geographic information. Introduction

Geographic maps can be classified according to various criteria.

Thematic maps show only one or a few phenomena in detail. Examples of thematic maps: vegetation map, climate map, geological map, soil map, political map, etc.

On general geographical maps, both natural objects and phenomena (relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation) and socio-economic ones (settlements, roads, industrial enterprises) are depicted with equal detail. Names are signed on them: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits, lakes, rivers; continents, islands, capes; plains, mountains, ranges; settlements etc. The names of settlements are displayed to the right of symbol, parallel to the south frame, or along the nearest parallel. The names of the rivers are placed in the middle of the channel or along its axis, and the names of the seas, islands and states - inside the contours, located in the direction of greater length.

Rice. Classification of geographical maps

The cards also distinguish by area coverage. The classification of maps according to the size of the territory depicted on them includes the following groups: 1) maps of the starry sky; 2) maps of the planets and the Earth; 3) maps of the hemispheres; 4) maps of continents and oceans; 5) maps of the seas, bays, straits; 6) maps of countries; 7) maps of large natural regions; 8) maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative regions; 9) maps of cities; 10) maps of urban areas.

There is a classification of cards by appointment, taking into account the diversity of spheres human activity. For example, scientific reference maps are designed to perform scientific research and receiving background information, tourist maps - to obtain information about interesting objects of the area, cafes, hotels, technical cards- for solutions engineering tasks. Educational maps are the main visual aid in the study of geography, as well as economics, history and other academic disciplines.

Divide cards into groups by scale. There are small-scale maps with a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000 intended for studying large areas, medium-scale maps with a scale from 1:200,000 to 1:1,000,000, and large-scale maps with a scale of 1:200,000 and larger.

Large-scale maps are topographic maps.

Let us remind you that by its content cards can be:

• general geographical;
• thematic.

Vegetation maps, for example, depict the distribution and composition of vegetation different territories. There are also mineral maps, forest maps, elevation maps, synoptic maps, industry maps showing major cities − industrial centers and their specialization. All these cards represent geographic features and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry. That is why they are called thematic. For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of ​​the location of countries, their borders.

General geographic maps display a variety of elements earth's surface- relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport network, etc. For example, a physical map of Russia.

By area coverage distinguish between maps of the world, individual continents, countries and their parts (regions).

A political map of the World

A political map of the World- one of the most important cartographic sources in the world geography course, as this hag shows different countries, their capitals, communication routes and other useful information.

Let's look at the political map. In addition to the borders of states, on the political map you see the largest cities and capitals of countries, communication routes and seaports, the largest hydrographic objects (seas, rivers, lakes, bays, straits). Some other geographic features, such as relief, may also be shown.

On the political map of the world you will find more than 230 countries and territories.

The borders of the state are formed for a long time. They can change for various reasons: historical, political, economic, cultural, natural.

In order to know the political map of the world or individual continents and their parts, it is necessary to constantly refer to it, train in determining the geographical position of certain countries or regions, and follow the changes taking place in the world.

The most difficult is the political map Western Europe. Let's define together geographical position countries of this region (Table 1).

Map of time zones- interesting, and most importantly, useful map(Fig. I).

For the convenience of counting time, the entire surface of the Earth was divided into 24 time zones. The time of each time zone differs from the next one by one hour. The numbering of zones from 0 to 23 is carried out from west to east from Greenwich meridian. In all points located within the same zone, the same standard time. Moscow, for example, is in the second time zone.

However, in Moscow we live not according to the belt, but according to maternity time(from lat. decretum - decree, decree). In addition, you know that in Russia the hands of the clock move forward ( summer time) or backward (winter time) by one hour in order to rational use daylight hours and energy savings. Therefore, Moscow, being in the 2nd time zone, practically lives according to the time of the 3rd time zone. In other words, when it is 13 o'clock in Moscow (Moscow time), then in Paris it is 11 o'clock (Central European time), in London it is 10 o'clock (Greenwich time).

Rice. 1. Map of time zones of the world

Look at the hag of time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not drawn exactly along the meridians. For convenience, the borders of states, regions, states and other administrative-territorial entities within the same country are taken into account. In Russia, for example, the 11th and 12th time zones are combined into one.

And air transport, telephone and telegraph communications on the territory of the country work, as a rule, according to a single time. In Russia, for example, according to Moscow time.

If you take a close look at the map of time zones, you will notice how remarkable the 180th meridian is. Conditional passes through it date line. Its zigzag in the area of ​​the Chukotka Peninsula is not accidental. The fact is that on both sides of this line, the hours and minutes are the same, and the calendar dates differ by one day. If the date line crossed Chukotka, its inhabitants would have to maintain their own calendar, one day ahead of the national one.

If you ever decide to make a trip around the world and go from Cape Dezhnev to the east, crossing the international date line, do not forget to count the same day twice. And vice versa, moving from east to west - skip one day.

Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information

is a science that studies the totality of mass phenomena in order to take into account and identify the patterns of their development using quantitative (statistical) indicators. The population is just such a mass phenomenon. Statistical indicators include absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

Absolute values are informative and show the size of geographical phenomena. For example, Russia has the largest territory in the world - more than 17 million km 2, which is almost twice the territory of countries such as China, USA or Canada. However, in terms of population, Russia is inferior to many countries. In 2007, the total population was 142 million people. - eighth place in the world.

Table 2. Population largest countries world (million people)

Relative value expresses the result of comparison (comparison) of statistical indicators with each other. They allow you to detect certain changes in geographical phenomena, their trend.

