Kindling of a hot water boiler from various thermal conditions. Pr.r. Starting a steam boiler from a cold state. Basic principles of organizing start-up and shutdown modes of the boiler

Diesel exhaust gas toxicity control on the brake tester

Maximum allowable smoke values ​​when testing cars with diesel engines

*The standards are given for the effective base of the smoke meter L = 0.43 m.

Control on the bench with running drums. Emission control of EG of diesel engines installed on vehicles with a gross weight of 400 to 3500 kg is carried out in the driving cycle modes on a stand with running drums according to OST 37.001.054-86, which applies to vehicles with gasoline engines and diesel engines. In Europe, these tests are carried out according to Regulation No. 83.03 (type 1). The emission standards for CO, CH + NOx and particles are given in Table. ten.

Table 10

Notes:

1 - n x min - the minimum speed of the motor shaft when operating on Idling;

2 - n x max - rotational speed corresponding to the maximum value of the torque;

3 - n x nom - rotational speed corresponding to the rated power.

The tests are carried out on a stand equipped with instruments in accordance with GOST 14846-81 and equipment for measuring CO, CH and NOx emissions.

During testing, the following must be recorded:

Concentrations in exhaust gases of carbon monoxide (% by volume), hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (ppm);

The frequency of rotation of the crankshaft, min -1;

Diesel engine torque, Nm;

Hourly fuel consumption, kg/h;

Hourly air consumption, kg/h;

Temperature of exhaust gases, coolant, oil, air and fuel, 0 С;

Vacuum in the inlet pipeline, mm of water. st; counterpressure in the exhaust pipeline, mm w.c. Art.; barometric pressure, mm Hg Art.

Exhaust gas analysis must be carried out using high-speed gas analyzers continuous action with registration of analysis results on a tape recorder with a pulling speed of at least 10 mm/min.

A non-dispersive infrared gas analyzer should be used to determine the concentration of CO, a flame ionization analyzer for CH, and a chemiluminescent analyzer for NOx. The relative error of the gas analyzers shall not exceed ±3% of the full scale value for any component.

When testing diesel engines, in order to reduce the loss of hydrocarbons in the pipes for supplying CH to the gas analyzer, the sampling system is heated to ensure the temperature of the exhaust gas sample in the range of 150-200 0 С.

Specific Emission Calculation harmful substances in g / (kWh) is produced according to the formulas given in the standard.

Diesel is considered to meet the requirements of the standard if the values ​​of specific CO, CH and NOx emissions for the test cycle do not exceed the standards specified in Table. eleven.

In accordance with the Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" the Government Russian Federation decides:

1. To approve the attached special technical regulation "On the requirements for emissions of harmful (polluting) substances by motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation".

The specified special technical regulation shall enter into force after 6 months from the date of official publication of this resolution.

2. Federal authorities executive power to ensure that its regulatory legal acts are brought into line with the special technical regulation approved by this resolution by the day the said regulation enters into force.

Prime Minister
Russian Federation
M. Fradkov

Special technical regulation "On the requirements for emissions of harmful (polluting) substances by motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation"

1. This regulation is applied in order to protect the population and the environment from the impact of emissions of harmful (polluting) substances by motor vehicles.

2. In accordance with the federal laws "On technical regulation", "On safety traffic", "On protection atmospheric air", "On the protection of consumer rights", "On the basics state regulation foreign trade activities" and the Agreement on the Adoption of Uniform Technical Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles Vehicle, items of equipment and parts which may be fitted and/or used on wheeled vehicles and on the conditions for the mutual recognition of approvals granted on the basis of these prescriptions signed at Geneva (as amended and supplemented with effect from 16 October 1995), this regulation establishes requirements for emissions of harmful (polluting) substances by motor vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines.

3. The concepts used in this regulation mean the following:

"motor vehicles" - wheeled vehicles designed to transport people, goods or equipment installed on them;

"automotive equipment put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation" - automobile equipment manufactured for the first time in the Russian Federation, as well as imported into the customs territory of the Russian Federation;

"emissions" - emissions of harmful (polluting) substances, which are the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines and fuel vapors of automotive equipment, containing harmful (polluting) substances (carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (CmHn), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and dispersed particles );

"gas engine" means an engine powered by liquefied petroleum or natural gas;

"diesel" - an engine operating on the principle of compression ignition;

"spark engine" - an engine with forced ignition, running on gasoline or gas fuel;

"UNECE Regulations" - the Regulations of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe in accordance with Annex No. 1, adopted in accordance with the Agreement specified in paragraph 2 of this regulation, applied for the purposes of this regulation;

"technical emission standards" - emission standards established for automotive equipment, which reflect the maximum allowable mass of emissions into the atmosphere per unit of work or mileage performed by automotive equipment;

"environmental class" - a classification code that characterizes automotive equipment depending on the level of emissions.

