind of language in miniature: the language of science, the language of art, the language of laws, diplomacy. And all together they make up what we call the Russian literary language. And it is the functional styles that determine the richness and flexibility of the Russian language. Colloquial speech brings liveliness, naturalness, lightness, ease into the literary language. Scientific speech enriches the language with accuracy and rigor of expression, journalism - with emotionality, aphorism, artistic speech - with figurativeness.
Characteristics of the artistic style
artistic speech stylistics Russian
The specificity of the artistic style of speech, as a functional one, lies in the fact that it finds application in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function. In contrast, for example, to the abstract, objective, logical-conceptual reflection of reality in scientific speech, fiction is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life. A work of art is characterized by the perception through feelings and the re-creation of reality, the author seeks, first of all, to convey his personal experience, his understanding or understanding of a particular phenomenon. But in a literary text, we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, and the like. This is associated with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphorical, meaningful diversity of the artistic style of speech.
The main goal of the artistic style is the development of the world according to the laws of beauty, the satisfaction of aesthetic needs, both of the author of a work of art and the reader, and the aesthetic impact on the reader with the help of artistic images.
The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function. The words that form the basis of this style, first of all, include figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are words with a wide range of uses. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity in describing certain aspects of life.
The artistic style differs from other functional styles in that it uses the language tools of all other styles, but these tools (which is very important) appear here in a modified function - in an aesthetic one. In addition, not only strictly literary, but also non-literary means of language can be used in artistic speech - colloquial, slang, dialect, etc., which are also used not in the primary function, but are subject to an aesthetic task.
The word in a work of art, as it were, doubles: it has the same meaning as in the general literary language, as well as an additional, incremental, associated with the artistic world, content of this work. Therefore, in artistic speech, words acquire a special quality, a certain depth, begin to mean more than what they mean in ordinary speech, remaining outwardly the same words.
This is how the transformation of ordinary language into artistic language takes place, such, one might say, is the mechanism of action of the aesthetic function in a work of art.
The peculiarities of the language of fiction include an unusually rich, diverse vocabulary. If the vocabulary of scientific, official business and colloquial speech relatively limited thematically and stylistically, the vocabulary of the artistic style is fundamentally unlimited. Here, the means of all other styles can be used - both terms, and official expressions, and colloquial words and turns, and journalism. Of course, all these various means undergo aesthetic transformation, perform certain artistic tasks, and are used in unique combinations. However, there are no fundamental prohibitions or restrictions regarding vocabulary. Any word can be used, as long as it is aesthetically motivated, justified.
It can be said that in the artistic style all linguistic means, including neutral ones, are used to express the poetic thought of the author, to create a system of images of a work of art.
Wide range in use speech means is explained by the fact that, unlike other functional styles, each of which reflects one specific side of life, the artistic style, being a kind of mirror of reality, reproduces all spheres of human activity, all phenomena of social life. The language of fiction is fundamentally devoid of any stylistic isolation, it is open to any styles, any lexical layers, any linguistic means. Such openness determines the diversity of the language of fiction.
In general, the artistic style is usually characterized by figurativeness, expressiveness, emotionality, the author's individuality, the specificity of the presentation, the specificity of the use of all linguistic means.
It affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, possibilities different styles, characterized by figurativeness, emotionality, concreteness of speech. The emotionality of the artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of the colloquial everyday style, since the emotionality of artistic speech performs an aesthetic function.
A broader concept is the language of fiction: the artistic style is usually used in the author's speech, and other styles, such as colloquial, can be present in the speech of the characters.
The language of fiction is a kind of mirror of the literary language. Rich literature means rich literary language. Great poets and writers create new forms of literary language, which are then used by their followers and all who speak and write in this language. Artistic speech appears as the pinnacle of language achievement. In it, the possibilities of the national language are presented in the most complete and pure development.
CHAPTER ... TO THE QUESTION OF THE SELECTION OF ARTISTIC STYLE
All researchers talk about the special position of the style of fiction in the system of styles. Highlighting this style in common system perhaps, because the style of fiction arises on the same basis as other styles.