Coefficients - indicators reflecting characteristics individual phenomena, such as the coefficient of specialization or natural population growth.

In order to learn how to work with statistical materials, one must first of all imagine how they are organized and built (ordered).

Statistical table is a system of vertical and horizontal graphs (columns and rows), provided with headings and filled in a certain order with digital data. It contains the statistical data necessary to characterize the studied geographical phenomenon and its constituent parts. The headings of the horizontal rows of the statistical table correspond to the statistical "subject", and the top headings of its vertical columns correspond to the statistical "predicate".

Let's look, for example, at the statistical table. 3 "Changes in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the data of the 1926-2002 censuses."

Table 3. Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the 1926-2002 census data, %

In the statistical subject, an enumeration of those parts and groups of the phenomenon under study, which are quantitatively characterized in the predicate, is given. In this case, these are the economic regions of Russia. In the predicate of the table, the values ​​of the phenomenon under study are given - the proportion of the population living in the economic regions of the Russian Federation for a number of years.

Thus, any statistical table includes three mandatory elements:

• general table header;
• statistical subject;
• statistical predicate.

Statistical materials can be presented not only in statistical tables, but also in a visual form: in diagrams, graphs, maps, maps.

Statistical maps These are primarily cartograms and cartograms. Let's go with you, using the table. 4, compose on contour map a cartogram showing the population density of the economic regions of Russia:

• write down the name of the cartogram (“Population density of the economic regions of Russia”);
• write out the name of the source, on the basis of which we will build a cartogram (statistical table "Population density of economic regions of Russia");
• we write down the relative statistical indicators that we will depict, having previously rounded their values ​​to integers;
• Let's divide the indicators into groups according to the principle of equal intervals. The easiest way to break it down is to divide the difference between the largest (63) and smallest value (1) indicator by 5. In our case (63 - 1 = 62 * 60: 5 = 12), the interval will be 12, and the groups of indicators will be as follows: 1 - 12; 12-24; 24-36; 36-48; 48-60 and more than 60 people / km 2;
• compile a cartogram legend in a notebook, where darker tones of color (or denser shading) depict a greater intensity of the phenomenon; light shades (or rare shading) - smaller. For a color image, it is better to take shades of one paint: from lighter to darker;
• we will show on the contour map the boundaries of the economic regions of Russia;
• transfer the legend of the cartogram to the contour map in the "Legends";
• Let's make a chart.

Construction of graphs and charts based on statistical indicators has mathematical basis which is well known to you.

Based on their graphs, we can conclude that up to the 90s. 20th century in the resettlement of the population of Russia, the historical trend of developing new lands and Russian outskirts was preserved.

Since the 1990s there is a reverse trend of population decline in the northern and eastern regions Russia, primarily the Far East and the North.

Diagrams show the volume and structure of geographical phenomena. They can be circular, point, linear, areal, volumetric, etc. (Fig. 2). Recall that when constructing pie charts the initial radius is considered to be directed upwards on a sheet of paper, i.e. "northern". It is from him, clockwise, that indicators are plotted by eye (based on I% \u003d 3.6 degrees), characterizing a geographical phenomenon, for example, the resettlement of the Earth's population, depending on the proximity of the seas.

Rice. 2. Settlement of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the coast of the seas and oceans

The scale of the diagram depends on: a) the size of the sheet; b) the value of the initial indicators; c) the difference between the largest and the smallest values indicators; d) the number of diagram signs.

To determine the scale bar chart, for example, you must first establish what the largest and smallest bars can be. The basis of the diagram is determined by the formula X = A: M, where X is the basis of the diagram; And - the statistical indicator used by us; M is the scale base, which shows how many units of this indicator fall on 1 square. mm chart area. It is composed like this. First, an axial line is drawn - the base of the diagram, and then the perpendiculars are restored, taking into account the scale.

Mapping on a contour map is reduced to the construction of diagrams within the boundaries of a certain territory, for example, within the boundaries of large regions of Russia, economic regions, subjects of the Russian Federation.

Gender and age pyramid allows you to visually analyze the sex ratio by age groups of the population. It is built as follows. On the vertical axis, age is plotted at regular intervals (in the form of age intervals; for example, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, etc.), and on the horizontal axis - to the left - the number (or proportion) of men, and to the right - women (in the same scale). For each age group, they build their own linear diagram and, as it were, “string” them one after another from bottom to top - from the base of the pyramid to its top (Fig. 3). The shape of such a pyramid can be used to determine the features of the age structure of the population, to identify the features of the sex ratio in different age groups. Quantitative data on the ratio of sexes and age groups of the population read from the sex and age pyramids can be used for further calculations of general demographic indicators (for example, demographic load factors of the population), their analysis and comparison.

Rice. 3. Gender and age pyramids

The question arises of how to update statistical materials, because they become outdated pretty soon. To do this, there are statistical collections, reference books, periodicals, Internet resources.

Geographic information systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting geographic information

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer database that stores geo-information in the form of maps of various content, digital and textual information on objects plotted on these maps. Information can be presented on the monitor screen and in the form of printouts of any scale, tables, graphs, diagrams for any of the information blocks.

By spatial coverage, global, national, regional, local and city GIS are distinguished. By purpose, they are divided into resource-cadastral, land, environmental, geological, marine, educational, etc.