4. The objects of technical regulation are motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation and internal combustion engines installed on it in terms of emissions, as well as fuel for such engines.

5. Automotive equipment is divided into the following types:

a) cars (TN VED code of Russia 8703, OKP code 45 1400) of category M1 with internal combustion engines used for the carriage of passengers, having no more than 8 seats, except for the driver's seat;

b) buses (TN VED code of Russia 8702, OKP code 45 1700) with internal combustion engines of categories:

M2 with a maximum mass of not more than 5 tons, used for the carriage of passengers, having more than 8 seats, except for the driver's seat;

M3 with a maximum mass of more than 5 tons, used for the carriage of passengers, having more than 8 seats, except for the driver's seat;

c) trucks (TN VED codes of Russia 8701, 8704, 8705, 8706, OKP codes 45 1100, 45 1118, 45 1130, 45 2100, 45 2200, 45 2300, 45 2700), as well as vehicles manufactured on their basis special purpose, which has its own codes of the TN VED of Russia and OKP, with internal combustion engines of categories:

N(1) with a maximum mass of not more than 3.5 tons, used for the carriage of goods and equipment installed on them;

N(2) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, but not more than 12 tons, used for the carriage of goods and equipment installed on them;

N(3) with a maximum mass exceeding 12 tons, used for the carriage of goods and equipment installed on them.

6. Automotive equipment is divided into environmental classes in accordance with Appendix No. 2.

7. Information about the environmental class is entered into the documents valid on the territory of the Russian Federation that identify motor vehicles.

8. The technical requirements for automotive vehicles and internal combustion engines installed on it are as follows:

a) in relation to automotive vehicles of ecological class 2:

categories M(1), M~(2) with a maximum mass of not more than 3.5 t, N(1) with spark engines (petrol, gas) and diesel engines technical emission standards foreseen by UNECE Regulation N 83-04 (emission levels B , C, D), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with addendum 1 (only for diesel engines);

categories M (1) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, M (2), M (3), N (1), N (2), N (3) with diesel and gas engines - technical emission standards provided for by the EEC Regulations UN N 49-02 (Emission Level B), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 Supplement 1 (Diesel only);

categories M(1) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, M(2), M(3), N(2), N(3) with gasoline engines - technical emission standards (СО - 55 g/kWh, CmHn - 2.4 g/kWh, NOX - 10 g/kWh) during the tests provided for by UNECE Regulation N 49-03 (ESC test cycle);

b) in relation to automotive vehicles of ecological class 3:

categories M (1), M (2) with a maximum mass of not more than 3.5 tons, N (1) with spark engines (petrol, gas) and diesel engines - technical emission standards provided for by UNECE Regulation N 83-05 with amendments 1- 3, appendices 1-5 (emission level A), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with appendix 1 (only for diesel engines);

categories M (1) with a maximum mass over 3.5 tons, M (2), M (3), N (1), N (2), N (3) with diesel and gas engines - technical emission standards provided for by the ECE Regulations UN 49-04 (Emission Tier A), UNECE Regulation 24-03 Supplement 1 (Diesel only);

categories M(1) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, M(2), M(3), N(2), N(3) with gasoline engines - technical emission standards (CO - 20 g / kWh, CmHn - 1.1 g/kWh, NOX - 7 g/kWh) during the tests provided for by Regulation N 49-03 (ETC test cycle);

categories M(1) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, M(2), M(3), N(2), N(3) off-road with diesel engines - technical emission standards provided for by UNECE Regulation N 96-01 with addenda!, 2, UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with addendum 1 (only for diesel engines);

c) in relation to vehicles of ecological class 4:

categories M (1), M (2) with a maximum mass of not more than 3.5 tons, N (1) with spark engines (petrol, gas) and diesel engines - technical emission standards provided for by UNECE Regulation N 83-05 with amendments 1- 3, appendices 1-5 (emission level B), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with appendix 1 (only for diesel engines);

categories M(1) with a maximum mass of more than 3.5 tons, M(2), M(3), N(1), N(2), N3 with diesel and gas engines - technical emission standards provided for by UNECE Regulation N 49 -04 (emission level B1), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with amendment 1 (only for diesel engines);

categories M (1) with a maximum mass of over 3.5 tons, M (2), M (3), N (1), N (2), N (3) with gasoline engines - technical emission standards (СО - 4 g / kWh, СmНn - 0.55 g/kWh, NOX - 2 g/kWh) during the tests provided for by UNECE Regulation N 49-03 (ETC test cycle);

d) in relation to automotive vehicles of environmental class 5 categories M(1) with a maximum mass of over 3.5 tons, M(2), M(3), N(1), N(2), N(3) with diesel and gas engines - technical emission standards provided for by UNECE Regulation N 49-04 (emission levels B2, C), UNECE Regulation N 24-03 with addendum 1 (only for diesel engines).

