The use of words in a figurative sense. What is the direct and figurative meaning of the word

Introduction

The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is noted not only by specialists - learned linguists, but also by writers and poets. One of the factors of the richness of our language is the ambiguity of most words. This allows you to use them not in one specific context, but in several, sometimes completely different ones.

The meanings of polysemantic words can be direct and figurative. Figurative meanings are involved in creating vivid figurative texts. They make literary language richer and richer.

Purpose of the work: to find examples of the use of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".

Work tasks:

Determine which values are considered direct and which are figurative;
· Find examples of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".

The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter presents theoretical information on the problem of direct and figurative meanings of words. The second chapter is a list of examples illustrating words used in the literal sense and figuratively.

direct and figurative meaning words in Russian

Words in Russian have two types of meanings: basic, direct meaning, and non-basic, figurative.

The direct meaning of the word is “a direct connection between the sound complex and the concept, a direct nomination” Modern Russian Literary Language / Ed. P. Lekanta - M .: Higher. school, 1988. - S. 9-11 ..

The figurative meaning is secondary, it arises on the basis of associative links between concepts. The presence of similarity in objects is a prerequisite for the fact that the name of one object begins to be used to name another object; thus, a new, figurative meaning of the word arises.

The use of words in a figurative sense is a generally recognized method of expressiveness of speech. The main varieties of figurative meaning are the techniques of metaphor and metonymy.

A metaphor is “the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p..

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape (ring 1 on the hand - ring 2 of smoke); by color (gold medallion - golden curls); by function (fireplace - room stove and fireplace - electrical appliance for space heating).

The similarity in the arrangement of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal - the tail of a comet), in their assessment (clear day - clear style), in the impression they make (black veil - black thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena. Rapprochement is also possible on other grounds: green strawberries - green youth (a unifying feature is immaturity); fast running - quick mind (common feature - intensity); mountains stretch - days stretch (associative connection - length in time and space).

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream.

It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various signs: a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired antiquity - a gray-haired fog; black veil - black 2 thoughts - black ingratitude - black Saturday - black box (on the plane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly unfigurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat nose, train tail. But there can be such transfers of meaning, in which the imagery is partially preserved: a blooming girl, a steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images.

Dry metaphors that give rise to new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, word root; official business: outlet, alarm); language figurative metaphors tend to expressive speech, their use in formal business style ruled out; individual author's metaphors - property artistic speech, they are created by masters of the word.

Metonymy is "the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of their adjacency."

So, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); place names - to groups of people who are there (audience - The audience listens attentively to the lecturer); names of dishes - on its contents (porcelain dish - delicious dish); the name of the action - on its result (embroidering - beautiful embroidery); the name of the action - to the place of action or those who perform it (crossing the mountains - underground transition); the name of the object - to its owner (tenor - young tenor); author's name - on his works (Shakespeare - set Shakespeare) etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual authorial.

Synecdoche is “the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p. For example, a pear - fruit tree and the pear is the fruit of that tree.

Transfers of meaning are based on synecdoche in such, for example, expressions: a sense of elbow, a faithful hand.

word polysemantic metaphor expressiveness

Examples of words and expressions with a figurative meaning:

As we can see, words acquire a figurative meaning when they are used together with certain words (which do not have such a quality in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot literally be made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore just consists of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).

Any word in Russian initially has one or more direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean something with which we close the lock on front door and can mean water spouting from the ground. In both cases, this is the direct meaning of a polysemantic word. But almost every word in Russian can be given a figurative meaning. For example, in the expression key to all doors, not a word key, not a word doors are not used in their direct meaning. Here the key is the possibility of solving the problem, and the doors are the very problem. The figurative meaning of words is often used by poets, for example, in the famous poem by Pushkin, every word has a figurative meaning:

Or here is the famous young man at Bryusov, who had a burning eye, of course, burning in a figurative sense.

The direct meaning of the word strictly correlates with a certain thing, attribute, action, quality, etc. A word may have a figurative meaning at points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.