Thus, geographic information systems (GIS) are special systems capable of collecting, systematizing, storing, processing, evaluating, displaying and distributing data on a new technical level and obtaining new geographic information on this basis. Very effective, for example, is the use of educational GIS when comparing thematic maps of different content for the same territory, whether it be a country or a region; when establishing various geographic links.

Let's turn your Special attention on the opportunities and resources of the Internet, which can be used by you in the process of studying the course. They include:

• educational resources WWW (World Wide Web);
• E-mail (electronic mail);
• teleconferences.

Educational resources on the World Wide Web can be helpful:

• to search for additional and updated (including statistical) information for lessons in the process of preparation;
• to search for information in the process of preparing various kinds of creative works (reports, abstracts, business games, educational conferences, etc.).

Email can be used:

• to exchange educational creative works with their peers from other schools, regions of our country;
• for mutual exchange of information in the process of solving problems distance learning and telecommunications projects.

Teleconferencing can be helpful:

• with participation in various kinds of educational and informative telecommunication projects.

For a long time, man has been interested in what lies beyond the horizon - new territories or the ends of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time has come when scientists who have never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. In this they were assisted by sources of geographical information.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, this is the name of all of which a person can get information of interest to him. What sources of geographic information does grade 5 consider (in a secondary school)? Let's list them:

• All geographical maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Various geographical descriptions of a particular area.
• Handbooks, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

Here are the sources of geographic information grade 5 knows in the average general education school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

AT last years more and more sources are being converted from paper to digital. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can be found today in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized representation of the surface of a piece of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents may have a ratio of 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. Small-scale maps are considered to be all maps whose ratio is less than 1:1,000,000. A typical geographic atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans that are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be shown on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists in relation to small-scale maps, since they need to contain the maximum amount of useful information with the minimum occupied area of ​​the document. In the generalization itself, an extremely important role is played by the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Terrain plans

This is the name of the drawings of the area, which are carried out on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way, they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• In a centimeter of the plan, more than five real kilometers on the ground are rarely laid. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the ground in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. So, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the maps. Actually, this is why the generalization, which we talked about above, is being carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses off-scale conventions.
• We emphasize once again that when constructing the plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, take it into account without fail.
• There is never a degree grid on the plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Ways of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options, in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, all of them make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and can read these drawings.

How long does the map remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. So, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees”, so there is no longer any need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still striking in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are quite stable, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after they were published. These rivers change the relief of the Earth's surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful in a historical perspective.

Geographic descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somehow dry and uninteresting. It is much more exciting to read a description of some region, area or even the mainland, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodesic, biological) studies can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographical plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not display some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, which occurs in some central regions of Africa at every step, for example).

The list of literature on geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, lesson developments; Samkova V.A. We study the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / chief ed. G. I. Vorobyov ), just the same, and formed thanks to the work of researchers who at one time entered all this information on the map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's talk a little about the history of the discovery of the Black Continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal regions were well explored, where they caught black slaves and bought ivory from Arab traders, but almost no one knew what was happening in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary arrived in Africa. It was he who had the honor of discovering the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) was once engaged in the studies of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by slave traders ...

So, with maps and plans, we are actually done. Geographic atlases are in the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, consider the principle of sharing old paper cards and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can see for themselves how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans for the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather laborious and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to perform a three-fold binding (three different cards) to the same piece of terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have a fresh aerospace image of the area under study with a topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to enter into the memory of the navigator all three of these drawings of the area. Modern models such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive volume random access memory, so you can switch between maps instantly.

Determination of the route

Route planning is best done using a modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that there is now a passable area in the place of the swamp, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has changed dramatically. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial and satellite photographs preferred over maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to products? modern technologies? This is for the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release actual plans terrain?
• In the pictures you can literally in real time determine the characteristics of a particular area. On a map or even a topographical plan, tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in general order. Simply put, it’s quite possible to stumble upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest, but in conditions of dense coniferous forest it's much easier to get lost.

After choosing a route and checking the new images, it is recommended to refer to the old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a field biologist. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over the years. Ideal for all these tasks is the simple overlay of a new card on its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

Here are the sources used by geography. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but at the same time, one should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made a huge step forward, and therefore it is foolish not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have learned which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, but we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern look.

2. What source of geographic information are you most interested in? Why?

Geographic maps are of particular interest. As a source of geographic information, they are unique. With the help of geographical maps, it is possible to compile a sufficient detailed description of any territory on the Earth. They give an idea of ​​the placement of geographic features and the distribution of geographic phenomena. Thus, geographical maps are the main source of geographic information.

3. Analyze any newspaper or magazine. Write down the terms, names, related, in your opinion, to the geography course that you are to study.

In newspapers and magazines, the following terms are most often found, which can be attributed to the course of geography: country, state, territory, border, population, weather, military conflicts, transport, city, industry.

4. Continue definition

Map projections are mathematical methods of image on a surface plane. the globe(ellipsoid).

5. Why do map projections display the earth's surface in a distorted form?

Map projections are an image of the earth's surface on a plane. It is impossible to transfer a spherical surface to a plane without distortion.

6. Complete the scheme

7. What determines the choice of map projection

The choice of cartographic projection depends on the purpose of the map, on the size of the area being depicted and the latitude at which it is located.

8. Give examples of the use of specific map projections for the image: a) polar regions; b) the territory of Russia; c) continents and oceans; d) peace. To do this, use the text of §3 in the textbook.

A) polar regions - azimuthal projection;

b) the territory of Russia - a conic projection;

c) continents and oceans - conical or cylindrical projection;

d) the world is a cylindrical projection.