The sphere of activity of the style of fiction is art.
The “material” of fiction is the national language.
He depicts in words thoughts, feelings, concepts, nature, people, their communication. Each word in a literary text is subject not only to the rules of linguistics, it lives according to the laws verbal art, in the system of rules and techniques for creating artistic images.
The concept of "language of a work of art" includes the entire set of means that the author uses to reproduce life phenomena in order to express his thoughts and views, convince the reader and evoke response feelings in him.
The recipient of fiction is the reader.
The goal-setting of style is the self-expression of the artist, the artistic understanding of the world by means of art.
Fiction equally uses all functional and semantic types of speech - description, narration, reasoning.
The form of speech is predominantly written, for texts intended to be read aloud, prior recording is required.
Fiction also uses all types of speech: monologue, dialogue, polylogue. The type of communication is public.
The genres of fiction are known - this is a novel, a story, a sonnet, a short story, a fable, a poem, a comedy, a tragedy, a drama, etc.
Features hood st
One of the features of the style of fiction is that all elements of the artistic system of a work are subject to the solution of aesthetic problems, the word in a literary text is a means of creating an image, conveying the artistic meaning of a work.
Literary texts use the whole variety of linguistic means that exist in the language (we have already talked about them): means of artistic expression, stylistic or rhetorical figures, and can be used as means of the literary language, as well as phenomena that stand outside the literary language -
dialects, definition
jargon, definition
swear words,
means of other styles, etc.
At the same time, the selection of language units is subject to the artistic intention of the author.
For example, the name of the hero can be a means of creating an image. Writers of the 18th century widely used this technique, introducing “speaking surnames” into the text. To create an image, the author can use the possibilities of polysemy of a word, homonyms, definition within the same text.
Synonyms definition and other linguistic phenomena.
The repetition of the word, which in the scientific and official business style emphasizes the accuracy of the text, in journalism serves as a means of enhancing the impact, in artistic speech it can underlie the composition of the text, create art world author.
The artistic means of literature are characterized by the ability to “increase meaning”, which makes it possible to interpret literary texts in different ways, and to evaluate them differently. So, for example, critics and readers evaluated many works of art differently:
Drama A.N. Ostrovsky's "Thunderstorm" N. Dobrolyubov called "A ray of light in a dark kingdom", seeing in her main character - a symbol of the revival of Russian life. His contemporary D. Pisarev saw in The Thunderstorm only a drama in the family chicken coop, modern researchers A. Genis and P. Weil, comparing the image of Katerina with the image of Emma Bovary Flaubert, saw a lot in common and called The Thunderstorm "a tragedy of petty-bourgeois life." There are many such examples: the interpretation of the image of Shakespeare's Hamlet, Turgenev's Bazarov, Dostoevsky's heroes. An example of the same from Shakespeare is necessary
The artistic text has the author's originality - the style of the author. Author's style characteristics the language of the works of one author, consisting in the choice of characters, the compositional features of the text, the language of the characters, speech features the original text. So, for example, the style of L. N. Tolstoy is characterized by a technique that the well-known literary critic V. Shklovsky called “removal”. The purpose of this technique is to return the reader to a living perception of reality and expose evil. This technique, for example, is used by the writer in the scene of Natasha Rostova’s visit to the theater (“War and Peace”): at first, Natasha, exhausted by separation from Andrei Bolkonsky, perceives the theater as an artificial life, opposed to her, Natasha, feelings, then, after meeting with Helen, Natasha looks at the stage through her eyes. Another feature of Tolstoy's style is the constant division of the depicted object into simple constituent elements, which can manifest itself in the ranks of homogeneous members of the sentence. At the same time, such dismemberment is subordinated to a single idea. Tolstoy, struggling with the romantics, develops his own style, practically refuses to use the actual figurative means of the language.
In a literary text, we also encounter the image of the author, which can be presented as the image of a narrator or the image of a hero, a narrator.