Examples of the meaning of words:

table (furniture) - address table, table 9 (diet);

black color - back door (auxiliary), black thoughts (cheerless);

a bright room - a bright mind, a bright head;

dirty rag - dirty thoughts;

cold wind - cold heart;

golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;

heavy burden - heavy look;

heart valve - cardiac reception;

gray mouse - gray man.

A large number of words and figures of speech in Russian can be used both in the direct and figurative (figurative) sense.

The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning, the narrator means exactly what he says.

We use words in a figurative sense in order to give figurativeness to our speech, to emphasize some quality or action.

The examples below will help feel the differencequot ;:

The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in the literal sense, can begin to be used figuratively - a birdhouse - a starling's house, a birdhouse - a traffic police post, a zebra - an animal, a zebra - a pedestrian crossing.

The direct is the primary meaning of a word, the figurative is the secondary. Here are some examples:

Golden earrings - direct meaning.

My husband has golden hands - figurative meaning.

Rain worm- direct.

Book worm- portable.

Silver ring - straight.

Silver century - portable.

Burning in the sky star- direct.

Star screen - portable.

Icy sculpture - direct.

Icy smile is portable.

Sugar buns - straight.

Mouth sugar- portable.

Woolen blanket- direct.

Winter covered everything around with snow blanket- portable.

mink fur coat- direct.

Herring under fur coat- portable.

Marble plate - straight.

Marble cupcake - portable.

Black suit - direct.

Leave for black day - portable.

Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.

Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for someone).

Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.

Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.

A plastic bag is a social package (about vacations, sick leave).

Wolverine skin is a venal skin.

Garden flowers - flowers of life (about children).

Green fruits - green generation.

Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (informer).

To poison with pills - to poison with moral violence.

The direct meaning of a word is when the word is used in the sense it originally was. For example: sweet porridge.

The figurative meaning of the word is when the word is not used in the literal sense, such as sweet deception.

In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand words that name an object of reality or its property. At the same time, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context, we immediately imagine what they call. For example:

Based on the direct meaning, the word may have additional lexical meanings, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena according to appearance, properties, or actions to perform.

Compare: stone house and stone face. In the phrase stone house, the adjective stone is used in the literal sense (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase stone face, the same adjective is used in a figurative sense (insensitive, unfriendly, harsh).

Here are some examples of the direct and figurative meaning of words:

Many stylistic figures or literary tropes are built on the basis of figurative meaning (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).

There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meaning in Russian. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. Periodically it is very useful to look there.

Examples of words and phrases with a figurative meaning:

to step on a rake, figuratively - to get a negative experience.
prick up your ears - become very attentive,
reel fishing rods - leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
stone heart - an insensitive person,
sour mine - a displeased expression.
work hard - work hard
sharp tongue - the ability to formulate accurate, well-aimed and even caustic information.

Here, I remembered.

But in fact, the fact is very interesting that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one.

If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean exactly the lexical meaning of a particular word. But the figurative meaning means the transfer of the meaning of the lexical initial in the consequence with comparison

And here are some examples:

The direct (otherwise primary, main, main) meaning of a word is a reflection in the word of that phenomenon of reality with which the word has been associated for a long time and steadily; portable (or secondary) meaning is acquired by a word as a result of its conscious use to designate not the phenomenon that it traditionally designates, but another phenomenon that is close to the first in our view in some way. For example, iron in the literal sense - containing iron (iron ore) or made of iron ( iron roof), and in a figurative sense - strong, strong(iron muscles) or unshakable, adamant, not knowing deviations, retreats (iron will). Head in the literal sense - top part human body, the upper or front part of the animal body, containing the brain, and figuratively - mind, consciousness, intellect(clear head, bright head), a man of great intelligence (Ivan Ivanovich is a head!), a person as a carrier of some properties, qualities (smart head, hot head).

In Pushkin's line Dawn rises in a cold haze word dawn appears in the direct meaning (bright illumination of the horizon before sunrise or after sunset), and in its own lines And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom Will the beautiful dawn rise at last?- figuratively (beginning, origin, early time of something).

The use of words in a literary work in a direct, non-figurative sense is called autology (Greek autos - itself + logos), and the use of words in a figurative sense - metalogy (Greek meta - through, after, behind - + - logos). The field of metalogy includes all trails .