9. To the characteristics of the fuel, ensuring the implementation technical requirements for automotive equipment and the engines installed on it, specified in clause 8 of this regulation, the main technical requirements are imposed in accordance with Appendix No. 3.

10. The level of emissions as of the date of production of motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation must not exceed the technical standards specified in paragraph 8 of this regulation.

11. Compliance of automotive equipment and engines installed on it with the requirements of this regulation shall be certified by the message concerning the type approval of the vehicle and (or) engine, provided for by the Rules UNECE, or a certificate of conformity issued in the manner established by law Russian Federation.

12. The procedure for confirming the compliance of automotive equipment and engines installed on it with the requirements of this regulation is determined by the UNECE Rules.

13. Validity of certificates of conformity is limited by the date of entry into force of the requirements for the next environmental class, but does not exceed 4 years.

Certificates of conformity issued before the entry into force of this regulation are valid until the expiration of their validity.

In the event that changes are made to the design of motor vehicles or engines that affect the fulfillment of the technical requirements specified in paragraph 8 of this regulation, new certificates of conformity are issued for these vehicles or engines.

14. The introduction of technical emission standards for motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation is carried out within the following terms:

a) environmental class 2 - from the date of entry into force of this regulation;

Appendix No. 1

List of the Rules of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe applied for the purposes of the special technical regulation "On the requirements for emissions of harmful (polluting) substances by motor vehicles put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation"

1. UNECE Regulation N 24 (24-03 *) "Uniform provisions concerning:

I. Approval of compression ignition engines for the emission of visible pollutants;

II. approval of motor vehicles for the installation of type-approved compression ignition engines;

III. Approval of vehicles with a compression ignition engine for the emission of visible pollutants;

IV. measurements useful power compression ignition engines.

2. UNECE Regulation No. 49 (49-02, 49-03, 49-04*) "Uniform provisions concerning the approval of compression-ignition engines and engines powered by natural gas, as well as positive-ignition engines powered by liquefied petroleum gas and vehicles equipped with compression-ignition engines, natural gas engines and positive-ignition engines powered by liquefied petroleum gas, with regard to the pollutants they emit."

3. UNECE Regulation No. 83 (83-02, 83-03, 83-04, 83-05*) "Uniform provisions concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to the emission of pollutants depending on the fuel required for the engines".

4. UNECE Regulation No. 96 (96-01*) "Uniform provisions concerning the approval of compression ignition engines for installation in agricultural tractors and off-road machinery with regard to the emission of pollutants by these engines".

________________

* Amendment numbers that amend the UNECE Regulations.

SANITARY AND HYGIENIC NORM - an indicator of the state of the environment, the maintenance of which guarantees safe or optimal conditions human life. RESET RATE - see Emission (reset) rate.[ ...]

Emission rate - the total amount of gaseous and (or) liquid waste allowed by the enterprise for discharge into environment. Volume N.v. determined on the basis that the cumulation harmful emissions of all enterprises in this region will not lead to concentrations of pollutants exceeding the NDK.[ ...]

Emission standards for toxic substances. The harmful effects of car engine emissions on humans and animals are called emissions toxicity. The amount of harmful emissions into the atmosphere by motor vehicles depends on the density of the traffic flow and the amount of gases emitted by each vehicle. Since the traffic flow on the streets of cities will continuously increase, it is necessary to reduce gas pollution air environment limit the amount harmful products emitted by each car, i.e., establish emission standards for toxic substances with exhaust gases.[ ...]

The reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions during fuel combustion is currently considered as one of the main directions in industrial ecology; In developed capitalist countries, as the main direction of reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides during combustion natural gas» liquid fuels and lignite are considered to carry out primary technological measures ( staged combustion, recirculation of gases, the use of burners of a special design). When burning hard coal to achieve nitrogen oxide emission standards wide application finds o-selective catalytic reduction (Japan, Germany) h homogeneous reduction (SHA). The acceptable level of concentration of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases of thermal power plants in most countries is considered to be 100-200 mg/me. In the USSR, only primary technological measures to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides are used. At most thermal power plants of the USSR, specific emissions of nitrogen oxides (per 1 MWh) exceed those for the United States by 2-3 times.[ ...]