The image of the author is a conditional image. The author ascribes to him, so to speak, “transfers” the authorship of his work, which may contain information about the author’s personality, facts of his life that do not correspond to the actual facts of the writer’s biography. By this, the writer emphasizes the non-identity of the author of the work and his image in the work. The image of the author actively participates in the life of the characters, enters the plot of the work, expresses his attitude to what is happening, the characters, comments on the action, enters into a dialogue with the reader. Author's or lyrical digression is a reflection of the author (lyrical hero, narrator), not connected with the main narrative. You are well acquainted with the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov “A Hero of Our Time”, a novel in verse by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", where the image of the author is a vivid example of the expression of a conditional image in the creation of a literary text.
The perception of a literary text is a complex process.
First stage of this process is the naive realism of the reader (the reader believes that the author directly depicts life as it really is), the final stage is the dialogue between the reader and the writer (in this case, “the reader is congenial to the author”, as the remarkable philologist of the 20th century Yu. M, Lotman).
The concept of "language of a work of art" includes the entire set of artistic means that the author uses: polysemy of the word, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, archaisms, historicisms, neologisms, foreign vocabulary, idioms, winged words.
CONCLUSION
As we noted above, the question of the language of fiction and its place in the system of functional styles is solved ambiguously: some researchers (V.V. Vinogradov, R.A. Budagov, A.I. Efimov, M.N. Kozhina, A. N. Vasilyeva, B.N. Golovin) include a special artistic style in the system of functional styles, others (L.Yu. Maksimov, K.A. Panfilov, M.M. Shansky, D.N. Shmelev, V.D. Bondaletov) consider that there is no reason for this. The following are given as arguments against singling out the style of fiction:
1) the language of fiction is not included in the concept of literary language;
2) it is multi-styled, not closed, does not have specific signs that would be inherent in the language of fiction as a whole;
3) the language of fiction has a special, aesthetic function, which is expressed in a very specific use of linguistic means.
It seems to us that the opinion of M.N. Kozhina that “bringing artistic speech beyond the limits of functional styles impoverishes our understanding of the functions of the language. If we deduce artistic speech from among the functional styles, but consider that the literary language exists in a variety of functions, and this cannot be denied, then it turns out that the aesthetic function is not one of the functions of the language. The use of language in the aesthetic sphere is one of the highest achievements of the literary language, and because of this, neither the literary language ceases to be such when it enters a work of art, nor the language of fiction ceases to be a manifestation of the literary language. one
The main goal of the literary and artistic style is the development of the world according to the laws of beauty, the satisfaction of the aesthetic needs of both the author of a work of art and the reader, the aesthetic impact on the reader with the help of artistic images.
It is used in literary works of various kinds and genres: stories, novellas, novels, poems, poems, tragedies, comedies, etc.
The language of fiction, despite the stylistic heterogeneity, despite the fact that the author's individuality is clearly manifested in it, still differs in a number of specific features that make it possible to distinguish artistic speech from any other style.
The features of the language of fiction as a whole are determined by several factors. It is characterized by broad metaphor, figurativeness of language units of almost all levels, the use of synonyms of all types, ambiguity, different stylistic layers of vocabulary. In the artistic style (compared to other functional styles) there are laws of perception of the word. The meaning of a word is largely determined by the author's goal setting, genre and compositional features of the work of art, of which this word is an element: firstly, in the context of a given literary work, it can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries, and secondly, it retains its connection with the ideological and aesthetic system of this work and is assessed by us as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base, tragic or comic.
The use of linguistic means in fiction is ultimately subordinated to the author's intention, the content of the work, the creation of the image and the impact through it on the addressee. Writers in their works proceed primarily from the fact that they correctly convey the thought, feeling, truthfully reveal the spiritual world of the hero, realistically recreate the language and image. Not only the normative facts of the language, but also deviations from general literary norms are subject to the author's intention, the desire for artistic truth.
Coverage artistic speech The number of means of the national language is so great that it allows us to assert the idea of the fundamental potential possibility of including all existing linguistic means (albeit, connected in a certain way) into the style of fiction.
These facts indicate that the style of fiction has a number of features that allow it to take its own special place in the system of functional styles of the Russian language.