Trope(Greek tropos - turn; turnover, image) - a generalized name for stylistic devices consisting in the use of a word in a figurative sense in order to achieve a special figurativeness, figurativeness . Since the transfer of meaning (or, as it is sometimes said, the transfer of a name) can occur on the basis of the correlation of various features, paths can be different types, each with its own name. The main trails are metaphor, metonymy, irony and hyperbole; the varieties of the main tropes include personification, synecdoche, litotes.

Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) represents a value transfer by similarity. It can be said that the metaphor is based on what is not formally designated (for example, with the help of comparative unions) comparison. They also say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison. For example, a metaphor Empty skies clear glass(Akhmatova) contains a comparison of the sky with transparent glass, a metaphor Red rowan bonfire burns in the garden(S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.

Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, have lost their imagery in our perception: go beyond, hot time, hot heart, dizzy, love faded, he lost his head, drill with his eyes, soul strings, the patient's temperature jumps, thin voice, heavy character, etc.

In artistic literature, the metaphor achieves its pictorial purpose the more it is unexpected, original and at the same time accurate in the sense of correlating phenomena. The aesthetic evaluation of metaphors (as well as other means of artistic depiction) is a subjective thing.

And the diamond thrill of the stars fades In the painless cold of dawn.(Voloshin);

And bottomless blue eyes Blossom on the far shore.(Block);

Like similes, metaphors can be extended. Sometimes poems are constructed from beginning to end as extended metaphors.

Any familiar metaphor can be presented in the literal sense for artistic purposes, and then it “comes to life”, receives a new imagery. This approach is called realization of a metaphor . It can be used for humorous and satirical purposes (for example, Mayakovsky's well-known poem "The Sitting Ones" uses the metaphor break apart), but it can also be a technique of lyric poetry. In the same Mayakovsky, with great emotional power, a metaphor is realized wring your hands:

Loves? does not love?

I break my hands and fingers

scatter, break.

The proximity of metaphor to comparison is expressed, in particular, in the fact that these means of artistic representation are often combined: Russia entered Europe like a lowered ship - at the sound of an ax and at the thunder of cannons(Pushkin);

In that old year, when love was kindled, Like a throne cross in a doomed heart(Akhmatova);

Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) is transfer of values (renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena . The cases of such transfers are diverse, the main ones are as follows.

From vessel, container to content: Ladles are circular, foaming, hissing(Pushkin). Common expressions also belong to this type of metonymy. ate a whole plate, drank two cups, etc..

From a person to his clothes or any external signs: And you, blue uniforms(Lermontov; meaning the gendarmes); Hey beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin?(Gogol).

FROM locality on its inhabitants: The whole city was discussing this event; The village was delighted with this news, etc.

From the organization, institution, event to its employees, participants: The research institute was busy with an urgent task; The factory decided to go on strike etc.

The author's name can refer to his works: Eugene Onegin, as you know, Scolded Homer, Theocritus, But read Adam Smith(...) Expressions like Excellent Kustodiev! Magnificent Faberge! - to designate a picture of an artist or a product of a master.

Irony(Greek eironeia - literally: pretense) - the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. A textbook example is the Fox's appeal to the Donkey, whom she considers stupid, in Krylov's fable "The Fox and the Donkey": Where, smart, are you wandering, head? Words used in reverse direct meaning, can be taken for greater expressiveness in quotation marks, as, for example, in the poems of Severyanin addressed to politicians on behalf of people of art:

Your hostile everyday life is dirty to us - We burn with eternal art. You are busy with “business”, and we are only “drones”, But we are proud of our title!

The opposite meaning can be given not only to a single word, but also to an extensive context or a whole work. An example is the famous poem by Lermontov

Gratitude

For everything, for everything, I thank you: For the secret torment of passions, For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends; For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert, For everything that I was deceived in life ... Arrange only so that from now on I will not thank you for long.

In this poem you can see the highest degree of irony – sarcasm (Greek sarkasmos, from sarkazo - literally: I tear meat).

Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) in contrast to metaphor, metonymy and irony, which are renaming by qualitative feature, consists of transferring value by quantitative attribute . More precisely, hyperbole consists in a quantitative strengthening of the signs of an object, phenomenon, action, which, for simplicity, is sometimes called "artistic exaggeration."

Hyperbole is often used in folk literature. For example, in the epic about Volga and Mikul:

We drove all day, from morning to evening,

We couldn't get to the oratay.

They rode, yes, and another day,

Another day, from morning to evening,

We couldn't get to the oratay.

As the oratay yells in the field, whistles,

The oratay's bipod creaks,

And the omeshiki scratch off the pebbles.

Here they rode for the third day,

And the third day before pabedya.

And they ran into an open field yelling.

And here is the hyperbole in the mischievous ditty:

The darling sits on the porch With an expression on his face, And the darling's face Occupies the whole porch.

Gogol was a great master of hyperbole; everyone remembers that a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper that u Cossacks were trousers with a width of Black Sea , and Ivan Nikiforovich's trousers were in such wide folds that if they were inflated, then the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

personification – a technique consisting in transferring the properties of a person (person) to inanimate objects, natural phenomena or animals. Personification is usually in folk literature and the genre of book literature closest to it - a fable; often used in lyric poetry. A few examples:

Luna laughed like a clown.(Yesenin) Midnight enters my city window with gifts of the night.(Twardowski)

Like simile and metaphor, personification can be extended. For example, in Lermontov's poem Utes

A golden cloud spent the night On the chest of a giant cliff, In the morning it rushed off on its way early, Playing merrily across the azure; But there was a damp trace in the wrinkle of the Old Cliff. He stands alone, deep in thought, And he weeps softly in the desert.

Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche - correlation) - a special case of metonymy: designation of the whole (or in general something more) through its part (or in general something smaller included in a larger one). For example: All flags will visit us(Pushkin), that is, ships under the flags of all countries. Synecdoche can become a familiar phraseological phrase: to have a roof over your head, there are not enough working hands, so many heads of cattle, etc. Synecdoche is the use of forms singular instead of plural: Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts (Pushkin); And it was heard before dawn, How the Frenchman (Lermontov) rejoiced.

Litotes(Greek litotes - simplicity) - a technique opposite to hyperbole, i.e. consisting of quantitative underestimation of the signs of an object, phenomenon, action . The litotes are the names fairy tale characters Thumb boy, Thumb girl. The litote is also used in the description of the hero famous poem Nekrasov:

And marching importantly in orderly calm A horse is led by the bridle by a peasant In large boots, in a sheepskin coat, In large mittens ... and he himself is from a fingernail.

Litota is also called the method of defining a phenomenon or concept through the denial of the opposite, which also leads to an underestimation of the objective qualities of the defined. For example, if we say: It's interesting, – then such an expression will not contain such a definite estimate as It is interesting. Two examples from Tvardovsky's poetry:

That hour was already knocking on the window Not without solemn undertakings(“Beyond the distance - distance”);

No, our days are not traceless in the world("Birch").

Figure(rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) - a generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily appear in a figurative sense. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual, "practical" use and are intended to enhance the expressiveness and descriptiveness of the text. Since the figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important. The figures are numerous, we will name here only the main ones.

Anaphora(Greek anaphora - moving up, repetition), or monogamy, - repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, lines of poetry or stanzas . Anaphora has already met us in the above poem by Lermontov "Gratitude", where six lines begin with the preposition for. Two more examples from the poetry of A. Fet:

Only in the world and there is that shady

Dormant maple tent. Only in the world is there something radiant

A childish thoughtful look. Only in the world is there something fragrant

Cute headdress. Only in the world is there anything pure

Left running parting.

Here, each sentence, forming two poetic lines, begins with the expression Only in the world there is... In the following example, each stanza, except the first, begins with the word tell, and in the first stanza, the second line begins with this word:

I came to you with greetings To tell you that the sun has risen, That it fluttered with hot light On the sheets; To tell that the forest woke up, The whole woke up, each branch, Every bird started up And full of spring thirst; To tell that with the same passion, Like yesterday, I came again, That my soul is still happy And ready to serve you; To tell that from everywhere It blows fun on me, That I myself do not know what I will Sing, - but only the song is ripening.