The photo shows a modern city. The perspective of the photograph speaks of its considerable size. Of the characteristic features, one can note the predominance of medium-rise buildings. high rise buildings characteristic only for the business center. The spiral-shaped swirling tower shown in the picture is a feature of modern large cities in developed countries. The sparse vegetation among the sands speaks of the dryness of the climate.

10. Carefully study figure 3 in the textbook. Choose any map in the atlas for grade 7 and indicate which image methods were used to create it.

Physical map of the world - high-quality background, linear signs, off-scale signs.

11. Analyze the maps in the atlas, select from them:

a) general geographical - a physical map of the world, physical maps continents;

b) thematic - map structure earth's crust, geological maps, climatic maps of the world and continents, soil maps, maps natural areas, political maps, maps of population density and peoples.

How do maps in an atlas differ in scale?

The atlas contains small-scale and medium-scale maps.

13. Map projection is:

1. drawing of any territory;

3. graticule

2. mathematical methods of image on the plane of the earth's surface;

14. Choose the correct statement:

1. Map projections display the earth's surface without distortion.

3. Cylindrical projection is used to depict the polar regions.

2. Linear signs on the map show roads, rivers, borders.

15. Territories that are homogeneous in some way are distinguished;

1. isolines;

2. linear signs;

3. quality background;

4. off-scale signs.

3. quality background.

There are the following sources of geographic information.
1. Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GIS are computer-generated "archives" of geographical knowledge about the territorial organization and the interaction of society and nature. The GIS includes:

COMPUTER;
software;
spatial information in the form of cartographic data on natural components, farms, lands, roads, etc.
The functioning of the GIS is carried out in the following sequence:
collection and automated processing of geographic information;
spatial reference of geographic information and its representation in the form electronic card on the display screen;
transfer of this map, if necessary, into paper form (for example, the creation of atlases).
An important component of GIS is aerospace information, data from aero-visual observations, ground-based sensors, etc.
The Institute of Geography of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine is developing a multi-purpose National GIS of Ukraine, the purpose of which is to create a geographic-cybernetic model of the country.
2. Geographic research:
field studies;
travels;
local history excursions
tourism, mountaineering.
Field studies are expeditionary and stationary. Expeditionary includes the study of individual natural components, branches of the economy, etc. Natural and economic complexes are known in the process of complex geographical research (natural-geographical, landscape studies, economic-geographical, etc.). Expeditionary research is divided into three periods:
preparatory;
field forwarding;
cameral (processing materials collected, writing a report, mapping).

During expeditionary research, aero space pictures earth's surface. They are decrypted, i.e. recognize objects reflected on them by their shape, color, tone of the image.
Artificial satellites provide the opportunity to study the dynamics and periodicity natural processes, unique phenomena and objects (volcanic eruptions, fires, avalanches, landslides, breaks in the earth's crust, atmospheric pollution, etc.).
In 1995, the first Ukrainian satellite "Sich-1" was launched, equipped with instruments for remote exploration of the Earth, inventory and evaluation of land, prospecting for minerals, meteorological forecasting, condition monitoring environment. In Ukraine, there are the Center for Aerospace Research of the Earth, the Center for Radiophysical Sounding of the Earth, and the Marine Hydrophysical Institute.

Now geographic information is obtained on natural and man-made processes, changes in the natural environment, geochemical anomalies, cities and suburban areas, air pollution, flooding, the state of vegetation, areas of radioactive contamination, emissions from wastewater treatment plants.
Stationary geographical research are carried out regularly for many years at specially equipped geographical hospitals. They study in detail the changes in natural complexes over time. Stationary geographical research is carried out on the basis of the Institute of Geography of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Lvov, Odessa, Kharkov and Taurida universities.

Ukraine is a member of the World Weather Service, the World Meteorological Organization. Hydrometeorological conditions are important economic and social factors: the social and economic state of the state, the ecological situation, the agro-industrial complex, energy, transport, utilities, military security depend on them.
3. Sources of geographical information are local history studies and descriptions of the native land, cities and other settlements. They also include descriptions of travel, tourist and climbing routes, excursions.

4. Maps and atlases are important sources of geographic information. Cartographic images reproduce the dimensions and properties of geographical objects using geographic means and signs (lines, figures), as well as color tone. Combinations of geographical signs and background are means of cartographic modeling, creating cartographic images (geoimage). To understand the natural and economic objects, components displayed on the map natural conditions, processes, as well as the patterns of their distribution, legends are attached to the maps. The text of the legend, geographical names, terms and concepts allow you to "read" the map, use it.
Maps are the most important components of the information building blocks of geographic atlases. National atlases are of exceptional importance. According to the Decree of the President of Ukraine dated 01.08.2000 "On the National Atlas of Ukraine", an atlas is being created, which will reflect the spatial characteristics of natural conditions and resources, population, economy, environmental conditions, science and culture of Ukraine.

Geographic information is produced by:
Institute of Geography;
Institute of Geological Sciences;
Institute of Botany;
Institute of Zoology;
Council for the Study of the Productive Forces of Ukraine;
regional natural science and socio-economic divisions of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

5. A variety of geographical information is kept by the National Natural Museum of Ukraine, regional, district, city museums of local lore.
6. A variety of geographical information is available in textbooks, manuals, statistical reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, scientific journals, periodicals. Geographical information is filled with mass media: newspapers, radio and television broadcasts. Geographic popular science, documentary and educational films are being created. Geographic information can be found at fiction, paintings, landscape architecture, etc. The Internet provides great opportunities for obtaining and using up-to-date geographical information.