1 Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. M., 1983. P.49.
Genres of journalistic style
1. newspaper- essay, article, feuilleton, reportage;
2.television– analytical program, information message, dialogue in live
3.oratory- speech at a rally, toast, debate;
4.communicative– press conference, "no tie" meeting, teleconferences
l The main features of the newspaper and journalistic style:
◦ Field of activity – politics, culture;
◦ Addressee - a wide range of readers and viewers of the media;
◦ The goal is to provide information about the latest current events, influence the audience, create public opinion;
◦ Type of speech - mainly reasoning;
◦ Form of speech - written or prepared oral;
◦ Type of speech - monologue, dialogue, polylogue;
◦ Type of communication - public;
ž FEULETON (French feuilleton, from feuille - sheet), an artistic and journalistic newspaper and magazine genre, the main feature of which is a sharply critical attitude to the described phenomenon, person.
SLOGAN It's kind of quick guide to action, an appeal containing and expressing a requirement or a guiding idea.
Functions of journalistic style
1 Message function(informative)
2 Impact function(expressive)
Informing citizens about the state of affairs in socially significant areas
l The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary with a strong emotional connotation (energetic start, firm position, severe crisis).
This style is used in the sphere of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is not intended for narrow circle specialists, but for the general public, and the impact is directed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the addressee.
Vocabulary has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring, includes colloquial, colloquial and slang elements. Vocabulary, characteristic of the journalistic style, can be used in other styles: in official business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist's impressions of these events.
P S examples
Incredible discovery! A resident of a remote village, Experimentalovo, has invented a new drug that makes chickens lay golden eggs! The secret, over which the greatest alchemists of the world fought for centuries, is finally revealed by our compatriot! So far, no comments have been received from the inventor, he, in this moment, is in a strong drinking bout, however, we can definitely say that the discoveries of such patriots will definitely stabilize the economy of our country and strengthen its position on the world stage as a leader in the field of gold mining and the production of gold products for decades to come.
When you are overtired by the dryness of the scientific style or the duplicity of the journalistic style, when you want to breathe in the lightness of something beautiful, bright and rich, overflowing with images and an unforgettable range of emotional shades, then the artistic style comes to your aid.
So, the art style is "watercolor" for the writer. It is characterized by images, colors, emotions and sensuality.
An example of an artistic style of speech
Sidorovich did not sleep well at night, every now and then, waking up to thunder and flashing lightning. It was one of those terrible nights when you want to wrap yourself up under the covers, sticking your nose out for air, and imagine that you are in a hut in the wild steppe hundreds of kilometers from the nearest city.
Suddenly, out of nowhere, the palm of his wife, who was sleeping next to him, passed over Sidorovich's ear:
“Sleep already, you fucking traveler,” she groaned, smacking her tongue sleepily.
Sidorovich turned away offendedly, pouting. He was thinking about Taiga...
1 In journalism, especially in newspaper genres, paraphrases are often used for greater expressiveness and in order to prevent tautologies (remember what a paraphrase is). Choose paraphrases for these words. Doctors, potatoes, timber, fish, cotton, railroad workers, coal. Make up a few similar examples with paraphrase.
2 Write an article in the college newspaper, describe in it some memorable fact of student life.
Guidelines for the teacher:
The task involves the creative individual work of students. The purpose of the task is to learn how to compose journalistic style texts in the form of a newspaper note.
Working Method:
Students receive a preliminary task to write a newspaper article. They independently formulate the topic, select a catchy title, plan the arrangement of parts of the text.
Artistic style is a special style of speech that has become widespread both in world fiction in general and in copywriting in particular. It is characterized by high emotionality, direct speech, richness of colors, epithets and metaphors, and is also designed to influence the reader's imagination and acts as a trigger for his fantasy. So, today we are in detail and visually examples consider artistic style of texts and its application in copywriting.
Art style features
As mentioned above, the art style is most often used in fiction: novels, short stories, short stories, short stories and others. literary genres. This style does not have value judgments, dryness and formality, which are also characteristic of styles. Instead, for him, the characters are narrative and the transfer of the smallest details in order to form in the reader's imagination a filigree form of the transmitted thought.