Antithesis(Greek antithesis - opposition) - stylistic device contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. The most clearly expressed and simple in structure antithesis is based on the use of antonyms:

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!(Derzhavin);

You are poor, You are plentiful, You are powerful, You are powerless, Mother Russia!

(Nekrasov)

Over the Black Sea, over the White Sea In black nights and white days (...)

But opposition can also be expressed descriptively: Once he served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to retire and settle in a poor place, where he lived both poorly and prodigally: he always walked, in a worn-out black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his dinner consisted of two or three courses prepared by a retired soldier, but champagne flowed like a river.(Pushkin);

gradation(lat. gradatio - gradual elevation) - a stylistic device for arranging words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in ascending or decreasing (descending) importance. The gradation of the first type is called climax (Greek klimax - stairs), the second - anticlimax (Greek anti - against + klimax). Increasing gradation in Russian literature is used more often than descending. An example of a clear gradation according to the increasing importance of a sign can be taken from the epic about Volga and Mikul:

The bipod of the bipod is maple, The omeshiki on the bipod are damask, The bipod is silver, And the horn of the bipod is red gold.

A detailed multifaceted gradation underlies the composition of Pushkin's "Tales of the Fisherman and the Fish". The old fisherman did not immediately catch goldfish, a wonderful catch is described using gradation:

Once he threw a net into the sea, - A net came with one mud. Another time he threw a net, - A net came with sea grass. For the third time he threw a net, A net came with one fish, With a difficult fish, - gold.

"Up the stairs" the desires of the old woman rise: I don't want to be a black peasant woman, I want to be a pillar noblewoman - I don't want to be a pillar noblewoman, But I want to be a free queen - I don't want to be a free queen, I want to be the mistress of the sea. In place of a dilapidated dugout, first a hut with a light room appears, then a tall tower, and then the royal chambers. The more indefatigable and absurd demands of the old woman the old man is forced to convey to the goldfish, the more severely, more menacingly the sea meets him: the sea is slightly played out - the blue sea is clouded - the blue sea is not calm - the blue sea has turned black - there is a black storm on the sea.

Gradation (mainly ascending) is also widely used in non-stylized book literature. Examples:

I called you, but you did not look back, I shed tears, but you did not descend.

No, it would have been unbearably terrible, The lot of the earth, had it not always been with us Neither the childhood of days, nor our youth, Nor our whole life in its last hour.

(Twardowski)

Examples of descending gradation:

He brought mortal resin Yes, a branch with withered leaves.

Will I find my former embrace there? Is it an old-fashioned hello? Will the friends and brothers of the Sufferer, after many years, recognize him?

(Lermontov)

He promises half the world, And France only for himself.

(Lermontov)

Oxymoron, or oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - literally: witty-silly), - a stylistic device of combining words opposite in meaning with the aim of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept, representation . An oxymoron is a figure common in Russian literature, it is used, for example, in such titles of literary works as Turgenev's "Living Relics", L. Tolstoy's "Living Corpse", V. Vishnevsky's "Optimistic Tragedy". Examples of oxymorons from poems by Russian poets:

And the impossible is possible.

The road is long and easy.

Parallelism(Greek parallelos - walking side by side, parallel) - a stylistic device of similar, parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas. Examples of parallelism in the construction of poetic lines:

I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing.

(Lermontov)

Repetition. As the name itself shows, this stylistic device consists in repeating a word, expression, song or poetic line in order to attract to them Special attention. Repetition is a common technique in folk songs. For example:

We were in the field, Walking along the borders

They developed wreaths, Yes, life will give birth, -

Wreaths developed "Freak, God,

And they looked at life. Zhito thick,

And Saint Ilya Zhyto is thick,

Walks along the borders, spiked,

Vigorous!"

Poets often resort to repeating lines in texts that are stylistically close to folk songs:

"I see death me Bury me

Here, in the steppe, it will strike, Here, in the deaf steppe;

Do not remember, friend, Black horses

My evil insults. Take me home.

Take my evil grievances home,

Yes, and nonsense, Hand them over to the priest ... "

unreasonable words,

Former rudeness.