Current standards and norms for emissions and opacity are reviewed periodically. For example, “Diesels, tractors and self-propelled agricultural machines. Emissions of harmful substances with exhaust gases. Norms and methods of determination” (instead of GOST 17.2.2.05-86); “Diesels, tractors and self-propelled agricultural machines. Exhaust smoke. Norms and methods of determination "(instead of GOST 17.2.2.02-86).[ ...]

Regulation No. 83 regulates emissions of motor vehicles of category M (vehicles for the carriage of no more than eight passengers) and category N (goods vehicles with a gross weight of up to 3.5 tons). Tests are carried out on a stand with running drums according to a special driving cycle that takes into account the movement of the car both in urban conditions and outside the city. Emission standards for toxic substances according to these rules are determined in g/km.[ ...]

In table. 5.9 shows the values ​​​​of emission standards for new vehicles of type M1, N1 in European countries according to the first type of test (in driving cycles).[ ...]

To meet the current and future emission standards for harmful substances in vehicles with compression ignition and spark ignition, it is necessary to apply a set of measures (Tables 3.27 and 3.28), which is implemented in modern designs engines.[ ...]

In 1997, the Russian Federation introduced new standards for specific emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere for newly created boiler plants (GOST R 50831-95). They are oriented towards modern level scientific and technical progress. In table. 2.3 shows the relevant emission standards for particulate matter.[ ...]

Thus, MPE is a scientifically based technical norm emission of harmful substances from industrial sources into the atmosphere, its correct calculation requires knowledge of the indicated parameters of the sources, the properties of the emitted harmful substances and atmospheric conditions.[ ...]

There are three schemes for thermal neutralization of gas emissions: direct combustion in a flame, thermal oxidation and catalytic combustion. Direct combustion in a flame and thermal oxidation is carried out at temperatures of 600-800°C; catalytic combustion - at 250-450”C. The choice of a neutralization scheme is determined by the chemical composition of pollutants, their concentration, the initial temperature of gas emissions, volume flow and maximum allowable emission standards for pollutants.[ ...]

The controlling impact of the model is the temporarily agreed rates of emissions, discharges and payment rates for them, as well as the planned environmental capital and current costs aimed at reducing or preventing damage from environmental pollution and rational use natural resources.[ ...]

The addition of BO3 made interesting sense in light of the enforcement of federal EOg emissions regulations. In the past, for most coal-fired power plants and other installations, the generation of GOD from the combustion of sulfur contained in coal was seen as an additional benefit. A sufficient amount of sulfur dioxide was oxidized to trioxide, which was adsorbed and improved the properties of the dust layer. But when using low-sulfur coals, due to the need to comply with emission standards, the resistance of the dust layer has changed and, as a result, the initial capture efficiency has changed. On fig. Figure 5.28 shows changes in the electrical resistance of coal fly ash as a function of the sulfur content of the coal. Although more data is needed to refine the position of the curve, the effect of the reduction in sulfur content on the resistance is quite clear. Thus, at present, the designer of gas cleaning devices must take into account changes in the composition flue gases caused by changes in federal regulations.[ ...]

The development of vehicle emission controls has been facilitated by the establishment of emission standards. It should be noted that the laws passed ahead of the development of automobile production and, as it turned out, were adopted without taking into account the difficulties of achieving limited emission limits.[ ...]

It is of fundamental importance that the use of the final product of thermal power plants (electricity) allows to reduce emissions of pollutants in other industries (for example, the development of electric transport, the transfer of bakeries to electric ovens improves the environmental friendliness of production). Taking into account this circumstance and the fact that the thermal power industry accounts for approximately 50% of the fossil fuels burned, subject to the standards for specific emissions of pollutants from boiler plants, the TPP quota in total air pollution should be 0.5 MPC. In other words, if the norms of specific emissions of TPPs are met and the concentration of pollutants in the air does not exceed 0.5 MPCmr, although pollution from TPPs exceeds the established share of MPCs, emissions from TPPs should be assigned the MPE category. In such cases, the Goskompriroda authorities must take measures to reduce background pollution caused by the operation of enterprises located in the zone of influence of TPPs and not meeting the emission standards established for them, or the administration of the city (region) must decide to reduce the load of TPPs or other enterprises in the region. [...]