In the context of copywriting, the art style has found a new embodiment in hypnotic texts, to which an entire section "" is devoted to this blog. It is the elements of artistic style that allow texts to influence the limbic system of the reader's brain and trigger the mechanisms necessary for the author, due to which a very curious effect is sometimes achieved. For example, the reader cannot tear himself away from the novel, or he develops sexual attraction, as well as other reactions, which we will talk about in subsequent articles.
Art style elements
In any literary text there are elements that are characteristic of the style of its presentation. For the artistic style are most characteristic:
- Detailing
- The transfer of feelings and emotions of the author
- epithets
- Metaphors
- Comparisons
- Allegory
- Using elements of other styles
- Inversion
Let's consider all these elements in more detail and with examples.
1. Detailing in a literary text
The first thing that can be distinguished in all literary texts is the presence of details, and, moreover, to almost everything.
Art style example #1
Lieutenant walked on yellow construction sand heated by the scorching daytime sun. He was wet from the tips of his fingers to the tips of his hair, his whole body was littered with scratches from the sharp barbed wire and aching with maddening pain, but he was alive and heading for the command headquarters, which was visible on the horizon about five hundred meters away.
2. Transfer of feelings and emotions of the author
Art style example #2
Varenka, such a sweet, good-natured and sympathetic girl, whose eyes always shone with kindness and warmth, with a calm look of a real demon, walked to the Ugly Harry bar with a Thompson machine gun at the ready, ready to roll these vile, dirty, smelly and slippery types who dared stare at her charms and drool lustfully.
3. Epithets
Epithets are most characteristic of literary texts, since they are responsible for the richness of the vocabulary. Epithets can be expressed by a noun, adjective, adverb or verb and are most often bundles of words, one or more of which complement another.
Examples of epithets
Example of artistic style No. 3 (with epithets)
Yasha was just a small dirty trick, which, nevertheless, had a very great potential. Even in his pink childhood, he masterfully stole apples from Aunt Nyura, and not even twenty years had passed, when he switched to banks in twenty-three countries of the world with the same dashing fuse, and managed to peel them so skillfully that neither the police nor Interpol couldn't catch him red-handed.
4. Metaphors
Metaphors are words or expressions in a figurative sense. Found widespread among the classics of Russian fiction.
Art Style Example #4 (Metaphors)
5. Comparisons
Artistic style would not be itself if there were no comparisons in it. This is one of those elements that bring a special flavor to the texts and form associative links in the reader's imagination.
Comparison examples
6. Allegory
An allegory is a representation of something abstract with the help of a concrete image. It is used in many styles, but for artistic it is especially characteristic.
7. Using elements of other styles
Most often, this aspect is manifested in direct speech, when the author conveys the words of a particular character. In such cases, depending on the type, the character can use any of the styles of speech, but the most popular in this case is colloquial.
Art style example #5
The monk drew his staff and stood in the way of the intruder:
Why did you come to our monastery? - he asked.
- What do you care, get out of the way! the stranger snapped.
“Uuuu…” the monk pointedly drawled. Looks like you weren't taught manners. Okay, I'm in the mood today, I'll teach you some lessons.
- You got me, monk, angard! hissed the uninvited guest.
“My blood is starting to play!” the churchman groaned with delight. “Please try not to disappoint me.With these words, both of them jumped out of their seats and grappled in a merciless fight.
8. Inversion
Inversion is the use of a reverse word order to enhance certain fragments and give words a special stylistic coloring.
Inversion examples
findings
In the artistic style of texts, both all of the listed elements, and only some of them, can occur. Each performs a specific function, but all serve the same purpose: to saturate the text and fill it with colors in order to maximally involve the reader in the transmitted atmosphere.
The masters of the art genre, whose masterpieces people read without stopping, use a number of hypnotic techniques, which will be discussed in more detail in subsequent articles. or email the newsletter below, follow the blog on twitter and you won't miss them for anything.