(I. Surikov)

Repeating a line or several lines at the end of a stanza called refrain (French refrain - chorus).

The repetition of a word or phrase can also be used in prose. For example, far from reality, the ideas of Olga Ivanovna, the heroine of Chekhov's story "The Jumper"! about her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky are emphasized by the repetition in her improperly direct speech of the word influence: (...) But this, she thought, he created under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed a lot for the better. Her influences are so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, then he, perhaps, may perish. In Ryabovsky's characterization, a significant role is played by the words he repeats, I'm tired, how tired I am.

rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal(Greek rhetorike - oratory). The definition rhetorical, rhetorical, fixed in the names of these figures, indicates that they developed in oratory prose, and then in fiction. Here, rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals increase the emotionality of the statement, draw the reader's attention to certain parts of the text. In grammar rhetorical question defined as a sentence that is interrogative in form, but contains not a question, but a message. In fiction, a rhetorical question can retain an interrogative meaning, but it is asked not to give (or receive) an answer to it, but to strengthen emotional impact on the reader.

Rhetorical exclamations reinforce the expressed feelings in the message:

How beautiful, how fresh were the roses In what a garden! How they deceived my eyes! How I begged the spring frosts Don't touch them cold hand!

The rhetorical appeal is directed not to the real interlocutor, but to the subject of the artistic image. Of the two functions inherent in the appeal - invocative and evaluative-characterizing (expressive, expressive), - the latter prevails in the rhetorical appeal:

The earth is the ruler! I bowed my head to you.(V. Solovyov)

Put me to sleep, bell ringing! Carry me out, three tired horses!

(Polonsky)

Rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals are also used in prose, mainly in lyrical digressions (for example, in the well-known lyrical digressions in Gogol's Dead Souls) and in cases where the author's narration passes into improperly direct speech (for example, in Bulgakov's White Guard : But the days, both in peaceful and bloody years, fly like an arrow, and the young Turbins did not notice how white, shaggy December came in a hard frost. Oh, our Christmas tree grandfather, sparkling with snow and happiness! Mom, bright queen, where are you?)

Default – a figure that provides the listener or reader with the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could have been discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement. A perfect example of silence that awakens deep thoughts and strong feelings, we find in Bunin's poem:

In the forest, in the mountain, there is a spring, lively and sonorous, Above the spring is an old cabbage roll With a blackened bast icon, And in the spring there is a birch bark.

I do not love, O Russia, your timid thousand-year, slavish poverty. But this cross, but this ladle is white. . . Humble, native traits!

More examples of defaults in direct speech are from Chekhov's "Lady with a Dog". Anna Sergeevna's words: - (...) When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I said to myself, another life. I wanted to live! Live and live… Curiosity burned me. . . Gurov's words: - But understand, Anna, understand. . .- he said in an undertone, in a hurry. - I beg you, understand. . .

Ellipsis in fiction acts as figure, with the help of which a special expressiveness is achieved. At the same time, the connection between the artistic ellipsis and colloquial turns is clearly preserved. Most often, the verb is omitted, which gives the text a special dynamism:

Let ... But chu! no time to walk! To the horses, brother, and step in the stirrup, Saber out - and I'll cut! Here is another Feast God gives us.

(D. Davydov)

In prose, the ellipsis is used mainly in direct speech and in narration on behalf of the narrator. A few examples from Lermontov's Bela: (...) A little gape, just look - either a lasso around the neck, or a bullet in the back of the head; Grigory Alexandrovich teased him so much that even into the water; Kazbich shuddered, his face changed - and towards the window; Well, yes, that's aside; Grigory Alexandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; a gun from a case, and there - I follow him.

Epiphora(Greek epiphora - repetition) - a figure opposite to anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a poetic line. Epiphora in Russian poetry is much less common than anaphora. Examples:

Steppes and roads The count is not over; Stones and thresholds No account found.(E. Bagritsky).

The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter right word, and we will give you a list of its values. It should be noted that our site provides data from different sources- encyclopedic, explanatory, derivational dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.

What does "portable meaning" mean?

