differentiation and isolation of people's activities in the process of joint labor. There is a general division of labor - isolation various kinds labor activity on the scale of the national economy (industry, transport, agriculture, etc.); private - characterizes the division and isolation industrial production on separate economic branches (machine-tool building, shipbuilding, etc.); single - represent the separation of various types of work within one industrial enterprise. The main forms of intra-production division of labor are functional, technological and vocational. In accordance with functional separation labor, employees of the enterprise are divided into industrial and production personnel and personnel engaged in non-industrial work (household services, etc.). The technological division of labor is the division and isolation of the production process according to the subject or operational principle. The subject (detailed) division provides for the assignment to the worker of a complex of various operations aimed at manufacturing a certain type of product. Operational - based on the assignment of a limited set of specialized jobs technological operations and is the basis for the formation of production lines. The professional and qualification division of labor makes it possible to group workers according to the types of technological processes they carry out, highlighting various professions and specialties, and within them - qualification categories, etc. The objects of labor are all that labor is aimed at, which undergoes changes in order to acquire useful properties and thereby satisfy human needs. The productive power of labor is its ability to produce more and more as the technical equipment of production grows. more products. Professional r.t. - specialties and professions

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Plan

1. Division of labor: types, types and forms

2. Commodity production

3. Barter and commodity circulation

1. Division of labor - this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation various kinds labor activity.

Types of division of labor:

1. natural;

2. technical;

3. public.

Natural division of labor- there is a segregation of labor by sex and age. This division of labor is called natural because its character flows from the very nature of man, from the delimitation of the functions that each of us has to perform due to our physical, intellectual and spiritual merits.

Technical division of labor- this is such a differentiation of people's labor activity, which is predetermined by the very nature of the means of production used, primarily technically and technologically.

For example, when the sewing machine replaced the needle, a different organization of labor was required, as a result of which a significant mass of people engaged in this type of activity was released. As a result, they were forced to look for other areas of application of their labor. Here is the replacement hand tool mechanism required changes in the existing system of division of labor.

The social division of labor represents the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors (costs, prices, profits, method, supply, taxes, etc.), under the influence of which the separation, differentiation of various types of labor activity takes place. This type division of labor is predetermined by the socio-economic conditions of production. For example, a farmer, having certain land plots engaged in both crop production and animal husbandry. However, economic calculations suggest that if some of them specialize mainly in the cultivation and preparation of feed, while others are engaged only in fattening animals, then production costs will be significantly reduced for both.

Sectoral division of labor- is determined by the conditions of production, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the product being manufactured.

Territorial division of labor- characterized by the spatial distribution of various types of labor activity.

Varieties of the territorial division of labor are district, regional and international division of labor. Neither sectoral nor territorial division of labor can exist outside of each other.

Types of division of labor:

1. general;

2. private;

3. singular.

General division of labor- characterized by segregation large births(areas) of activity that differ from each other by the shaping of the product.

It includes the separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, handicrafts from agriculture, and the separation of trade from industry.

Private division of labor- this is the process of isolation of individual industries within the framework of large types of production.

The private division of labor includes both individual industries and sub-sectors and individual industries. For example, within the framework of industry, such industries as mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and mining can be named, which in turn include a number of sub-sectors.

Single division of labor- characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations.

The unit division of labor includes the detailed, node-by-node and operational division of labor. This division of labor, as a rule, takes place within individual enterprises.

Forms of division of labor:

1. differentiation;

2. specialization;

3. universalization;

4. diversification.

Differentiation consists in the process of isolation, "branching" of individual industries, due to the specifics of the means of production used, technology, and there. In other words, it is a process of dismemberment social production for all new activities.

For example, before the commodity producer was engaged not only in the production of any goods, but also in their sale. Now he has focused all his attention on the production of goods, while their implementation is carried out by another, completely independent economic entity.

Specialization It is based on differentiation, but it develops already on the basis of focusing efforts on a narrow range of manufactured products.

