What are objects of geographical research. Lecture: Object and subject of geography. Structure of geographical science

Object and subject of geography. The structure of geographical science.

Geography (geo-earth, graphic description; i.e. land description) has developed since its inception as an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the nature, population and economy of various countries.

The definition of the object of study of geography has changed throughout the history of the development of science. how main object geographical science, most scientists considered the surface of the Earth. At the same time, K. Ritter considered the entire Earth, A.Gettner - countries that were studied from the point of view of the spatial distribution of objects and phenomena, E. Marton - distribution of physical, biological and human-related phenomena over the Earth's surface. In 1910, the Russian geographer P.I. Brounov proposed to consider “the modern physical structure of the outer earth's shell” as an object of geography. The essence of this formulation is now recognized by all geographers. Over the years, only the terms have been refined and the content of this definition has been deepened. Various terms have been proposed for "outer sheath": geographical envelope, landscape shell, geosphere, landscape shell, biogeosphere, epigeosphere and others. The term “ geographic envelope”.

Thus, the object of study modern geography is a geographic envelope The geographic envelope of the Earth is a complex formation, consisting of interacting main terrestrial spheres or their elements - lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere.

The components of the geographic envelope are air, water, rocks, living matter (plants, animals). The nature of the geographic envelope is so diverse because the formations of different material composition: inert (inorganic matter), living (organisms), bio-inert (organo-mineral compounds of the soil).

The boundaries of the geographic envelope consider the ozone layer (20-30 km) and the boundary of the hypergenesis zone (500-600 m).

The main property of the geographic envelope is her integrity. It is characterized by the unity of two important qualities - continuity (continuity) and discontinuity (discreteness).

Within the geographic envelope, they distinguish landscape sphere- a small near-surface sphere, including the weathering crust, soils, vegetation, fauna, surface layers of air, surface and ground waters of land. This is a kind of biological focus of the Earth, in which the elements of all the Earth's shells most closely contact and actively interact.

Definition of the concept of "geography of tourism". This is a scientific discipline that studies the territorial differentiation of the sphere (industry) of tourism, the prerequisites for its development, the processes of formation of tourist and recreational zones, regions, centers and their modern use.

2. The geographical environment is the main object of the geographical sciences.

3. Geographical picture of the world

4. Basic methods and approaches of modern geography.

1. Object and subject of geographical sciences.

The long process of gradual formation and development of geography was literally permeated with "cross-cutting" themes. They continue to be discussed to this day. These topics include:

ideas about the object and subject of geographical science;

ideas about the main methods of scientific geographical knowledge;

provisions on the content and structure of geographical science, the processes of differentiation and integration, analysis and synthesis taking place in it;

Ideas of geographical determinism and indeterminism, etc.

When studying any science, paramount attention is paid to the definition of this science, which includes the concept of its object and subject.

Geography - the science of the laws of development of space-time systems (geosystems), emerging on the earth's surface in process interactions of nature and societies (in scale to represent them on general geography ical and thematic maps), about methods of forecasting these systems and management them; the science about origin, building, functioning, dynamics and space development venno-temporary natural and public geosystems; system ma natural and social sciences about natural, terry torial production and social-territorial complexes lands and their components.

An object geographical research - any material formation or phenomenon (state, relationship, process) on earth's surface, which meets the three most important methodological principles of geography - spatiality, complexity, specificity, is mapped (i.e., meets the main methodological feature), affects the development or state of the ultimate object of geography - the geographical shell (geographical environment); its study involves obtaining new knowledge (facts, theory) about this shell.

Geographic Cover: 1) natural geosystem, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, near-surface strata of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact; 2) the ultimate object of study geography, a complex, multi-layered shell, consisting of three main "spheres" - the lithosphere (the earth's crust), the hydrosphere (water shell), the atmosphere (air shell). The biosphere is singled out as a special sphere. It is in this space that intelligent life develops - man, human society. This fifth layer is called the sociosphere.

An object geographical observation - an object of geographical research, available for quantitative measurement in the corresponding units of geographical observation; as which various measures can appear - units of distance, area, the number of any phenomena, signs that make it possible to measure the objects of observation in space and time.

When deciding the question of the object and subject of science, one should constantly refer to the history of science. The concepts of the object and subject of science are closely related to its structure.

Based on these provisions, we will find out what the object of geography represents, based on the paradigm of its integrity as a single geography, which is understood as a system of geographical sciences. Many authors agree that the object of geography is the surface of the Earth, which is an arena of complex interaction and interweaving of the most diverse processes of animate and inanimate nature, human society, in connection with which the object of geography differs from the objects of other sciences in its complexity, complexity, diverse system organization, and spatial distribution.

In accordance with traditions, his own experience, knowledge, available opportunities, set goals and guiding idea, the geographer singles out the subject of interest to him, selecting the phenomena he needs and leaving aside everything else. Nowadays, even within the framework of historically established separate, often very narrow, isolated geographical disciplines (branches of science), it is more and more difficult to solve the problem of isolating "one's own", monodisciplinary subject of research. It becomes necessary to establish close relationships between subjects of different disciplines.

In the modern era, as the technogenic impact of civilization on the natural environment increases, the global ecological crisis expands and deepens, interest in general geographical problems increases. A number of geographers believe that the integrating core of the geographical sciences can be general geography, designed to serve as a theoretical and methodological core of the natural and social branches of geographical science.

It is believed that the theoretical core of general geography includes: metageography, history of geography, general physical geography, including geography, landscape science, evolutionary geography (paleogeography), as well as social geography, consisting of economic and social geography.

The subject of geography - study of spatio-temporal features of the process of emergence, functioning, dynamics and development of spatio-temporal natural-social geosystems (geographic shell, geographic environment).

Assessing the role of geography in the knowledge of the spatio-temporal features of the process of emergence, functioning, dynamics and development of the "society - nature" system, we proceed from paradigms of integrity of geography. A paradigm is understood as an initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems, solving them, and methods of studying that prevail during a particular historical period in the scientific community.