With the introduction of GOST 17.2.3.02-78 “Nature Protection. Rules for the Establishment of Permissible Emissions of Harmful Substances by Industrial Enterprises” has increased the role of control over emissions directly from sources of air pollution. To control gross emissions in pipes and mines through which harmful substances are emitted, it is required to install gas analyzers and flow meters that determine the concentration of a harmful substance in the emitted mixture and its consumption. During the operation of enterprises, this makes it possible to obtain specific information on the amount and mode of emissions from individual sources, identify the main culprits of air pollution and take timely measures to reduce the amount of emitted harmful substances. This method of control is widely used in foreign practice. England, Germany, USA, Japan, France and Sweden have emission control laws industrial enterprises. Emissions violations are subject to monetary fines, which are usually imposed by police inspectors for clean air.[ ...]

Taking into account that more than 60% of Russian international road trains do not meet European emission standards, it can be assumed that this is the number of vehicles that should be converted to natural gas in the first place. In the future, on the northern section of MTK-9, one can count on approximately 60 thousand turnaround trips of Russian road trains per year, powered by natural gas.[ ...]

In connection with the proven harmful effects on human health in 1973, emission standards were established for asbestos, beryllium and mercury. These regulations apply both to the use of materials containing asbestos and to the precautions to be taken during the construction and demolition of buildings. Beryllium emission standards apply to industrial processes that use beryllium, beryllium ore or alloys containing more than 25% beryllium by weight, and establish the release rate in such processes. The mercury regulation applies to stationary sources related to the processing of mercury ore, the recovery and disposal of mercury, and the use of chlor-alkali cells to produce chlorine gas and alkali metal hydroxide.[ ...]

Environmental requirements for transport facilities and transport technologies are standardized in the form of maximum allowable emission standards for toxic substances with exhaust gases of vehicles, noise levels, vibrations, electromagnetic fields, specific consumption volumes certain types natural resources, comfort level, etc.[ ...]

End of July. Depressurization of the claddings of several fuel assemblies at the RIAR reactor (Dimitrovgrad, Ulyanovsk region) with an abnormal release of gas aerosols, general activity which amounted to 5 thousand curies. The release continued for a week.[ ...]

Thus, it became possible to formalize (translate into monetary terms) environmental costs, while applying the maximum agreed standards for emissions and discharges, and payment rates for them. The problem is exacerbated by the economic downturn and high environmental tension in a number of regions of the Republic of Bashkortostan.[ ...]

In assessing the consequences of the impact of production activities on the atmospheric air, the main criterion is the current emission standards. In 1994, the amount of substances emitted into the atmosphere in excess of the norm was 260.9 thousand tons, which indicates the need for consistent and purposeful work to reduce pollutant emissions to the permitted limits, improve methods and means of controlling emissions into the atmosphere, and introduce automated system environmental monitoring.[ ...]

In the 90s. public environmental control 146,606 enterprises and organizations were surveyed and found that 24,490 of them exceeded pollutant emission standards. 1840 cases of volley, emergency discharges of harmful substances were also registered, which caused billions of damages and harmed human health.[ ...]

On the basis of the data contained in the environmental passport, the environmental authorities determine the amount of payment for the use of natural resources for the enterprise, set the maximum allowable emission (discharge) standards for pollutants, conduct an environmental review of the reconstruction projects of the enterprise, control the compliance of the enterprise with environmental legislation, etc.[ ...]

Thus, it is necessary to obtain pollutant transport and dispersion schemes for the selected area, based on local atmospheric mathematical models. With the release data required for the dispersion model, maps of estimated concentrations for various pollutants throughout the region can be obtained. If the model is successful, the mapped data will be validated by real data from atmospheric monitoring stations. The validated model can then be used to establish emission standards from the sources so that they can meet acceptable ambient air quality standards in the area. Such models are also useful for predicting the impact of new (future) sources on air quality, in order to establish emission standards for these new sources that allow maintaining the desired level of air quality.[ ...]

Several factors need to be known in order to design waste gas incineration, in particular chemical composition pollutants, their concentrations, the initial temperature of gas emissions, their volume flow and maximum allowable emission standards for pollutants. Based on these data, you can choose best option combustion process. There are processes of direct combustion in a flame, as well as thermal and catalytic oxidation.[ ...]