The volume and quality of socio-geographical information, which is “a body of knowledge and a system of data reflecting the features and patterns of the territorial organization of society, the functioning and development of TOS” 1 , is of great importance in conducting research and writing a research paper.

Among the main requirements that can be presented to socio-geographical information are:

- modernity, i.e. it must correspond to the time interval of the study. However, this condition may not be met when conducting a retrospective analysis of the development of the object of study;

– targeting, i.e. information should be tied not only to time, but also to a certain territory. In the study of a real object (process or phenomenon) in the spatial aspect, the geographical individuality of the study is realized 1 ;

- the dynamism of information means its constant change, movement in time and space. The evolutionary development of the object of study is determined by the complication of its structure, the attraction of new functional properties, and the increase in the number of factors in its development. This information should not escape the geographer's field of vision;

- compliance of the information received with the research topic, and, consequently, with the goal. Its relevance and timeliness are of great importance;

– objectivity (reliability) of information ensures the reliability of the findings and recommendations proposed for implementation;

– verifiability. Part of the published socio-geographical information may be questioned in its reliability (correctness), therefore, it is necessary to take a critical approach to the choice of information sources and verify (clarify, verify) the data obtained through other sources. A researcher should be especially selective in approaching materials published on the Internet.

Given the vastness of socio-geographic research, a significant amount of information resources can serve as a source of necessary information, including:

- scientific and literary sources, including scientific and popular science publications, monographs, textbooks and teaching aids, ongoing periodicals and collections of scientific papers, dissertations for academic degrees, encyclopedic dictionaries, etc.;

– legal sources, including any legal acts of international, state, regional and local significance;

- cartographic or graphic information representing complex processes in a simplified form for perception;

– results of independent field (field) research and observations;

- statistical sources containing data on the course of a particular process, the "behavior" of the object of study;

– archival and stock materials;

– electronic sources;

– results of sociological research;

– data from monitoring studies.

None of the above sources can become "self-sufficient" for conducting socio-geographical research. In the process of work, a complex of theoretical and applied developments (research) of previous researchers is used, as well as data obtained independently during field work, opinion polls, collection of statistical information, work in archives, etc.

At the same time, information cannot simply be entered into the work. It must be analyzed, verified and interpreted in relation to this study. To perform these operations, a student (undergraduate) must use the time allotted for production and research practices. The extended goal of conducting an internship is to formulate and solve one’s own research problem, to develop skills for applying knowledge in the field of economic, social and political geography for solving applied problems. That is why the internship should have a clearly defined goal and objectives corresponding to the topic of the selected original scientific research in each course of study.

During the period of internships, students (undergraduates) collect and process primary information - statistical data, cartographic materials, graph-analytical constructions, historical and geographical information, sociological information, develop an original research methodology and determine a set of indicators for the purpose of a deeper and more comprehensive study of the object and subject of observation etc. The main places of accumulation and storage of geographic information are libraries, scientific institutions, archives, the territorial department of the Federal Statistics Service of the Russian Federation, regional and municipal authorities, the employment center, various organizations and departments.

The theoretical substantiation of the conducted researches can be obtained by a student (undergraduate) from printed sources of geographical information, which are quite diverse both in content and in scope. Particular attention should be paid to monographs both in social geography and in related disciplines: physical geography, economics, sociology, political science, resource science, ecology, cultural studies, tourism research, etc. Conceptual ideas, important theoretical provisions and practical (applied) data are contained in other sources, including collections of scientific papers, materials of conferences at various levels, scientific reports, etc. Electronic catalog printed publications, which make up the scientific library fund of Perm State National Research University, is available in free mode on the site www.library.perm.ru. Here you can also get acquainted with new arrivals, with scientific journals on foreign languages, go to the websites of the US Library of Congress, the Russian State Library (Moscow), the Russian National Library (St. Petersburg), the All-Russian Institute for Scientific and Technical Information (Moscow), etc.

A special source of geographical information is the abstract journal "Geography". It contains abstracts of scientific publications in various areas of geographical science, secondary information materials (bibliographic descriptions, annotations, literature reviews) in conjunction with a reference and search apparatus. For its compilation, more than two thousand different sources, Russian and foreign, are used. Each issue includes approximately 1500 abstracts. Abstract journal "Geography" has been published annually since 1952 (12 issues per year). Numbers for 1998 - 1999 and since 2009 they have been in the reading room of the Faculty of Geography, the rest - in the scientific and bibliographic department of the PSNIU library.

Another important literary source of geographical information is dissertations for the degree of candidate and doctor of science. The list of dissertations and the dissertations themselves in the specialty 25.00.24 (until 2005 - 11.00.02) - Economic, social and political geography, defended at our university, are stored in the periodical literature department of the PSNIU library. To work with them, it is necessary to draw up a letter certified by the head of the department where the student (undergraduate) is studying.

In any work, new scientific categories, concepts, terms fall into the field of view of a young researcher. In this case, a great help is a variety of scientific and bibliographic literature: dictionaries, encyclopedias, glossaries contained in textbooks and teaching aids. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to name the Great Russian Encyclopedia, the Great Geographical Dictionary, toponymic dictionaries, etc.