In the development of ideas about a single geography, three main stages can be traced, the tasks of each subsequent of which are superimposed on the previous ones and each of which corresponds to a certain paradigm (scheme ), which together constitute the paradigm of the integrity (unity) of geography.

At the first stage, within the framework of the chorological paradigm, the problem of spatial analysis of geosystems was solved on the basis of a comparative descriptive method. Geography had to answer the questions: where, what, how much. From the middle of the XIX century. starts new stage development of geography, when within the framework of the chronological paradigm, the problem of temporal analysis of geosystems by the natural-historical method is solved, their explanation. Geography began to try to answer more questions: it depends and why. Together, these two paradigms form in the first half of the 20th century. a single paradigm - space-time. And, finally, within the framework of the anthropoecological paradigm, since the middle of the 20th century. the task of analyzing the interaction between society and nature at different historical stages and its forecast is being solved. To all the previous questions, more questions were added: where will be, what will be etc. In addition, at the intersection of the three named areas, a number of geographical disciplines are being formed, and geography itself, in particular, the spatio-temporal analysis of geosystems, the study of their structure, functioning and dynamics, the economic development of the natural environment, the development of natural and socio-economic geosystems.

This concept is also supported by K.K. Markov, who writes that the geographical environment, or in an even broader sense, the geographical envelope as a whole, is the common object of all geographical sciences.

Subsequently, the ideas of the unity of geography were developed in a number of works by domestic and foreign scientists.

For the hope of successful solution there are all grounds for the integration problem of geography.

The morphological approach is the initial one, uniting the subjects of study of particular geographical sciences.

The phenomenon of modern geography is that it combines sciences that study both natural (physical geography) and social (socio-economic and political geography) patterns, focusing on territorial (spatial) aspects. Physical geography, in turn, is divided into sciences that study natural components and their properties (relief, water, climate, atmosphere, etc.) and natural complexes (geographical envelope, landscapes). No less voluminous are the branches of social geography: economic geography, political geography, population geography, etc.

Life has formulated a social order for scientists: explore as fully as possible the mechanism of interaction between nature and society, objectively and comprehensively assess the environmental situation in the world, outline ways to improve the use of natural resources, the reserves of which have become catastrophically depleted.

The main task of geography For a long time, it has become not a simple land description, but the study of spatio-temporal relationships, natural and anthropogenic factors and features of the development of various territorial systems. It is in this capacity that geographers are actively involved in solving many problems of political, economic, social and ecological nature, arising at different levels - from global to local. Therefore, geography occupies a unique place in the system of sciences, playing the role of a kind of link between the natural and social sciences.

All this makes it possible to attribute geography to the number of those classical subjects that bear a special responsibility not only for the formation of a humanistic worldview, the education of patriotism and love for the Motherland, but also the skills and abilities of orientation and socially responsible behavior in the world around.

In an attempt to determine the general aspect of geographical science integrating its diverse objects, I. P. Gerasimov (1976) named five “principles” that, in his opinion, ensure the preservation of the unity of geography: historicism, regionalism, ecologism, sociologism and anthropogenism.

We can assert, following A.N. Lastochkin that only interconnected principles can be binding here:

The principle of regionalism since it is related to all objects and reflects the general phenomenon of the natural and anthropogenic divisibility of geographical space into its components.

The principle of environmentalism reflecting the relationship of these natural and anthropogenic parts, the common goal and applied significance of the geographical sciences that explore this space, and including all the other “principles” mentioned above. Without their implementation, many sectoral, primarily physical-geographical, studies usually do or can do without. However, none of the branches and any type of modern geographical research succeeds or will no longer be able to bypass the implementation of the principles of regionalism and ecologism. However, so far they are realized in various sciences not as “universal and identical phenomena” (according to Gettner), but autonomously, based on their own empirical experience of each discipline and on the need to solve particular environmental problems.

Geography faces a difficult task: to reduce all knowledge about a person and his environment into a single scientific branch, which should be an integral cognitive system with its own object and subject, a single conceptual, terminological and methodological apparatus.

In the 60s of the XX century. the problem of the formation of a unified geography was actively discussed, it was said about the expediency of combining its two main parts (physical or socio-economic) for the development, primarily of its theoretical foundations. At present, due to the sharp aggravation of the ecological relations of a person with the environment, this problem has acquired an acute and, first of all, practical sound with the awareness of the need to solve it as soon as possible.

The purpose of modern geography is to study the laws of development of natural and social space-time geosystems that are formed on the earth's surface in the process of interaction between society and nature, to develop methods for predicting these systems and managing them. Geography is called upon as a whole to solve the problem of the spatial organization of the life of society.

The basis of these approaches has always been the study of the classical triad: nature, population and economy, and the essence of geography is reduced to the spatio-temporal analysis of processes, situations and structures (both natural and socio-economic).

A distinctive feature of the geographical approach to the phenomena under study is the analysis of the mutual influence and interdependence of the natural environment and public life, their development in space and time, knowledge of the laws of the spatial organization of human society. Therefore, we can conclude that geography includes studies that are somehow related to territorial, or spatial, objects.

The concept of geographic research is quite thoroughly considered by V.P. Narezhny (1991). In his opinion, the essence of geographical research is determined by the presence of a set of features necessary for the knowledge of the surrounding reality, such as territoriality (water area) of the processes under study; their development; material-energy and organizational-functional (systemic) character; full complexity of territorial formations; description of objects (analysis in natural and basic cost indicators). The listed signs, taken separately, are not only geographical, but only in combination form the geographical nature of the subject of research.

All of the above is true, but this is only part of geographical research. For further analysis of this issue, consider the division of scientific knowledge into varieties. There are different approaches to its division into types. Allocate:

intuitive (preempirical) knowledge;

empirical knowledge (facts);

theoretical (postempirical) knowledge;

methodological knowledge.