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

figurative meaning of the word

the secondary (derivative) meaning of a word that arose on the basis of various types of associative links, through metonymy, metaphor and other semantic changes. For example, the figurative meaning of the word "wake up" ("the forest woke up"), "rig" ("rig the facts").

The figurative meaning of the word

the secondary (derivative) meaning of a word associated with the main, main meaning by metonymic, metaphorical dependence or some associative features. P. z. With. may arise on the basis of spatial, temporal, logical, etc. correlation of concepts (adjacency of material and product, process and result, etc.), average metonymic meanings of the words "publishing", "finishing", "wintering", "image ”, based on associations by similarity (in shape, color, character of movements, etc.), for example, the metaphorical meanings of the words “stupid”, “fresh”, “stamp”. As a result of the transfer of names based on common function there were many P. z. s., for example, the words "wing", "shield", "satellite". P. z. With. have a greater syntagmatic connection (see Syntagmatic Relations), while direct meanings are most paradigmatically conditioned (see Paradigmatic Relations). Regularities of emergence of P. z. With. (regularity and irregularity of formation in semantically homogeneous groups of words, etc.), the nature of their relationship with the main meaning (for example, the direction of development from more specific to more abstract meanings, etc.) can be described both in synchrony (see Synchrony) and and in diachronic (see Diachrony) plans. In the history of the development of the language P. z. With. can become the main ones and vice versa (the average development of the meanings of the words “hearth”, “slum”, “red”). This shift in the semantic structure of the word is influenced by various factors(emotional and evaluative elements, associative links accompanying the word when it is used, etc.).

Lit .: V. V. Vinogradov, Main types lexical meanings words, "Problems of Linguistics", 1953, ╧5; Kurilovich E., Notes on the meaning of the word, in his book: Essays on linguistics, M., 1962; Shmelev D.N., Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973.

Topic "When the word is used in a figurative sense."

Target: achieve a conscious assimilation of the figurative and expressive possibilities of the word.

Tasks :

organize the activities of students to continue studying the lexical meaning and figurative and expressive possibilities of the word: show how metaphors, personifications, epithets are created on the basis of the figurative meaning of words;
to promote the development of the ability to find words with a figurative meaning (paths) in the text, to interpret words used in a figurative meaning, to establish the figurative and pictorial function of words, thereby contributing to enrichment vocabulary students;
create favorable conditions for fostering a sense of respect for the masters of the word and the formation of cognitive interest in the study of the Russian language.

Lesson type : combined.

Lesson Plan

I. Organizational moment.

Greetings

Here comes the bell

We start our lesson.

Don't yawn in class

But work and write.

Open notebooks, write down the date and classwork.slide 1

II. Checking homework.

Warm-up "Pick the camomile".

(a chamomile is attached to the board, students optionally pluck the flower petals and answer questions from the topic of the last lesson).

What is vocabulary? (Vocabulary of the language)

In what branch of the science of language is the vocabulary of a language studied? (Lexicology)

What is the lexical meaning of a word? (Main meaning of the word)

How many lexical meanings does a word have? (one or more)

How are words called depending on the number of lexical meanings? (Single-valued and multi-valued) For example:

What is a portable value? (which transfers the name of an item to another item) For example:

What is one of the secrets of the amazing imagery and expressiveness of the Russian language? (There are a lot of words in it that are used not only literally, but also figuratively)

III. Setting the topic and objectives of the lesson.

1. Teacher's word(Slide 2)

Pay attention to the theme written on the screen: "When the word is used in a figurative sense. Are you familiar with this topic? Why then do we return to it again? (Maybe we should learn something new on this topic)

That's right, we will continue to study the meaning and figurative and expressive possibilities of words. But first, I suggest you take a “short walk to the river” together with the poetess Irina Tokmakova to unravel the mystery of one tree. The answer will be the key to the topic of our lesson.

2. Reading a poem by Irina Tokmakova "Willow" by a student:

By the river, by the cliff

The willow is crying, the willow is crying.

Maybe,she feels sorry for someone?

Maybeshe's hot in the sun?

Maybe,windplayful

Pulled the willow by the pigtail?

Maybe,willow is thirsty?