For example, a commodity producer produced various types of furniture, but later decided to concentrate on the production of only bedroom sets, the manufacturer did not abandon the production of furniture, but reorganizes production based on the replacement of universal tools with specialized ones.

Universalization is the opposite of specialization. It is based on release or implementation a wide range goods and services.

An example is the production of all types and types of furniture and even the production of kitchen utensils, cutlery at one enterprise.

Diversification- under this form of division of labor should be understood the expansion of the range of products.

This is achieved in two ways:

1st - market diversification - it is characterized by the expansion of the range of manufactured goods, which are already produced by other enterprises.

2nd way - production diversification, which is directly related to scientific and technological progress, with the advent of qualitatively new goods and technologies. Within the framework of industrial diversification, one should distinguish between: technological, detailed and product diversification.

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on age, sex, physical, physiological and other characteristics. But man was able to take a qualitative step forward and move from the natural division of functions to the division of labor, which became the basis of the economy and socio-economic progress. The mechanism of economic cooperation of people assumes that some group or individual focuses on the performance of a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

The concept of "division of labor"

If you pay attention to the isolation of the types of activities that are performed by each member of society, then you can see that all people are isolated from each other in one way or another by the nature of their occupations, activities, functions performed. This isolation is the division of labor. Consequently, the division of labor is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

Now we know that in our lives we are doomed to perform only certain types of activities, while in the aggregate they represent a “borderless sea” for the free choice of the method and direction of our “swimming”. But are we really so free if our activity is narrowly focused? Why does it happen that, performing only a rather narrow and specific type of activity, we have all the necessary benefits that are in no way connected or are connected very conditionally with our work activity? After some reflection, one can come to the conclusion that people have everything (or almost everything) they need only because they exchange the results of their labor activity.

The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the very system of various types of labor activity is becoming more and more complex, since the labor process itself is becoming more complex and deepening.

Concentrating efforts on the manufacture of any one thing and exchanging the products of his labor for the products of the labor of other people, a person soon discovered: this saves him time and effort, since the productivity of labor of all participants in the exchange of goods increases. And therefore, the mechanism of expanding and deepening the division of labor, launched in ancient times, is still working properly to this day, helping people to use the available resources in the most rational way and receive the greatest benefit.

The isolation of various types of labor activity creates conditions for each participant in the production process to achieve high skill in his chosen business, which ensures a further improvement in the quality of manufactured products and an increase in their output.

Productivity and labor intensity

It can be concluded that a commodity is a product of labor intended for exchange in order to satisfy social needs, i.e. the needs of not the commodity producer himself, but of any member of society. As already noted, any commodity has an exchange value, or the ability to exchange in a certain proportion for other goods. However, all goods enter into exchange only because they can satisfy this or that need. This is the value of the acquired good by one or another economic entity.

Barter and commodity circulation

Initially, people entered into a simple commodity exchange, or such exchange relations in which the sale and purchase of goods coincided in time and took place without the participation of money. The form of such commodity exchange is as follows: T (commodity) - T (commodity). As a result of the development of commodity exchange, more and more opportunities opened up for the isolation of types of activity, because the guarantee of obtaining the missing goods or products, from the production of which the commodity producer deliberately refused, increased. In the process of development of commodity relations, commodity exchange underwent significant transformations until it was replaced by commodity circulation, which is based on money - a universal purchasing tool that has the ability to exchange for any product.

With the advent of money, exchange was divided into two opposite and complementary acts: sale and purchase. This created the conditions for the intermediary merchant to join in the exchange. As a result, a new major division of labor occurred (previously, hunting was separated from agriculture, then crafts from agriculture) - the separation of trade into a special large kind economic activity. Thus, commodity circulation is an exchange relationship that is mediated by a monetary equivalent. It has the following form: T (goods) - D (money) - T (goods).

Types of division of labor

For general idea system of division of labor will give a description of its various types.