Pre-empirical knowledge includes three components: 1) the concept of the subject of research; 2) problem formulations; and 3) heuristic knowledge. Scientific facts together with documentation, systematization and description form empirical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge consists of hypotheses, theories, forecasts, retrognoses, laws and principles. Methodical knowledge includes an integral system of methods of practical and theoretical development of the world.

Everything that was said earlier about the object and subject of geography and the geography of research refers to the field of empirical knowledge. As for theoretical and methodological knowledge, here the standards will be different. Only empirical knowledge is characterized by those attributes of geography, and, above all, territoriality and historicity, which were mentioned earlier. Pre-empirical knowledge, theoretical and methodological knowledge, has geography itself as its object. Sometimes this part of geography is combined into metageography, which considers the history, theory and methodology of geography.

"Geography"- literally translated as land description - this is a diverse branched science, which has many areas of theoretical and applied nature. Within the framework of a single geography, first of all, three main components are distinguished:

Physiography,

economical geography,

social geography.

In essence, studying nature, Physiography refers to a large block of sciences bearing the general name natural , these include: biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, etc. Economic and social geography are social sciences. Thus, the place of geography is at the junction of natural and social sciences. At the same time, physical and socio-economic geography are a single whole, united by common geographical methods of research and connected by logical cause-and-effect goals. For example, evaluating the specialization of the West Siberian economic region, we see that the main grain crop in crop production is spring wheat. Agro-climatic and land natural resources with the greatest economic efficiency make it possible to grow it, and not more productive winter crops, since winters here are mostly frosty and with little snow, which is a consequence of the high continental climate. Continentality is due to the fact that air masses on the way from Atlantic Ocean gradually lose moisture and transform from marine to continental. The movement of air masses is due to the western transport prevailing in temperate latitudes. In turn, the westerly transfer is a consequence of the deflection of southerly winds to the right in the northern hemisphere under the influence of the deflecting force of the Earth's rotation. Southerly winds are caused by pressure differences: high in tropical latitudes and low in temperate latitudes. The pressure difference is a consequence of the uneven distribution of solar energy (heat) on the surface of the planet, which, in turn, is due to the sphericity of the Earth. Of course, this is not the only way to logically interconnect the process of phenomena in nature and in economic life, but the fact remains that one of the reasons for the preferred cultivation of spring wheat in the south of Western Siberia is the shape of the Earth.

The main objects of study in geography can be presented in the form of Table 1.

Table 1 .

Consider the terms and concepts given in Table 1.

At the global level, physical geography studiesThe geographic envelope of the earth , which is a zone of interaction and interpenetration of four geospheres: lithosphere (stone shell), hydrosphere (water shell), atmosphere (gas shell) and biosphere. It can be seen from the definition that in any part of the GOZ, the components of all four shells must be present, but the determining factor here is the biosphere, which spatially coincides with the GOZ. Most geographers take the ozone layer as the upper limit of the GOZ (and the biosphere). At a depth, in the lithosphere, life is limited by temperature (isotherm 100˚ C), but the GOZ also includes the paleobiosphere, that is, rocks located below this isotherm, but containing traces and remains of living organisms in the form of fossils, prints, etc. P. The main components of the state defense order are:

Rocks and geological structures

The relief of the surface of the lithosphere

Surface and underground natural waters

Climate

Vegetation

Soils

Animal world

Man

Economic and social geography at the global level is studied"global community", representing the entire population of the world at a given historical period of its development, and world economy, which should be interpreted as "the activity of society, when people, through labor, in interaction with nature, obtain the necessary means of existence and development".

The territorial level of the organization of the system implies the study of the physical geography of natural complexes, of which there are a great many, large and small (natural zones, physical-geographical regions, landscapes, NTC, etc.). A natural complex is a morphologically, genetically and functionally interconnected components of the state defense order in a certain territory. The definition needs clarification."Morphologically"- this means that the appearance, appearance distinguishes any natural complex, separates it from others, and visually this can be seen from the external"physiognomic"components of the State Defense Order (relief, vegetation). An example is any natural complex: steppe, tundra, forest, meadow, mountains, ravine, floodplain, etc."Genetically" - this means that any natural complex is based on a single process or processes that created and isolated it:

natural areas – climate-forming activity of solar energy,

mountains - tectonic processes,

ravine - water erosion,

floodplain - the activity of the river.

"Functionally"- this means that, figuratively speaking, each natural complex is a single natural organism, where all components of the state defense order are interconnected and interdependent. Changing one inevitably entails changing others.

In the event that the decisive factor in the origin of the complex is a person, natural-anthropogenic or natural-technical territorial complexes are distinguished.

Economic geography at the territorial (regional, local) level studies the economic complexes of regions (for example, Western Europe), countries, economic regions, etc.

Social geography studies the population of these territories.

Both at the global and regional levels, natural and economic complexes are studied, the constituent elements of which are themselves objects of study at the next level, which is called the component level. In physical geography, these are the components of the geographic shell of the Earth, which are studied by the corresponding natural sciences, which were born in the bowels of geography:

geology - the science of the lithosphere, rocks and geological structures;

geomorphology - the science of relief;

hydrology - the science of natural waters;

climatology, soil science, etc.

In economic geography, at the component level, they study the location of areas and sectors of the economy, for example: the geography of mechanical engineering, the geography of agriculture, the geography of animal husbandry, etc.

Social geography at this level studies the main characteristics of the population: location, national and religious composition, migration, etc.

The next level of organization of geography is conventionally called functional. At this level, physical geography studies natural conditions, i.e. bodies, phenomena and processes of Nature, and in a narrower sense - the Geographical shell of the Earth. GOZ is a single complex of interdependent and interrelated natural conditions, which allows some scientists to consider it even a living organism. At the same time, the bodies, phenomena and processes of nature used in economic activity, are already natural resources, and the active population uses these natural resources in the process of economic activity, transforming the State Defense Order into a geographical (environmental) environment, i.e. product of interaction between society and nature. Geographic environment there is a state defense order involved in economic activity, and is a combination of the natural and socio-economic environment that surrounds a person.