Maybe we should go ask?

(Handout)

Did you like the poem?

What do you find unusual about this poem?

What words indicate that the willow is alive? Name them.

Read these words carefully again. What kind of willow do they draw in the poem? (Crying like a girl)

3. Teacher's word

The poetess I. Tokmakova saw a similarity between a willow and a weeping girl. However, to see the similarities between different objects is not an easy task. In our lesson, we will learn to observe from poets, writers, who have a special gift to notice what they do not see a common person. Writers and poets constantly use words with figurative meaning in their works.

This is how special means of expression - trails (Slide 3) - a word or figure of speech in a figurative sense, which can "come to life, grow stronger, be filled with expressive power."

Write it down in a dictionary.

IV. Mastering new material.

What are the trails, find out by completing

Exercise 1

Open your textbooks to page 92, read aloud the linguistic text of ex. 259.

What words are unfamiliar to you?

Task 2

(Slide 4)

There are many means of figurativeness and expressiveness in the Russian language. Meaning of the wordwarm (look)isportable . Types of figurative use are: metaphor, personification, epithet.(Dictionary)

Explain their meaning with the help of a dictionary entry.

(Slide 5 impersonation

slide 6 metaphor

Slide 7 epithet)

v. Fizkultminutka.

Are you tired?

Well, then everyone stood up together,

They stomped their feet,

They clapped their hands.

Twisted, turned

And everyone sat down at the desks.

We close our eyes tightly

We count up to 5 together.

We open - we blink

And we continue to work. (Performing movements after the teacher)

VI. Primary consolidation of new material.

Exercise 1(Slide 8)

Write down the sentences and underline the means of expression in the proposed passages -trails - metaphors, epithets, personifications.

What pictures do you “see” behind these words?

1) It was heard howwas leavingat night from the forestfreezing. Heknockedstickthe trees are quieter, farther and farther away.

2) Long agoa thunderstorm swept, but on birches from leaf to leafjumpmischievousraindrops. hanging at the tip,trembling with fearand, flashing desperately,jumpinto a puddle.

Task 2(Slide 9)

Guess the riddles

Riddle 1. Red maidenRiddle 2. For a curly tuft

Sitting in the darkDragged a fox from a mink.

And the spit is on the street. Feels very smooth to the touch

Tastes like sugar, sweet.

(Folk riddle) (E. Blaginina)

What words say that you guessed the riddle correctly?

Find words that are used in a figurative sense.

Based on what signs did the value transfer occur in the first (humanization) and in the second (comparison)riddles?

What is the name of the technique of "humanizing" the plant in the first riddle? (Incarnation).

Why is the carrot compared to the fox in the second riddle?

What kind common features foxes and carrots?

What is this kind of comparison called? (Metaphor).

In which riddle do you find the description of the carrot most poetic?

Task 3

Metaphors, epithets, personifications are found not only in riddles. They also meet in works of art. Listen to D. Zuev's miniature "Melody of Spring".

Every season has its own music. The snow has faded. In a bursting stream, silver balls hastily roll down from the roofs. Melodiously sings, loudly ticks drops. Quietly the beating icicles call back and shatter into smithereens, like dropped crystal. And in the bushes, like a silver bell rings. It is filled with icicles. The violins of frost fell silent, and only yesterday they spoke in full voice.A sunbeam starts the music of spring, and birds and water sing along with it.( Handout ).

What sounds of spring have you heard?

How do you understand the meaning of the word melody?

Is it used directly or figuratively in the title of the miniature?

Find metaphors, personifications, epithets in the text.

Epithets:“own music” (intonational expressiveness), “discontinuous”, “silver”, “beating”, “dropped”, “full”, “quiet”.

Metaphors: “music ... of the season”, “silver balls, shatter to smithereens”, “frost violins”, “spoke in a full voice”.

Personifications: "the snow has faded”, “drops are singing”, “the violins were talking”, “icicles are pouring”, “ Sunshine turns on the music."

VII. Self-test of knowledge.

1. Solve the test

I. Determine in which row it ismetaphor . Slide 10

1. The nose of a ship, the wing of an airplane.

2. Sweet memories, sunny mood.