Taking into account the importance of taking into account the technical level, the achieved (or achievable) technological level of a particular production process, when developing MPE, it is very useful to develop emission standards for a unit of production. Such a norm, not being the main one (the main one should be the normalized MPE for the source of pollution, ensuring safety for public health and ecosystems, high quality environment) can be extremely useful for developing limits on pollution discharges in one industry - it is possible (for correct orientation) to establish such an average norm for the industry, for new enterprises under construction, various categories of already existing enterprises, etc. When, when developing MPE standards for the source of pollution indicates the need to take into account the achieved (or achievable) technological level, the quantitative expression of this level can be the rationing of the discharge (or entry) into the environment of pollution per unit of production - for industrial enterprises, per unit of mileage - for vehicles, etc. This approach has already been found in some countries (USA, Sweden, etc.). practical use.[ ...]

The use of coal for industrial purposes and for heating is on the decline (except for metallurgy and electricity production), it is competitive with nuclear energy, hydropower, natural gas energy, solar, geothermal energy, and wind energy. However, today's emission standards for power plants in developing countries force them to switch to new technologies that are more expensive, and this reduces the economic advantages of coal-fired energy (especially compared to natural gas). In the production of electricity using coal, emissions of carbon monoxide CO2 are more than 2 times more than from natural gas; this is due to the very low thermal capacity of coal at a ratio of carbon and hydrogen (C:H).[ ...]

Air Basin Council pcs. California, the Engine Manufacturers Association, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the Coordinating Science Council have developed a test method known as the U.S. Air Council's method. California (SACV) with 13-mode cycle for testing diesel engines. The norms established in 1974 on the basis of this cycle for diesel and petrol engines of trucks are: 16 g/l. with. per hour HC and N0, 40 g / l. with. per hour CO, also 20% EPA smoke meter reading during acceleration and 15% smoke meter reading during deceleration. Norms of permissible emission of HC and NO in 1975 in pcs. California amounted to 5 g/l. with. at one o'clock. For comparison, it should be noted that the goal of diesel engine manufacturers is: 3 g/l. with. per hour NS, 7.5 g/l. with. per hour CO, 12.5 g/l. with. per hour N0 plus the rate of smoke emission. Typical release data exhaust gases modern engines are presented in table. 10.8; data taken from Walder's publication. From the data presented in table. 10.8 for engines with a volume of 11.224 dm3, it can be seen that using either exhaust gas recirculation or water injection, nitrogen oxide emissions can be reduced.[ ...]

Semi-dry absorption or wet-dry methods of gas desulfurization as new technologies appeared in the late 80s. They were particularly attractive with low sulfur coals and moderate SO2 capture efficiency requirements of 70-80%. Most of the liquid-phase (scrubber) gas desulfurization plants built before 1978 were also designed for a cleaning efficiency of 70 - 80%. Legislative standards for sulfur dioxide emissions remained in place until the end of 1990 in the United States and in most European Union (EU) countries. Considering the realities of those years, it is quite natural that new wet-dry technologies appear, which make it possible to reduce capital expenditures for the construction of plants, while maintaining the degree of capture of SO2.[ ...]

Methods for purification of nitrous gases. In industry, only alkaline and catalytic methods purification of nitrous gases from nitrogen oxides. Alkaline methods are based on the interaction of nitrogen oxides with aqueous solutions of alkalis. The resulting nitrate and nitrate salts are used in industry and agriculture as marketable products. The disadvantage of alkaline methods is the low degree of gas purification, which does not meet the sanitary standards for emissions of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.[ ...]

The review by F. E. Dubinskaya, A. K. Yudkin et al. concludes that it is expedient to equip existing cupola furnaces of industrial enterprises with low metal productivity with a carbon monoxide afterburning system (mounted in the cupola shaft) and wet spark arresters. As for the new cupolas great performance, it is recommended to build them only according to the model developed by the Centrolit plant, equipping them with Venturi scrubbers and recuperators. Permissible norms Emissions into the atmosphere for existing iron foundry cupolas are recommended to be introduced taking into account the capacity of the cupola and the duration of its operation (number of working hours per day).[ ...]

As is known, until now the main attention of the industry has been focused on solving technical and technological problems. In the current difficult environmental situation, one of the priority measures for the country's transition to the path of sustainable development is the improvement of economic management mechanisms environmental issues from government agencies and within the enterprises themselves. The latter includes an assessment of the impact: on the environment at the stage of designing production facilities and environmental audit at the stages of operation: so that the activities of the enterprise are carried out in accordance with the established limits and standards for emissions / discharges of pollutants, the established procedure for the handling and disposal of solid and hazardous waste, ensuring strict control over the use and disposal of chemicals and toxic substances.

Euro-3, Euro-4, Euro-5 - every motorist has heard these words. What do they mean, and where did they come from? Back in 1992, the EU countries introduced the Euro-1 standard on their territory, which established the maximum permissible content of toxic substances in car exhaust gases. Over the next 4-5 years, the European Union tightened these standards.