The variety of objects of study in geography is natural, since it has many directions and branches. At the same time, we did not name such areas as medical geography, recreational geography, etc. However, all the named objects and many others are still being studied by a number of sciences, so it is necessary to determine the subject of study of geography, i.e. what she is studying.

The subject of study in geography is the placement of various objects of physical, economic and social geography. Geography is designed to answer two main questions:

where?

why here?

Question "where?" was the main early stages development of science, especially during the period of great geographical discoveries, and even now is still relevant, for example, in relation to many natural resources. The second question makes it possible to single out the interrelationships of phenomena and factors in the location of natural, economic and social objects, which, in turn, makes it possible to make forecasts of the situation for the future. This is now the main question of geography.

Golubchik M. M., Evdokimov S. P.

G624 Geography in the modern world: Textbook for the course "Introduction to Geography" / Research Institute of Regional Studies. - Saransk, 2000. - 56 p.

I8BN 588608-065-1

In the textbook, geography is considered as a natural and social science, its unity, position and role in the modern world, object, subject, main tasks and problems.

For students and teachers of geographical faculties of universities and pedagogical institutes, high school geography teachers.

UDC 911.5/.9 (075.8) BBKD8.

18ВК 588608-065-1 © Golubchik M. M.,

Evdokimov S. P., 2000

© Research Institute of Regional Studies, 2000

Geography in the modern world

FOREWORD

With this course, you begin the study of geography at the university, getting to know its essence, cognitive and constructive functions. The history of geographical science spans several millennia. During this time, its subject, tasks and methods of research have changed radically. However, often in modern society, geography is still interpreted as a purely descriptive science, main function which is reference and encyclopedic. Such a view fundamentally contradicts the essence of present-day geography. At present, integration tendencies have intensified in it, leading to the formation of ideas about the unity of geographical science and the increasing development of a common (single, complex, undivided) geography. This new geography is designed to explore the spatial and temporal patterns of interaction between nature and society at the global, regional and local levels.

Geography is a natural science and

Public

1. Changing ideas about geography. The student completing the study of geography must be prepared to understand its complexity and fascination. Its modern content differs significantly from the prevailing ideas about it as a science of travel and adventure. This does not mean at all that the Julvernian romance of geographical wanderings should be left behind the threshold. There are enough romantics in geography even now, but hundreds of times more knowledge is needed. Facts are the "air" of a scientist, and collecting them has become much more difficult than before.

Factual material must underlie any theory. For the geographer, they are served by a variety of data about countries and regions, their properties, including knowledge about the location of objects. However, the importance of the factual material should not be exaggerated. One should not think that "a good geographer is one who keeps in mind as many names of countries, mountains, rivers, cities as possible," wrote the famous German geographer Alfred Hettner, considering this the point of view of a postal official.

At the same time, there are certainly people today who believe that geographers now have nothing to do. The continents have long been described, all the islands have been discovered, the rivers and seas have been measured, everything has been put on maps, and there are no “white spots”! Everything is sorted into shelves. There are no more adventures and surprises. The stormy youth of science gave way to a powerless old age. A depressing picture... But don't worry! The field of activity of geography has not only not been reduced, but, on the contrary, has become even more extensive.

AT recent times it is also not uncommon to hear bewilderment, and even indignation, of representatives of some sciences about the fact that geography and geographers are not doing their job when it comes to such problems as environmental, demographic, economic, social, and others. Is it so? We want to assure you right away that there will be plenty of work for everyone here.

What is the science of geography, what are its problems, new tasks, what is its place in the modern world? let's consider the role of geography in creating a scientific geographical picture of the world and its constructive contribution to solving the most important problems of our time. Naturally, we will be able to draw only a general picture.

If earlier geography worked to expand the living space, then at present it faces the opposite task: to substantiate and disseminate the idea of ​​the need for cooperation with nature within the limited Oikoumene, which has a certain capacity. Beyond this capacity, humanity is in for an ecological catastrophe. Therefore, today there is an intensive greening of all areas of geography.

The sphere of social geography is expanding (human geography, social geography, geourban studies). A significant rise in interest in political geography is noticeable. A sharp increase in attention to the space and time of the earthly world is characteristic. Traditionally, geography is viewed as a science that studies predominantly spatial patterns. But if earlier they studied what was visible, figuratively speaking, with the naked eye, now geographers are investigating the spatial relationships of geosystems formed on the surface of the Earth in the process of long development.

The study of trends in the development of geosystems, the intensity of their change under the influence of man, the energy of recovery processes - all this allows us to get closer to compiling an accurate ecological and geographical forecast. Forecasting is the pinnacle of geographical research.

Modern geography is also characterized by the development of a systematic approach based on an accurate analysis of the relationships between the individual components of natural, social and natural-social systems. The idea of ​​the integrity of geographical objects allows you to penetrate deeper into their essence, to study the details. With the help of modeling, it is possible to establish the mechanism of relationships in nature and characterize it quantitatively. Field experiments are carried out at geographical stations.

Gradually, geography turned from a descriptive science into a science constructive. The constructive task of geography is the design of territorial systems, and the pinnacle of such design is the optimization of the territorial organization of society.

As a result, geography is left as the main thing - the study of spatial differentiation of territories (the subject of research) and their optimal organization (the main constructive task). At the same time, geographers do not forget their social functions related to the control of the environment, geographical information and education.

2. Integrative role of geography.The phenomenon of modern geography is that it combines sciences that study both natural (physical geography) and social (socio-economic and political geography) patterns, focusing on territorial (spatial) aspects. Physical geography, in turn, is divided into sciences that study natural components and their properties (relief, water, climate, atmosphere, etc.) and natural complexes (geographical envelope, landscapes). No less voluminous are the branches of social geography: economic geography, political geography, population geography, etc.