Natural division of labor

Historically, the natural division of labor was the first to appear. The natural division of labor is the process of separating the types of labor activity according to gender and age. This division of labor played a decisive role at the dawn of the formation of human society: between men and women, between adolescents, adults and the elderly.

This division of labor is called natural because its character stems from the very nature of man, from the delimitation of the functions that each of us has to perform due to our physical, intellectual and spiritual merits. We must not forget that initially each of us is most naturally adapted to perform certain types of activities. Or, as the philosopher Grigory Skovoroda said, the “affinity” of each person to certain kind activities. So whatever kind of division of labor we may consider, we must remember that, visibly or invisibly, the natural division of labor is always present in it. The natural moment manifests itself with the greatest force in the search for ways, forms and methods of self-realization by each person, which often leads not only to a change of place of work, but also a change in the type of work activity. However, this, in turn, depends on the availability of freedom of choice of labor activity, which is predetermined not only by the personal factor, but also by the economic, social, cultural, spiritual and political conditions of human life and society.

No socio-economic system, no matter how advanced it may be, can or should abandon the natural division of labor, especially with regard to women's work. It cannot be associated with those types of labor activity that can harm a woman's health and affect a new generation of people. Otherwise, the society will suffer in the future not only colossal economic, but also moral and moral losses, deterioration of the genetic fund of the nation.

Technical division of labor

Another kind of division of labor is its technical division. The technical division of labor is such a differentiation of the labor activity of people, which is predetermined by the very nature of the means of production used, primarily equipment and technology. Consider an elementary example illustrating the development of this type of division of labor. When a person had a simple needle and thread for sewing, this tool imposed a certain system of labor organization and required a large number employed workers. When the sewing machine replaced the needle, a different organization of labor was required, as a result of which a significant mass of people engaged in this type of activity was released. As a result, they were forced to look for other areas of application of their labor. Here, the very replacement of a hand tool (needle) by a mechanism ( sewing machine) demanded changes in the existing system of division of labor.

Consequently, the emergence of new types of equipment, technologies, raw materials, materials and their use in the production process dictates a new division of labor. Just as the natural division of labor is initially imposed by the very nature of man, so the technical division of labor is imposed by the very nature of the new technical means, means of production.

Social division of labor

Finally, it is necessary to dwell on the social division of labor, which is the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors (costs, prices, profits, demand, supply, taxes, etc.), under the influence of which isolation, differentiation of various types of labor activity. concept public division labor includes the natural and technical division of labor due to the fact that any kind of activity cannot be carried out outside of a person (natural division of labor) and outside the material and technical means (technical division of labor) that are used by people in the production process. In production activities, people use either outdated or new technology, but in either case it will impose a corresponding system of technical division of labor.

As for the social division of labor, we can say that it is predetermined by the socio-economic conditions of production. For example, farmers, having certain land plots, are engaged in both crop production and animal husbandry. However, the accumulated experience and economic calculations they suggest that if some of them specialize mainly in the cultivation and preparation of feed, while others are engaged only in fattening animals, then production costs will be significantly reduced for both. Over time, it turns out that savings on production costs can be achieved through a separate occupation of meat and dairy farming. Thus, there is a separation of crop production from animal husbandry, and then, within animal husbandry, there is a division of labor into meat and dairy areas.

Historically, the division of labor between livestock and crop production initially proceeded under the direct influence of natural and climatic conditions. The difference in them just ensured lower costs in both cases. Both sectors benefited from sharing their results. It should be noted that in the conditions of market relations, the division of labor is to a decisive extent predetermined by economic expediency, obtaining additional benefits, income, cost reduction, etc.

Sectoral and territorial division of labor

Within the framework of the social division of labor, it is necessary to single out the sectoral and territorial division of labor. The sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the conditions of production, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the product being produced. The territorial division of labor is characterized by the spatial distribution of various types of labor activity. Its development is predetermined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors. With the development of productive forces, transport, and communications, economic factors play a predominant role. However, the development of extractive industries and Agriculture dictated by natural factors. Varieties of the territorial division of labor are the regional, regional and international division of labor. But neither sectoral nor territorial division of labor can exist outside of each other.