Pollutant emissions are regulated separately for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles, for trucks and buses.

Restrictions apply to the content of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and particulate matter (soot). Diesels for trucks from 2000 (Euro-3) additionally undergo a smokiness test.

The tightening of Euro-5 and Euro-6 standards mainly concerns diesel vehicles, significantly limiting the content of particulate matter (soot) and nitrogen oxide emissions.

Real NOx emissions are higher than reported

A study conducted by the International Council for Clean Transportation (ICCT) in October 2014 showed that the actual NOx emissions of modern diesel engines declared as Euro 6 compliant are, on average, 7 times higher than these norms. This means that instead of the standard 80 mg/km, new cars pollute the atmosphere with an average of 560 mg/km of nitrogen oxides.

15 passenger cars took part in road tests different types(sedans, crossovers, station wagons, hatchbacks) of six automakers. The tested vehicles are equipped with various systems exhaust gas treatment: selective catalytic reduction (SCR), exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) or catalytic converter (Lean NOx trap). Experts have identified significant differences between the emission levels of different vehicles (see chart). This indicates that, despite the existence effective technologies exhaust gas cleaning, not all automakers use them.

Between 2000 (Euro 3) and 2014 (Euro 6), NOx emission limits for diesel vehicles in the EU have decreased by 85%. However, the real level of emissions during this period decreased only about 40%. Diesel vehicles account for more than 50% of all new vehicles in the European Union and are one of the main sources of nitrogen oxide pollution. The European Commission is currently preparing an improved procedure for the certification of new vehicles, according to which, from 2017, car manufacturers will be required, in addition to laboratory tests, to carry out real road tests using portable emission measurement systems (PEMS).

By 2020, emissions in Europe carbon dioxide new cars should be reduced to 95 g/km. Automakers on other continents will also strive for such indicators. The current emission standard is 130 g/km. The standard level of CO 2 emissions depends on the curb weight and is calculated for each vehicle according to the formula: CO 2 \u003d 130 + a * (M-M 0), where M is the mass of the car in running order in kilograms, M 0 \u003d 1372 kg, a \u003d 0.0457. In 2016, the value of M 0 will be revised.

It is important to know that each manufacturer receives an indicator according to the average level of emissions of the entire produced line of cars, and not a single copy. This is not just a norm: for its violation, the company must pay fines, and considerable ones. For each car produced, whose CO 2 emissions exceed the average established level, 5 euros are paid for exceeding 1 g / km, 15 euros for exceeding 2 g / km, 25 euros - 3 g / km, and after exceeding 4 g /km each gram costs the manufacturer 95 euros. From 2019, everything will be even stricter - each gram of exceeding the norm will cost 95 euros!

But besides the whip, there is also a carrot. Each manufacturer can receive a bonus if they reduce their carbon dioxide emissions to 7 g/km. True, subject to the use of innovative technologies on manufactured cars. As an example, we took four cars, three of which fit into the current norm:

• 1.4, power - 150 hp, average fuel consumption - 5.0 l / 100 km; CO 2 emissions - 116 g/km
• Renault Logan 1.6, power - 102 hp, average fuel consumption - 7.1 l / 100 km; CO 2 emissions - 167 g/km
• Mercedes-Benz C-class 1.6, power - 156 hp, average fuel consumption - 5.5 l / 100 km; CO 2 emissions - 126 g/km
• Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, power - 333 hp, average fuel consumption - 3.4 l / 100 km; CO 2 emissions - 79 g/km; electricity consumption - 20.8 kW / h / 100 km; efficiency class: A+

You see, fuel consumption and emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere are measured on running drums according to a certain method. And why not on the road, because it would be more honest? Now it is impossible, and there are a number of reasons for that. The first is the comparability of the results, they should not be influenced by weather conditions, road conditions, or other factors that could distort the result. The second important reason is the collection of exhaust gases for analysis. Collecting them when the car is moving is difficult. Therefore, tests are carried out on running drums, simulating real road conditions.

Today, three methods for determining fuel consumption are most common in the world: the European NEDC, the American FTP-75 and the Japanese JC 08. They differ in many ways. The longest and fastest is the American one. Japanese has the smallest average speed - only 24.4 km / h. This is due to the simulation of significant downtime at traffic lights. The European is the most sluggish - the maximum acceleration does not exceed 0.83 m / s 2. But they have one thing in common: all three methods are far from the real cycle of the car, so car companies have learned to adapt to them.