It would seem that these powerful branches of modern geography - natural physical and humanitarian (social) economic, political and social geography - stretch in different directions, and the word "geography" that unites them is nothing more than a formal flimsy bridge. And so it was for many years: the wall between the social and natural sciences was not immediately destroyed.

She ruined her life by formulating a social order for scientists: explore as fully as possible the mechanism of interaction between nature and society, objectively and comprehensively assess the ecological situation in the world, outline ways to improve the use of natural resources, the reserves of which have become catastrophically depleted. To solve this problem, in the second half of the twentieth century, a common (single) geography (Figure 1). The processes of humanization, sociologization, ecologization, economization of geography and globalization of thinking are noted.

Humanization means a turn to a person as the main object, to all spheres and cycles of his life, considering, first of all, the life of people.

sociologization is closely related to humanization and consists in increasing attention to the social aspects of development, to the geographical aspects of public life.

Greening involves consideration of a person in an inseparable connection with the environment of his habitat and the conditions for the reproduction of life.

Economization means a wider introduction into the practice of geographical research of approaches and methods of economic sciences, specific calculations, economic assessments.

Globalization thinking is due to the fact that the conflicts between the needs of people and their economic activities, on the one hand, and the state of natural complexes, on the other, have acquired a global scale, and humanity is also a global system.

Rice. 1. System of geographical sciences

The main task of geography For a long time, it has become not a simple land description, but the study of spatio-temporal relationships, natural and anthropogenic factors and features of the development of various territorial systems. It is in this capacity that geographers are actively involved in solving many problems of a political, economic, social and environmental nature that arise at different levels - from global to local. Therefore, geography occupies a unique place in the system of sciences, playing the role of a kind of link between the natural and social sciences.

An outstanding domestic geographer N.N. Kolosovsky wrote that geography cannot help striving for such a development that would achieve the dialectical integrity of the whole picture of the life of nature and people, similar to the classical geography of the ancients, but at an incomparably higher level of modern scientific achievements and accumulated huge factual material. On the present stage development, geography can achieve this through the establishment of relationships between individual geographical disciplines and the development of new disciplines - "bridges of transition" - at the junctions of existing ones, if necessary.

The unique position of geography is also determined by the fact that it is the only subject related both to the natural and the humanities cycles of academic disciplines. Thus, school geography covers the entire system " natural environment- society - a person", which allows her to: comprehensively consider the habitat (living space) of mankind, acquainting students with how people live and manage in different geographical conditions; to form the perception of the world not in the form of a set of individual natural or social components, but in the form of a clear hierarchy of territorial natural and social systems that are formed and developed according to certain laws.

Hence, geography is a subject of an ideological nature that forms a complex, systemic and socially oriented idea of ​​the Earth as a planet of people. It is also the only subject that introduces a person to the territorial (regional) approach as a special method. scientific knowledge and important tool impact on socio-economic processes through regional policy.

All this makes it possible to attribute geography to the number of those classical subjects that bear a special responsibility not only for the formation of a humanistic worldview among the younger generations, the education of patriotism and love for the Motherland, but also the skills and abilities of orientation and socially responsible behavior in the world around.

2. Geography and major issues

modernity

1. The concept of a scientific problem. Not the whole area of ​​the unknown, not any object that we want to know about, is put forward as a problem, but only such an object about which we know that, with the available opportunities, we can really know something. These opportunities are predetermined by two factors that simultaneously act as the root causes of the problem statement.

First, problems arise in the presence of social needs. The history of geography presents this good example: a) the expansion of commodity production required from the geography the expansion of sales markets and sources of raw materials in the form of discoveries of new lands and routes; b) limitation of sales markets and development of industrial production - a deep study of long-discovered lands; c) the awareness of the exhaustibility of resources and the capacity of the environment in general currently poses before geography the problems of rational nature management in general and the optimal spatial organization of the territory, in particular.

Secondly, problems arise as a result of the development of the internal laws of science itself. This refers to the development of the theoretical basis, the industrial equipment of methods, and the improvement of the means of description. All this, of course, is also connected with social development, but the connection here is indirect. The history of geography also provides a good example of this. Until the end of the XIX century. she dealt mainly with the description of individual countries and regions, mostly newly discovered, exotic, poorly studied. From the end of the 19th century the problems of studying the connections between the components of nature are remotely posed. And only in recent decades, geography has internally matured in order to pose and solve, for example, the problems of functional relationships between landscape components and the exchange of matter and energy between neighboring and distant geosystems, understanding by the latter all sorts of systems belonging to the geographic shell of the Earth.

As a result, we can say that the formulation of the problem requires the presence of a social need and a sufficient amount of knowledge to solve it. Therefore, we can agree with the definition of the concept scientific problem as a form of mobilization and organization of previously accumulated knowledge to obtain new knowledge.

A characteristic property of problems is that the problem situation has an "explosive" character, constantly overtaking the growth of opportunities to solve the problem. This circumstance is well illustrated by the legend of Zeno of Kition, who lived in Athens in the 3rd-4th centuries. BC. Legend has it that Zeno, when an idle passer-by asked him why he doubted everything, drew two circles of different sizes and explained: the big circle is what I know, and the small circle is what you know. Everything that is outside the circles is the area of ​​ignorance. It is quite obvious that the length of contact between my circle and the unknown is much greater than yours, and, naturally, I doubt more than you.

Currently, geography faces a number of major problems that are global in nature and of universal significance, and to the solution of which it makes a significant contribution.

Problems associated with the still unknown content of objects are a characteristic element of any science. Therefore, the problem is not only something unknown, but also some knowledge about ignorance. In research practice, the formulation of a problem is always preceded by either new fact, not interpreted in previous theories, or a scientific hypothesis that arose on the basis of theories, or a task put forward by the practical activities of people, which is based on certain scientific and technical knowledge. Therefore, the mentioned aphoristic formulation of the problem, as knowledge about ignorance, can be accepted. Eastern wisdom says: "Not everyone knows how much you need to know in order to know how little we know." Here the essence of the problem as knowledge about ignorance is reflected quite accurately - not everyone can pose the problem, but the one who knows what he does not know about.