General, private and individual division of labor

From the point of view of coverage, degree of independence, as well as technical, technological, organizational and economic relationships between different types of production in the social division of labor, it is important to distinguish three of its forms: general, private and individual. The general division of labor is characterized by the separation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product. It includes the allocation of pastoral tribes, i.e. separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, crafts from agriculture (later - industry and agriculture), separation of trade from industry. In the XX century. there was a separation and separation of such large types of activities as services, scientific production, utilities, agro-industrial complex, credit and financial sector.

The private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within the framework of large branches of production. It is characterized by the release of finished homogeneous or similar products, united by technical and technological unity. The private division of labor includes both individual industries and sub-sectors and individual industries. For example, within the framework of industry, such industries as mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and mining can be named, which in turn include a number of sub-sectors. Thus, in mechanical engineering, there are more than seventy sub-sectors and industries, including such as machine tool building, transport engineering, electrical engineering, and electronics. Such a separation is also characteristic of all the other major types of production listed above.

The individual division of labor characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations. It includes sub-detailed, node-by-unit (production of parts, assemblies, components) and operational (technological operations for physical, electrophysical, electrochemical processing) division of labor. A single division of labor, as a rule, takes place within individual enterprises.

Historically, the trend in the development of the social division of labor was determined by the transition from the general division to the particular and from the particular to the individual division of labor. In this regard, we can say that in its development the social division of labor went through three stages, each of which was determined by the general division of labor, then the private, then the individual. However, apparently, it is not necessary to absolutize this scheme of development of the social division of labor. It will be shown below that each subsequent type of division of labor can become the initial basis for the development of the historically preceding types of its division.

Forms of manifestation of the division of labor

The forms of manifestation of the social division of labor include differentiation, specialization, universalization and diversification.

Differentiation

Differentiation consists in the process of isolation, "spinning off" of individual industries, due to the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used. In other words, it is a process of dividing social production into more and more new types of activity. For example, before the commodity producer was engaged not only in the production of any goods, but also in their sale. Now he has focused all his attention on the production of goods, while their implementation is carried out by another, completely independent economic entity. Thus, a single economic activity was differentiated into two of its varieties, each of which functionally already existed within this unity.

Specialization

Specialization should be distinguished from differentiation. Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of focusing efforts on a narrow range of manufactured products. Specialization, as it were, consolidates and deepens the process of differentiation. In the above example, there was a separation of production from sales (trade). Suppose a commodity producer produced various types of furniture, but later decided to concentrate his efforts on the production of only bedroom sets. The commodity producer has not abandoned the production of furniture, but is reorganizing production on the basis of replacing universal labor tools with specialized ones; the workforce is also selected on the basis of the benefits of experience and knowledge in the specific area of ​​activity. Of course, there are many conventions and transitional states, but it is still necessary to distinguish between these two concepts - differentiation and specialization.

Universalization

Universalization is the opposite of specialization. It is based on the production or sale of a wide range of goods and services. An example is the production of all types and types of furniture and even the production of kitchen utensils, cutlery at one enterprise. An analogue of such production in trade can serve as a department store.

As for the concentration of production, it finds its technical manifestation in the ever-increasing concentration of the means of production (machinery, equipment, people, raw materials) and labor within one enterprise. However, the direction of development of production depends on the nature of their concentration: whether it will follow the path of universalization, or - specialization. This is due to the degree of homogeneity of technology and applied technologies and raw materials, and hence the workforce.

Diversification

Diversification of production deserves special attention. Diversification should be understood as the expansion of the range of products. This is achieved in two ways. The first is market diversification. It is characterized by the expansion of the range of manufactured goods, which are already produced by other enterprises. At the same time, quite often the process of such diversification is accompanied by absorption or mergers with enterprises that produce the same products. The main thing is that in this case, as a rule, there is no enrichment of the range of goods offered to the buyer.