An important source of information is the most popular scientific geographic journals, collections of scientific papers periodically published by scientific and educational institutions. They publish innovative articles of a theoretical, methodological and applied nature. For many years, collections of scientific papers from Tartu, Perm, Tyumen and other universities have been published annually. World famous geographical journals: “Izvestiya RAN. Geographical Series (Moscow), Proceedings of the Russian Geographical Society (St. Petersburg), Geography and Natural Resources (Irkutsk, journal of the Institute of Geography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences), Geography at School, USA and Canada: Economics, Politics, Culture”, “Japan”, “Asia and Africa Today” (published by the Institute of Asia and Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences), etc. No less popular are geographical journals published in the leading universities of the country: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Perm, Smolensk, Bashkir, Udmurt and others.

Important information is contained in periodicals on related sciences: economics, sociology, political science, ecology: "World Economy and International Relations" (published by MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation), "Russian Economic Journal", "Bulletin of Economics", "Polis" ( "Political Research"), "Sotsis" ("Sociological Research"), "Expert", etc. List of journals on geographical and related topics available in scientific library PSNIU, listed in the appendix. 2.1.

With the support of federal ministries and departments, journals are published on individual sectors of the economy: Oil, Gas and Business, Coal, Automotive Industry, etc. In them, a researcher can get information about the latest technical and technological developments of domestic and foreign scientists. It also contains some data on production, consumption, cost, export-import of goods and services.

When writing papers on regional studies, the magazines GEO, Vokrug Sveta, National Geographic Russia, Tourism, Picturesque Russia, etc., can provide assistance, containing a large amount of popular science information on individual regions of Russia and the world. .

It is important to note that the latest issue of most journals lists all materials published during the calendar year. Some of these journals are located in the reading room of the Faculty of Geography of Perm State National Research University.

Another type of periodical press - newspapers - can also include information of interest to the geographer - the so-called current information. Particularly noteworthy in this regard is the newspaper Geography, which is a methodological publication for teachers of geography, ecology and natural history (published since 1992) 1 . Rossiyskaya Gazeta stands out among the central newspapers - the official printed publication of the Kremlin (Government of the Russian Federation). It reflects the events of both domestic and international life. Quite informative are the special editions of the newspaper dedicated to individual regions, countries or types of economic activity. When conducting geographical research at the micro-, topo- and nanolevels, local newspapers published by municipal authorities can be of great importance. They cover the entire spectrum of life activities of the population in a clearly localized territory, and in this respect they are indispensable.

A specific type of information is regulatory and legislative documents, including:

– international legal acts (Convention on Human Rights, Kyoto Protocol, UN Maritime Convention, Antarctica Treaty, etc.);

- The Constitution of the Russian Federation, the constitutions and charters of the regions - subjects of the Russian Federation; constitutions of specific countries;

– interstate pacts;

– declarations, federal treaty;

– codes, federal laws, laws of subjects of the Russian Federation and municipalities;

- acts of the President of the Russian Federation, the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation;

– annual messages of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly;

- acts, laws, resolutions of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation;

- acts of representative and executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local self-government;

- charters of municipalities, etc.

With all of the above normative documents students and undergraduates can get acquainted with the help of the "ConsultantPlus" program, access to which is available in the reading room, computer class of the Faculty of Geography and in the departments.

The importance of using legislative and legal literature in socio-geographical research is explained by the need to establish a legal framework for scientific research, to determine official status this or that really existing object, the official assessment of this or that process. Socio-geographic research is based on legal norms and follows them. However, the results of research can serve as an important factor in making changes (additions), improving, improving standards and their implementation in practice in national, regional or municipal development.

In addition to literary sources in research papers on economic and social geography great importance acquire cartographic and graphic materials. The latter, in a concise, easy-to-read form, can contain a large amount of geographic information.

The advantage of cartographic material over text is that the map is a visual (generalized) model of the territory. It is concise and informative. The map displays links between geographical objects, phenomena, processes in dynamics or statics. Textual information cannot give the researcher more than what is written in it. A map, on the other hand, can illustrate causal relationships and territorial differences. Cartographic materials allow the most complete diagnosis of social, environmental, economic, planning, service, political, environmental phenomena and processes. This information is used in the process of visual and measuring analysis of maps, decoding and removal of information data. That is why such materials are usually included in literary sources. However, some maps or maps that have thematic homogeneity may be published in the form of atlases or thematic collections. For example, “National Atlas of Russia” (vols. 1–3), “Socio-economic geography of the world” (author: V.N. Kholina, A.S. Naumov, I.A. Rodionova. M., 2006), "Regions of Russia" (author: A.L. Chepalyga, I.V. Chepalyga. M., 2006).

A large number of anamorphosis maps 1 that clearly show the disproportions of world development are placed on the website www.worldmapper.org in free access (on English language).

Graphic materials also carry important information reflecting the statics and dynamics of socio-economic processes. Graphs and diagrams provide a visual representation of the state and trends in the functioning of territorial systems and can be considered as sources for diagnosing and predicting their future development.

Cartographic and graphic materials can serve as a starting point for research, an impulse for scientific research. Having in his methodical research arsenal the necessary approaches and methods, information resources and general knowledge about the course of the process or the nature of the phenomenon, a specialist in the field of socio-economic geography is able to correctly assess and identify development trends, to see the prospective state of the object. The result of these studies may also be a map or a series of maps with a detailed decoding of the encoded information.

Conducting research work is impossible without the use of statistical data characterizing the quantitative patterns of life of territorial communities of people in all their diversity (economic, social, political, spiritual, cultural development, natural environment) in close connection with their qualitative content.