2. Problems of the environment and natural resources. These problems are often called environmental and they are so large-scale that specialists of various profiles take part in their development: philosophers, economists, lawyers, biologists, chemists, physicians, agronomists, engineers, etc. Geographers did not remain indifferent. But for this they had to reconsider some of their positions. More attention has been paid to the development of complex interdisciplinary areas of scientific research. Thus, in physical geography, doctrines and sections on the development of anthropogenically modified formations arose - landscapes, landforms, soils, etc. Physical geographers began to more actively investigate the problems of the stability of natural complexes to human influences, their self-regulation, functioning, etc. resource direction. Ecological and economic zoning and planning work has begun. And in modern geography, as a whole, a group of natural and social sciences has formed: geoecology, medical geography, land reclamation geography, recreational geography, the study of geotechnical systems, and some others.

Example. Increasing attention to the person, to the "non-economic" aspects of his life, combined with an integrated geographical approach, led to the formation of recreational geography (or geography of recreation), which studies the territorial organization of the "leisure industry", including the geography of tourism - domestic and international. An important task of this science is the study of recreational resources, which include natural complexes and their components, cultural and historical monuments, cities and other settlements, unique structures.

We are well aware of the rapid pace and extremely complex interrelations of the unity of nature and man, of how inextricably linked the history of the earth's fauna and flora, the entire landscape shell, with the history of human society.

More than 260 years ago, V.N. Tatishchev was asked to compile a geographical description of Russia. He tackled the job with passion and dedication. Started to collect the necessary books and documents. But he soon became convinced that it was impossible to make an intelligent land description without a good knowledge of the history of the country. For this reason, he began to study the history of Russia. And I came to the conclusion that for success in this enterprise, it is necessary to constantly use geographical information. Tatishchev expressed his idea about the relationship between the history of nature and the history of human society in this way: “Where, in what position or distance, what happened, what natural obstacles to the ability to take those actions were, and where what kind of people lived before and now lives, how the ancient cities are now called and where they are transferred, this is explained to us by geography and composed land maps; and so history or descriptive stories and chronicles without land description (geography) cannot give us perfect pleasure in knowledge. Many years have passed since then, but Tatishchev's idea has not become outdated. Moreover, now we know what close and complex interrelations the unity of nature and man is carried out, how the history of the nature of the earth's surface is inextricably linked with the history of human society.

Example. Since the early agricultural period (about 12 thousand years ago), human hands have fundamentally changed the face of the Earth: in the northern hemisphere, forests disappeared over large areas and arable land or low vegetation appeared in their place. In some countries, agricultural activity led to powerful soil erosion: for example, in Eastern Fiji, where man appeared about 3 thousand years ago, for some 150 years at the beginning of our era, erosion destroyed at least half a meter of soil.

Since the second half of the twentieth century, the problem of the relationship between nature and society has become extremely relevant both in theoretical and, especially, in practical aspects. Acquires everything greater value a geographical approach to the problem of studying changes and rearrangements of the planet's landscapes (and even some geospheres) as a result of human activity. This approach consists in the spatio-temporal analysis of the origin, structure, functioning, dynamics and development of natural and socio-economic (public) geosystems. At the same time, the subject area of ​​geography intersects with the subject areas of other sciences involved in the study of related issues.

An analysis of the concepts used in biological ecology and geography indicates their substantive similarity. But it cannot be concluded from what has been said that the ecology developed by biologists is analogous to the ecology studied by geographers. At the same time, it is difficult to assess the importance of human ecology, which, based on the general laws of the relationship between the biosphere and humanity, studies the influence of natural and social environment both for individuals and communities. Human ecology is a bridge between the geographical and biological aspects of a single major problem - the state of the environment (both natural and social) that affects a person.

At present, the concept of ecology has expanded significantly, all problems related to changes in nature, human living conditions in specific regions, the preservation of the environment, rational use its natural resources.

At the same time, the specialization of scientists in the fields of science continues. But half a century ago, V.I. Vernadsky argued that such an approach is erroneous, especially when it comes to the synthesis of knowledge related to real objects. Here, in his opinion, specialization in problems, and not in the sciences, is necessary. Unfortunately, this has not yet been observed.

Example. The following case tells how important the complex solution of such problems and cooperation, mutual understanding of different specialists are. There is a meeting on ecology and nature protection. Representatives of different sciences participate in it. The physical geographer makes an interesting report, showing excellent maps of natural complexes, on the basis of which a system of measures for the use of natural resources and nature protection should be built. In the debate on the report, among others, a lawyer speaks and declares: "And why do we, in fact, need to know nature: it is enough to know and comply with the laws on nature protection!" One can imagine what kind of “benefit” such a “specialist” will bring to nature conservation ...

Acute ecological problems are increasingly interpreted as purely technical: waste disposal, resource conservation, water purification, closed cycles, etc. There are no words, the impact on the nature of the modern technological revolution can hardly be overestimated. But at the same time, another, no less important side of the matter is often relegated to the background. Where and how to apply this wonderful technology so that it gives maximum benefit.

We take it for granted that practically all of nature has now been transformed by human activity. It became “secondary”, and according to the law established by V.I. Vernadsky, her condition increasingly depends on the actions of society. If these actions are not reasonably regulated, sooner or later the environment will irreversibly degrade, and humanity will perish along with it. Consequently, the alternative is as follows: either the “secondary” nature in which we live will acquire more and more signs of a reasonable organization (turn into the noosphere, the “sphere of reason” by V.I. Vernadsky), or an ecological catastrophe awaits us.

Example. Today, the world's population doubles every 30-40 years (in the early agricultural and early urban periods, this happened once every 1500 years). On a global scale, the amount of energy used for the needs of society is doubling 2 times faster than the population. In many parts of the world, natural cycles are disrupted.