The second way is production diversification, which is directly related to scientific and technological progress (STP), with the emergence of qualitatively new goods and technologies. This type Diversification, unlike market diversification, creates and satisfies previously non-existing needs or satisfies existing needs with a new product or service. As a rule, production diversification is closely interconnected with the existing production at a given enterprise and grows organically from it.

Within the framework of industrial diversification, one should distinguish between technological, detailed and product diversification. Product diversification is developing on a large scale. So, with the help of the same technological operations, parts, assemblies, components, it is possible to assemble finished products and products that are very diverse in their functional purpose. But this becomes possible only under the conditions of expanding the process of diversification of the production of constituent components of finished products. It was production diversification, as a consequence of scientific and technical progress, that led to a change in the development trends of the general, private and individual division of labor.

Modern trends in the development of the division of labor

Structural and technological commonality of products

So let's consider modern tendencies development of the social division of labor. First of all, we note that under the influence of scientific and technical progress, the constructive and technological commonality of the types of products produced, primarily assemblies, parts, and components, is increasingly manifested. So, modern equipment and vehicles approximately 60-75% consist of similar or identical units and parts. This is a consequence of detailed and technological diversification.

The diversification of social production could not but affect sectoral differentiation. In conditions of unprecedented pace of product diversification, the principle of sectoral differentiation came into conflict with the tendencies of the social division of labor and the requirements of scientific and technological progress.

The growing constructive and technological commonality of the ever-increasing mass of various types of products gives rise to a complex and contradictory process of real isolation of the production of finished products and their constituent components. The fact is that many types of products of the same economic branch are structurally incompatible with each other in terms of units, assemblies, parts and components, while products from other industries have a lot of structurally common elements with them. For example, there is nothing in common between cars and trucks, except for the principles of their functioning and the names of components and parts, while the latter have a lot of identical components with products of the corresponding class of equipment for road construction, tractor, agricultural engineering.

The development of a single division into a private one

The modern production of component products, apparently, is at that stage of its development, at which their production has gone beyond the scope of individual enterprises and has already reached isolation into separate industries. The exit of a single division of labor beyond the boundaries of the enterprise is necessarily and objectively associated with the development of another trend - the development of a single division of labor into a private one. As long as the dedicated specialized production of component products remains closely connected with one final product, one can speak, albeit with certain, and sometimes significant deviations, of a single division of labor. When such production closes on itself a complex of technical, technological, organizational, economic ties for the production of a number of final products, then it acquires an independent, equal, and sometimes predetermining significance in relation to the choice of directions for the development of industries that produce finished products.

The development of detailed and technological specialization of production within society creates the basis for the transition from simple cooperation (based on the division of labor by kind, type, type of product) to complex, based on the combination of detailed and technologically highly specialized industries within industrial complexes, rather than individual enterprises, associations . With the growth of separate industries for the production of units, parts, components and the identification of their constructive and technological commonality, the integration of identical industries occurs. This causes the formation independent productions and industries for the production of intersectoral products.

The economic content of these processes lies in the fact that the rigid attachment of the constituent component to a certain type of finished product indicates the prevailing role of the use value of the partial product and, on the contrary, the use of the partial product in a wide range of products indicates the leading role of value. It can be said that the more use value dominates exchange, the wider the scale of the individual division of labor, the more often and more urgently exchange value manifests itself, the more obvious is the development of the particular division of labor. Therefore, with the development of a single division of labor into a private one, an increasing part of partial products acquires an independent value as a commodity, which indicates a new stage in the development of commodity production, market relations.

The growing role of the private division of labor in the process of further development of industrial production is manifested, on the one hand, in the formation of intersectoral industries for the production of structurally and technologically related semi-products, and on the other hand, in the integration of related, but separate industries and industries into industrial complexes.