Global studies widely use international statistics published by the UN and its specialized organizations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Resources Institute, the World Trade Organization, Eurostat, and others. World Population” (published by the United Nations Population Fund), “World Development Report”, “World Development Indicators”, “Economic and Social Survey” (World Bank), “Report on the World Social Situation” (Department of Economic and social development UN), World Resources (World Resources Institute), State of Food and Agriculture (FAO), etc. These and other reports are available free of charge on the UN website (Russian version) - http://www.un.org/russian/esa/surveys.htm.

A large amount of statistical information, updated annually on more than 100 indicators, is contained on the official website of the US CIA - www.cia.gov in the "Factbook" section (in English). The classification of countries according to the level of socio-economic development is annually posted on the website of the International Monetary Fund - www.imf.org in the "World Economic Outlook" section. The financial indicators of the development of the countries of the world are reflected on the website of the World Bank (www.worldbank.org) in the annual reports of Global Development Finance. Statistical data on international trade relations are updated annually on the website of the World Trade Organization (www.wto.org) in the "Resources" section.

Among the Russian research institutes that are engaged in the study of international issues and publish some statistical data, it is necessary to name the scientific organizations that are part of the Russian Academy of Sciences: the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, the Institute of the USA and Canada, the Institute of Europe, the Institute Latin America, Institute of the Far East, Institute of Socio-Economic Problems of Population, Council for the Study of Productive Forces (SOPS), etc.

In the study of development processes and territorial organization Russian Federation and its regions, information from statistical collections is widely used: "Russian Statistical Yearbook", "Regions of Russia", "Russia in Figures" (issued annually), "Social and Economic Situation in Russia" (issued monthly, for the whole country and for individual federal districts ) and etc.

Industry-specific statistical information published by the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (information site - www.gks.ru) is contained in the collections "Transport in Russia", "Tourism in Russia", "Healthcare in Russia", "Small Business in Russia", etc. .

Geographical studies of the population, geodemographic situation, settlement systems, conditions and living standards of people are usually based on statistical information contained in reports published after the All-Russian population censuses (VPN website 2002 - www.perepis2002.ru, VPN website 2010 - www .perepis-2010.ru), statistical collections such as "Demographic Yearbook of Russia", the electronic version of the journal "Population and Society" - "Demoscope-Weekly" (available on the Internet - www.demoscope.ru), etc.

The Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation also prepares collections concerning the relationship between Russia and its partners, for example: "Russia and the CIS countries", "Group of Eight in Figures", as well as collections on federal districts.

Regional studies use statistical data published in the annual statistical collections of the subjects of the Russian Federation. The territorial body of the Federal Statistics Service of the Russian Federation for the Perm Territory (information site - http://permstat.gks.ru) annually publishes the following statistical collections: "Statistical Yearbook Perm Territory”, “Economic and social situation of the Perm Territory”. In addition, the collections “Municipal formations of the Perm Territory. Key socio-economic indicators”, “Industrial production of the Perm Territory” (published annually), “Perm Territory: socio-economic results” (published monthly), etc.

Statistical data on the state of the environment and measures aimed at maintaining a favorable environmental situation can be obtained from the annual reports “State and Environmental Protection of the Perm Territory”, “State and Environmental Protection of the City of Perm” (since 2000 available on the website "Nature of the Perm Territory" - www.permecology.ru).

Statistical information of a sectoral nature is also contained in the annual reports on the activities of industrial and transport enterprises posted on the websites of companies.

When conducting microgeographic studies, statistical information can be obtained using field (empirical) studies. The most common are expeditionary studies, during which primary "field" observations and the collection of primary information about the processes of functioning of territorial systems take place. They are carried out in the study of the geography of the population, agricultural production, the construction industry, transport, the service sector, recreational systems, etc. To conduct such studies, the staff of the Department of Socio-Economic Geography developed a special methodology, which has not lost its significance in modern conditions 1 . Statistical information in this case can be obtained directly from the enterprise, organization, local registry offices, house administrations, municipalities, or through self-observation.

The researcher can obtain subjective information during sociological surveys, interviews, and questionnaires. Sociological methods make it possible to obtain and analyze the opinion of respondents who are local residents (the so-called first-hand information). This is qualitative information, which, however, cannot be considered objective, because. depends on a large number of factors directly affecting it (primarily related to human individuality).

However, the data of opinion polls and questionnaires is an important source of information in recreational, tourist, medical, behavioral, social, and electoral geography. They are indispensable in studies that cannot be measured quantitatively (for example, in studies of the way of life, the image of a territory, the way of life of peoples and ethnic groups, etc.), in the construction of cognitive and mental maps 1 .

Questioning involves the presence of a ready-made questionnaire, which the respondents fill out on their own. Therefore, the formulated questions should be understandable to the population. At the same time, they should correspond to the topic of the study, and the answers should provide complete information about the phenomenon or process being studied. Therefore, the wording of the questions should be concise, extremely clear and convenient for coding data for the purpose of their analysis. You should also pay attention to the composition of the questionnaire and the layout of the questions. The sample of respondents should be representative, i.e. correspond to the population of the area, its gender, age, professional, educational composition.

Conducting an interview requires special training of the researcher, who should not impose his own opinion and express his opinions. At the same time, attention should be paid to the environment in which the conversation takes place, as well as to the state of the interlocutor. Interviews are often repeated in order to determine a change in the situation or position of the interlocutor.

It is important to note that some studies can be built on the comparison and opposition of quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (survey data) information. Such research is aimed at identifying inconsistencies between the real situation and the one described in official sources. In this case, the revealed facts themselves serve as a source of geographic information about the state and development of TOS or its individual structural elements.