Now it remains to find out what should be considered reasonable organization. Geographically, this is primarily correct use spatial resources, which are now more important than natural-material resources that are familiar to us. These latter can be somehow replaced or compensated for their loss, and the territory is an exhaustible, non-renewable and irreplaceable resource. The fact that we, in Russia, have more of it than anyone else in the world should not be misleading, if only because its quality often leaves much to be desired.

Issues of rational nature management, optimal placement industrial production, agriculture, population, and in connection with this, the analysis and forecasting of the development of natural and technical geosystems come to the fore. It is this range of problems that belongs to modern geographical science, which explores such a familiar and at the same time mysterious property of our earthly world as its spatial organization.

The problem of natural resources closely related to the previous one. One of the directions of studying the interaction of nature and society and its reflection on the territorial organization of the life of society is geography of natural (natural) resources (geographic resource science) - a social geographical science, a part of socio-economic geography that studies the location and structure certain types and territorial combinations of natural resources, the problems of their economic evaluation and rational economic use.

The central concept of this science is natural (natural) resources. The only source of all substances and energy required for social production, the condition for the existence and economic activity of people is the geographic envelope of the Earth. It “provides” the natural benefits necessary for humanity, which are a combination of natural resources and natural conditions life of society that are currently in use or may be used in the foreseeable future.

Modern industry, especially such industries as chemical synthesis, light metal smelting, is characterized by an increased need for energy, water and raw materials. Almost everyone gets involved chemical elements that exist on earth. The question arose before mankind: for how long will the necessary natural resources be enough for it? (Figure 2).

3. Geography and demographic problems. Geographic sciences play an important role in the study of the demographic development of human society, since this development has large, sometimes very deep spatial differences and a wide variety of manifestations at the local (local), regional and global levels.

The demographic problems (more often they are summarized in the singular - “the demographic problem of humanity”) that the world is experiencing are numerous. But the main one is a large increase in the world population, accompanied by an aggravation of contradictions between the mass of the global population and limited natural resources, with the help of which it is possible to ensure the life of human society, improve its quality and eliminate mass poverty. This gap between population and resources is all the more dangerous because the majority of population growth is concentrated in low-income countries.

Rice. 2. Lots of globes, lots of little ones

planets earth

Here, if you wish, you can see the possibility of different states of our planet. And which of them will be realized depends on the efforts of mankind, on how clearly and deeply it realizes the measure of its responsibility for the fate of the biosphere. The globe can be made new. Another thing is the Earth. You can't repeat it, you can't make it again. She needs to be very protected.

income, backward economy, in regions that are in a disadvantaged position in terms of the state of the environment.

Example. As is known, in October 1999 the world population reached 6 billion people. This fact is remarkable not only in itself. It is considered one of the fundamental points in the history of the development of earthly civilization. The fact is that 6 billion is exactly half of the maximum number of Homo sapiens as species. 12 billion people is the maximum population potential of Homo sapiens. "Of all global problems, undoubtedly, the growth of the population of our planet seems to be the main one, - writes the famous Russian scientist S.P. Kapitsa in his book "How many people lived, lives and will live on Earth". Other issues - the state of the environment, global security, depletion of resources and energy production - arise in connection with the increase in the number of people on the planet."

Example. Over the past 30 years, the average annual growth rate of the world population has decreased - from 2.4 to 1.3 % , however, it is still increasing - by 78 million people a year. And in the vast majority - this is the increase in the population of developing countries. At the same time, of the 4.8 billion people living in these countries, almost three-fifths are not covered by basic sanitation services. Nearly a third of the population does not have access to clean water. A quarter of the population does not have adequate housing, and one fifth does not have access to modern health services.

Thus, an urgent task is to identify the geographical features of demographic development in countries with different levels of socio-economic development, since only on a solid scientific basis can (and should!) develop a reasonable demographic policy in any given country.

Another important area of ​​research was the analysis of the movement of the population, its mechanical movement, migration flows - from rural areas to cities, between countries. Migration is a very significant factor in the development of international relations, changes in the composition of the population, especially in developed countries that receive numerous migrants from developing countries.

One of the rapidly developing branches of population geography is geourban studies, the geography of cities. She has to solve (together with representatives of a number of other sciences) such complex problems as limiting the growth of large cities, developing small towns and increasing their role in the development of rural areas, the ecological state of cities (this is already a new area of ​​research - urban ecology) and many others.

Example. The share of the global population living in cities increased from one-third in 1960 to 47% (2.8 billion people) in 1999. Nearly 5 billion people are expected in 2030” (61% of 8 1 billion of the world's population) will live in cities.

In Russian geography, the concept has arisen and is developing unified system settlements as part of the problem of improving the territorial organization of society. This concept considers the urban and rural population in close relationship - with the aim of developing measures to regulate the system of production and resettlement, leveling the organization and working conditions, living standards and services to the population.

The importance of geographical studies of population problems is also evidenced by the fact that geographers took part in the development of the General Scheme of Settlement in the Territory. Russian Federation, which was approved by the Government of the Russian Federation in 1994. This document, which has important practical, state significance, gives an idea of ​​the specifics of the living space of Russia, of the features and stable trends in settlement that determine the quality of the population's living environment, and of the need for an integrated approach to the use of this environment.

4. Geography and problems of regional studies. Since all real objects and processes have spatial characteristics, almost all sciences, one way or another, consider the spatial aspect of their objects. In some sciences, deep research is being carried out on the essence of a specific space - physical, geological, biological. However, purely terrestrial spaces, which are often called regions, deal with a more limited circle of social and natural sciences. The practical sphere of human activity - planning, distribution, maintenance, etc. - often encounters regional problems. The regional approach is traditionally best developed in geographical science. This is where they developed comparative spatial method and zoning method variety of phenomena that take place on the earth's surface. Hence, apparently, the replacement of the concept of regional analysis by the concept of geographical analysis follows.