Private division of labor as the basis of its general division

The considered trend of a private division of labor, of course, does not exclude its development in the traditional way - within the framework of the division of labor. At the same time, various types of labor activity, arising, transforming and separating, thereby create the basis for the formation of new large types of economic activity. Such new formations include public utilities, the agro-industrial complex (AIC), infrastructure, and scientific production. These new large spheres of social production were formed on a qualitatively new basis - through the integration of individual industries, i.e. on the basis of a private division of labor. Thus, the agro-industrial complex was formed on the basis of industries serving agriculture and agricultural production. Utilities integrated heat supply, energy supply, gas facilities. Consequently, what is currently happening is not the “growth” of a particular division of labor from the general one, but, on the contrary, the formation of a general division of labor on the basis of the particular one.

Having considered various aspects of the division of labor, I would like to draw attention to the fact that the more extensive and deeper the division of labor, the more developed the productive forces of society. A. Smith called the division of labor the leading force in economic development. It personifies the social productive force that arises from the form of labor organization and production management. Sometimes this productive force costs society little, but gives a huge return, expressed in the growth of social labor productivity.

Trends in the development of the division of labor as a universal form of the existence of social production make it possible to determine the most important directions for improving economic relations. Consequently, economic relations represent a social shell for the existence and development of the division of labor. Any changes in the system of division of labor immediately affect the system of relations between economic entities: between some of them, economic ties cease, while between others, on the contrary, they arise. So, the social division of labor and its socialization reflect both the material and technical (productive forces) and socio-economic (production relations) aspects of social production.

Socialization of labor and production

The expansion and deepening of the division of labor presuppose the mutual conditioning and predetermination of separate types of activity and make it impossible for them to exist without each other. In this regard, we can conclude that with the process of deepening and expanding the division of labor, the process of its socialization is simultaneously unfolding. The socialization of labor is the process of drawing various types of labor activity, connected either by the exchange of directly labor activity, or by its results or products, into a single social labor process.

The considered types, types of division of labor and forms of their implementation, as well as the trends of its development, mark the process of unification of disparate spheres and economic entities into a single socialized production process. In the course of technical and socio-economic progress, various types of activities are combined, because most of the modern benefits are the result of the activities of a mass of people, some of whom are engaged in the production of individual parts, others - components, others - units, fourths - components, fifths - the implementation of individual technical operations, the sixth - assembly and assembly of finished products. The merging of fragmented production processes of various branches and spheres of the national economy into a single social production process is called the socialization of production.

The socialization of production is a contradictory unity of the socialization of labor and the means of production, which lies in the very process of labor, which presupposes both one form or another of the interaction of the total labor force, and one or another socialized form of the functioning of the means of production. Therefore, they can complement each other or develop in opposite directions, entering into conflict.

At the same time, in the relations of the socialization of the means of production, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: the socialization of the means of production as a factor of production, i.e. as the material and material content of the process of socialization, and as an object of property relations. Therefore, in the socialization of the means of production, it is necessary to see both a material factor and socio-economic relations.

The division of labor, its socialization and the socialization of the means of production are closely interconnected and complement each other. The relationship between them is mobile to the extent that the very material and technical base of social production is changeable, i.e. productive forces, the division and socialization of labor, and to what extent the forms of property are able to evolve in the direction of the socialization of the means of production in accordance with the requirements of the development of the productive forces.

As in the case of the technical division of labor, the very nature of the means of production used changes both the principle and the extent of their interaction, as well as interaction with labor force. Therefore, the socialization of the means of production as productive forces does not depend on the social form of management.

However, it must be recognized that the means of production can function outside economic relations, the dominant property relations, and therefore the socialization of the means of production as productive forces is influenced public form their functioning.

So, before the advent of machine production, the dominant was individual property, individual capital, which then, thanks to its own accumulation, moved to manufacturing production (manufactory division of labor). However, the appearance of machines and their use in production opened the way to a qualitatively new division of labor and the socialization of production on the basis of the unification of isolated capitals into social capital in the form of joint-stock companies. Despite the private nature of this corporate form of ownership, in its way of functioning it acts as an integrated social force, as social capital. Thus, private capital, unable to ensure the appropriate division of labor and the socialization of production, was forced to transform into a social form.