Another source of empirical information is hiking and travel, during which one gets acquainted with different countries, regions, national heritage, etc.

Archival and stock materials serve as an indispensable source of historical and geographical information. In the archives, one can find information about the socio-economic, political-administrative, demographic, cultural state of a particular territory for a certain historical period.

The State Archives of the Perm Territory (SAAP, website www.archive.perm.ru) is a repository of more than 1 million various documents on paper, photo and electronic media related to the economy, social relations, demographic features of the development of the Perm Territory from the 18th century to the present. up to our time. GAPC stores cartographic and topographic materials. Data on the history, economy and life of the population of the region in the 20th century. can be obtained from the Perm State Archive of Recent History (PGANI, website www.permgani.ru). Work in the state archives is subject to certain rules, which you must familiarize yourself with before visiting the institution. The quantity and quality of information received depends on correct design requests. Partial information about the documents stored in the archives is posted on the official web pages. More complete information can be obtained from thematic collections with a list of documents in the archives themselves. Work with documents, as a rule, is allowed only the next day after the request is made.

Fund materials are stored in archives, scientific institutions, as well as in the personal libraries of scientists, travelers, local historians, etc. These can be scientific reports, field diaries, dissertations, theses, manuscripts of research articles, etc.

Diploma works, final qualifying works of bachelors and master's theses, defended at the Department of Socio-Economic Geography since 2007, are issued for use by students (undergraduates) after a corresponding request. The use of this source of geographic information is advisable at the very beginning of the study in order to get acquainted with the existing developments in the research field, clearly define the spatio-temporal boundaries of independent scientific research, and clarify any other information. In this case, in the text of the research work, it is necessary to refer to the fund materials of the department.

New information opportunities are provided by the computerization of the research process, which became possible due to the development of information and communication technologies. The intellectualization of human labor, the transformation of information into an object of instant transmission, long-term storage and active practical use give rise to a demand for the creation of electronic sources of information.

Among the latter, the global information network Internet stands out, which makes it possible to obtain the necessary information in the shortest time period. Search engine engine (multi-language: Google, Yahoo!, Inktomi, AltaVista, Alltheweb, Bing, DuckDuckGo; Russian-language: Yandex, Mail.ru, Rambler, Aport, Nigma, Qip.ru, Guénon; English-language and international: AskJeeves, Teoma, MSN , TinEye, Ask.Com, MyWay, AOL, About.Com, EarthLink, etc.) provides discovery a large number pages of different times of placement in different languages. The uniqueness of the search for information on the Internet is due to its immediacy, volume and specific focus. At the same time, it is important to take into account that obtaining the most accurate information about a phenomenon (object or process) is determined by the correct formulation of the search query. At the same time, it is necessary to remember about the shortcomings of Internet publications 1: one should beware of redundancy of information, its bias, and therefore it is necessary to select it, check it against official sources.

Among the many information possibilities of the Internet, it is necessary to name Internet encyclopedias, in which any of the users can be not only a reader, but also the creator of new articles. The unique multilingual universal online encyclopedia "Wikipedia" (www.ru.wikipedia.org) contains more than 450 thousand pages in Russian in all areas of knowledge (including other languages ​​- more than 13 million articles). Another popular electronic encyclopedia is Krugosvet (www.krugosvet.ru).

The Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius (BEKM) is the most authoritative multimedia encyclopedia in Russia, created with the participation of leading Russian scientists: academicians, doctors of sciences and corresponding members of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Fundamentality, completeness of content, breadth of coverage and versatility of materials made BECM the leader of the domestic market of information and reference literature.

The multimedia format provides a fundamentally new level of material presentation: a combination of text, photographs, interactive tables, three-dimensional models, diagrams, audio and video clips makes encyclopedia articles visual, multidimensional and exciting.

The list of the most popular and useful sites in socio-geographical research is given in Appendix. 2.2.

Electronic sources of information are not limited to Internet publications. They can also include databases of geographic information systems (GIS), maps created with their help, electronic catalogs and atlases. The latter have gained popularity and widespread use in recent decades. GIS technologies make it possible to perform various manipulations with data, combine various indicators with each other and build corresponding maps. Electronic sources of geographic information are mobile. Among the popular electronic atlases, we will name the Social Atlas of Russian Regions, which contains extensive analytical information and cartographic materials on a wide range of socio-economic problems in Russia and its regions, various integral indices of social and economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation (developed by the Independent Institute for Social Policy, www.atlas .socpol.ru).

In recent years, information from monitoring observations has become widely used. In many regions there are constant monitoring of the environmental, social and political profile. Monitoring information 1 is most often stored in regional geographic information systems. This information is characterized by dynamic properties, since collected regularly, processed and stored for a long time. The dynamic series of information makes it possible to get an idea of ​​the phenomenon under study not only for a certain date, but also for a long time period, and therefore, to identify development trends and predict future changes.

Modern sources of information significantly expand the possibilities of socio-geographic research and stimulate scientific research in all areas of science.

The combination of various geographic data makes it possible to expand the research problem, conduct complex surveys, most reliably diagnose the current geosituation in any territory and spread development trends in the near future. At the same time, a significant amount of available information confronts the researcher with the problem of responsibility for the choice of data used, and, consequently, the final results of scientific research. The solution to this problem can be found in the creation of national databases of geoinformation, the active use of geoinformation technologies and the increase in motivation for research work.