In our time, geographical science, serving the practical requirements of various branches of the economy and the cultural needs of mankind, has become an extensive system of sciences, the structure of which is constantly becoming more complex. But in geographical science from the very beginning of its inception, along with strong tendencies towards specialization and differentiation of scientific knowledge, there was also a great potential for maintaining unity (integrity). One of the basic principles on which geographical knowledge is based is the principle regionalism. It lies in the fact that the initial object of geographical study and description is a specific territory (region), which is characterized by a certain complex of natural phenomena, the population and the economy created by it.

Not touching now difficult problem genetic (causal) relationships between groups of natural, social and economic phenomena, it must be said that all of them were included in the full geographical study and description. Taken together, they represented a certain regional (spatial) unity. It was this that, first of all, forced geographers to study them as a regional (territorial) system. Hence the paramount attention that has always been paid in geography to the problems of complex (i.e., holistic) geographical division (zoning) of the territory, methods of studying and characterizing the entire system of natural, economic and social phenomena characteristic of certain regions, for practical use such scientific material.

The peculiarity of geographical science lies in the fact that "space" acts both as a subject of its study and as one of the main methodological categories. With the help of the concept of "space" geography builds its subject and formulates the method of its study.

Regions and districts studies regional studies- a set of disciplines and directions, methodological approaches and methodological techniques, the object of study of which is a region or district. These include: 1) the theory of zoning, 2) rayon studies, as a set of identification methods (defining taxa, their nuclei), delimitation (outlining, drawing boundaries between adjacent taxa), building hierarchical grids of areas and their transformations, 3) regionalology (rayonology, regionalism) exploring the patterns of functioning and development of specific regions (districts), 4) regional studies as part of country studies, describing the regions of a particular country, 5) in sciences related to geography - regional economics, regional sociology, regional demography, etc.

Increasing attention to regional aspects of economic and social development led to the emergence of a special direction in domestic politics states, namely, regional policy, which contributed to the expansion theoretical research in the field of production location and regional development.

Of greatest interest is the development regional development concepts. These concepts are necessary for the complex solution of a number of problems. Among them are such as optimizing the ratio between the pace of regional development and leveling the levels of development of individual regions, selective dispersion of production and population, the creation of new efficient production complexes, the solution of the issue of regional development at the expense of the region's own internal resources and reserves. At the same time, issues of environmental protection and regional forecasting arise.

No science begins its development with a complete understanding of the object and subject of research. However, from the first steps in the development of such titles as astronomy and geography, botany and chemistry, they began to move each along their own channel. And no one confuses the object of study of botany and astronomy. The objective basis for the division of sciences is, first of all, the objective reality itself. Since the whole variety of objects and phenomena basically has specific forms of motion of matter that give rise to them and are the basis of their existence and development, these forms of motion of matter are, first of all, the objects of study of the main natural. Sciences. But each of the sciences goes through a centuries-old path before it discovers this truth.

Since a specific form of motion of matter has material carrier, real self-developing systems, it would be possible to assume them as the initial object of study of science. However, quite a long time passes until science comes to a systematic understanding of its object.

Science begins a long path of cognition from a phenomenon to an essence with a description of individual phenomena of nature, in order to comprehend their relationship, to come to the conclusion that the object of its cognition is systematically organized. And only after that does science come to the discovery of the ford of movement, which is the essence of this system. The development of science does not end there. From the point of view of the essence of the class of phenomena under study, science perceives in a new way the entire system of connections between its object and the objects of the sciences bordering on it.

What has been said entirely refers to the formation and development of geographical knowledge, its transformation into a science. It is rightly considered that geographical knowledge gives us ideas about nature, population and economy. This is the range of interests in the development of geographical science since ancient times. The gradual crystallization of geography as a science led to the fact that in the field of nature for geography the most important is the study of climate, runoff and relief, it was this idea that led to a systematic understanding of the object of geography. It is with these phenomena that geography more and more connected the existence of its basic general geographical laws. These laws are subject not only to the named phenomena themselves (climate, runoff and sculptural landforms), but also to a certain extent the population and economy. Geography was divided into physical (natural) geography and economic geography, which studies population and economy. Along with the latter, biogeography and landscape science were singled out and formed into special geographical disciplines. Some of them began, as it were, to compete (landscape science) with physical geography. The study of landscapes, for example, gave an idea of ​​the systemic nature of the object of study. On this basis, the complex nature of geographical research was also formed.

Geographical science, earlier than other sciences, due to the peculiarities of its object of study, came to a systematic method of research. The idea of ​​the geographical form of the movement of matter introduces a certain order into the various ideas that have been created about the essence and nature of geographical systems and allows, in our opinion, to systematize the structure of geographical science, to remove unnecessary tension due to the competition between physical geography and landscape science, physical geography and economic geography, etc. .

The primary object of geography is the geographical form of the movement of matter and those material systems that are its carrier. Thus, the interaction of the hydrosphere and the troposphere, the study of climate, runoff and relief, as well as carrier systems of the geographical form of the movement of matter, form the basis of the content of geographical science. However, as we have already noted, this does not exhaust the content of geography. It studies the interaction of the geographical form of motion with the geological, biological, social forms of motion of matter. As a reflection of these connections, economic geography, which studies population and economy, biogeography and soil geography, and geomorphology as the science of sculptural landforms, arise and develop. At the same time, such a science as landscape science is also emerging, which studies secondary geographical systems that obey certain general geographical laws and that exist due to climate, runoff and topography as those geographical phenomena that create a special integrity of the system.

All this suggests that geographical thought is gradually approaching an ever deeper and more comprehensive reflection of its object and its connections with objects of other sciences. Everyone new level such immersion, highlighting the new side of the object of geography means the disclosure of new properties, laws of structure and functioning. This is the subject of the study of geography.

The object of geography is a special geographical reality. The subject of geography is the properties of various elements of geographical reality, the patterns of the structure of the functioning and development of its individual aspects, the patterns of its relationship with other objects.