Weak link

Consider the European NEDC to estimate the fuel consumption of vehicles with a gross weight of up to 3500 kg. The duration of the test is only 1220 seconds. During this time, urban (speed limited to 50 km/h) and suburban driving modes are simulated with a maximum speed of up to 120 km/h. In this case, the given speed must be developed for certain time. For example, to accelerate in the urban cycle from standstill to 50 km / h, you need to spend 26 seconds. If you are in real life you will accelerate from a traffic light for so long, they will begin to honk you, and aggressive drivers will also cut and show a bad gesture.

Now it becomes clear why in order to accelerate a modern small car, you have to press the accelerator pedal almost to the floor. When the processor is responsible for everything in cars, and the amount of incoming and processed information is calculated in megabytes, the test execution becomes a matter of writing an algorithm joint work engine and transmission. And it does not matter that the consumer does not like the behavior of the car in the urban cycle, and the actual fuel consumption will not match the declared one. Test passed, consumption and emissions in line with regulations. No one is interested in what emissions a car will show on the autobahn when it exceeds the measurement speed in the test. Everyone knows that much more, but the rules are followed, so everything is in order.

An example from life. When the Moskvich-2141 car was being prepared for release in 1986, measurements were taken of fuel consumption on the running drums. He wasn't very good. I had to lower it a little. They did not touch the engine, especially since it was manufactured at another plant. Therefore, we decided to experiment with the final drive: the lower the gear ratio with a similar driving mode, the lower the fuel consumption. They changed the main gear, instead of the gear ratio of 4.1, they put 3.9. The required consumption figures were reached, and the buyers received a car with poor dynamics. But the garage masters got rich quite well, because word of mouth very quickly spread that for little money you can make a dynamic hatchback out of a slug.

Calibration

At the beginning of the article, we cited as an example a Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid with an average consumption of 3.4 l/100 km and CO2 emissions of 79 g/km. Do you believe it? Me not. For comparison, let's take a regular Porsche Cayenne with a 300 hp gasoline engine. Its average consumption is claimed at 9.2 l/100 km and CO 2 emissions at 215 g/km. The difference in consumption and CO 2 emissions is almost three times. What is it - technology or imperfection of the NEDC test? Obviously, on the autobahn, a hybrid car will lose all its environmental friendliness, because the amount of emissions directly depends on fuel consumption. Think about it, the new Ford Fiesta during the recent 60 Hours Driving Endurance Marathon averaged 16.8 liters per 100 kilometers and CO 2 emissions were well above the norm. And this is the picture of almost every car.

But a new WLTC (Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures) test cycle is expected to come into effect in 2017. This will no longer be a regional, but a global test. It is a series of cycles for vehicles with a gross weight of up to 3500 kg. But the ratio of engine power to curb weight is different for all cars, and this parameter greatly affects efficiency. Therefore, in order to make the test more realistic, all cars were divided into three classes in accordance with their power-to-weight ratio. Class 1 is 22 W/kg, Class 2 is 22 to 34 W/kg, and Class 3 is over 34 W/kg. Although this cycle is not perfect, it is at least closer to reality. For example, acceleration during acceleration will be 1.58 m / s 2, and this is far from a pensioner's driving style.

Legislators decided to change the rules of the game, and not just by editing them, but radically. In the remaining five years, automakers must not only adapt to the new measurement cycle, but also significantly reduce CO 2 emission standards. Will they succeed? We will see. But in order to meet the standard for carbon dioxide emissions, the average consumption of a gasoline engine should not exceed 4.1 liters, and for a diesel engine - 3.6 liters per 100 km.

MPs against engineers

Such a competition between lawmakers and engineers can only be welcomed. After all, if it were not for him, who would force automakers to introduce first central, and then direct fuel injection in gasoline engines? Why was it necessary to raise the injection pressure in diesel engines to 2500 bar, if not for the tough economy?

But together with automakers for fresh air motorists pay. All fines and costs of automakers for improvement in one way or another will equally fall on our shoulders. In addition, cars are becoming more complex and expensive every year. Repairing a car without a scanner and a motor tester is almost impossible. And by 2020, most new cars are likely to be hybrids, because the only way to cut emissions is to use electric propulsion.

Perhaps by 2030 there will be disposable cars with a service life of 3 years. It is wasteful to maintain such a car economically, it is easier to buy a new one. But this is in Europe. We will always find amateurs who will assemble one out of two, three or more cars and drive.

And finally, food for thought. CO 2 emission standards for the same cars sold in our country and in Europe vary greatly. For example, let's take the data on Skoda Octavia.