Understanding the process of socialization of the means of production in its material, technical and social aspects in unity with the socialization of labor allows, as a first approximation, to consider the dynamics of social production. The first impetus in its development comes from the productive forces, but its real transformation (as well as economic utilization, the functioning of new productive forces) begins to take place only with the onset of changes in the system of economic relations.

Production loses its private character and becomes a social process due to the absolute dependence of producers on each other, when the means of production, even if they are the property of individuals, appear as public ones by virtue of their relation to production. In the same way, labor in individual enterprises turns out to be really socialized within the framework of a single production process. In this regard, I would like to draw attention to the following aspects of the socialization of the means of production and labor as constituent parts a single process of socialization of production.

The socialization of the means of production can proceed in the following forms. First, by concentrating capital, i.e. increasing its size through the accumulation of investment in the production of part of the profits.

Secondly, on the basis of the centralization of capital, i.e. its growth through the absorption of weak competitors or the merger of relatively equivalent capital into a single entity. The processes of takeovers and mergers lead to the formation of oligopolistic and monopoly capital, which cannot function outside state supervision, and under certain conditions it can be expected to be nationalized.

However, a much larger scale of the real socialization of the means of production is represented by corporate capital with its system of participation in the financial control of branches, branches, subsidiaries and grandchildren, associated enterprises, as well as tens of thousands of "independent" enterprises, which turn out to be tightly tied technologically, technically, organizationally, economically to corporate capital by a system of agreements on scientific, technical and industrial cooperation. This whole set of seemingly legally independent enterprises functions as a single whole, as social capital in a single corporate entity. manufacturing process.

At the same time, far from any socialization of the means of production, the growth of capital embodies the socialization of labor and production. Formally, there may be an appearance of socialization of the means of production and labor, while they function in completely unrelated industries. This can also be observed within the framework of corporate capital, when it acts as a conglomerate, i.e. associations of diverse industries and services, which are disparate types of economic activity. Here there is no cooperation of labor between the individual links of production, and the exchange of results of economic activity.

It is necessary to distinguish between direct (direct) and indirect (indirect) socialization of labor. Wherein importance It has cooperation, which can be realized in the form of a direct exchange of labor activity within a separate economic unit (enterprise) and in the form of an exchange of the results of labor activity based on the implementation of production cooperation in the manufacture of certain types of products or by-products. In the latter case, the labor of employees of individual enterprises acts as a part of the labor of the total workers participating in cooperation in the manufacture of certain products. As a result, the labor of all participants in production acquires the social character of the total worker in a given area of ​​production. Under the conditions of scientific and technical progress, a huge number of enterprises are drawn into a single intersectoral production process on the basis of truly cooperative labor, even if the latter is mediated by commodity-money relations.

Thus, the need for a constant exchange of the fruits of specialized labor predetermines the cooperative nature of relations in the sphere of production of goods and services. Production cooperation is the combination of separated production operations or separate releases of units and parts necessary for the manufacture of final products into a single production process.

conclusions

1. The division of labor is the historical process of separating various types of labor activity into independent or interrelated productions, while the socialization of labor is aimed at drawing various types of labor activity directly or indirectly by exchange into a single social production process.

2. There are three types of division of labor: natural, technical and social. The natural division of labor is predetermined by the separation of labor activity according to gender and age, the technical division of labor is determined by the nature of the equipment and technology used, the social division of labor is determined by the nature of economic relations expressed in prices and costs, supply and demand, etc.

3. Within the framework of the social division of labor, it is necessary to distinguish between individual, private and general division of labor. The first characterizes the division of labor within the enterprise, the second - within individual industries, the third - within the boundaries of large areas of social production.

4. Forms of manifestation of the division of labor are differentiation, specialization, universalization and diversification. Differentiation expresses any process of isolation of certain types of production activity. Specialization expresses a type of differentiation characterized by the concentration of means of production and labor on the production of a narrow range of products, while universalization, on the contrary, is accompanied by a concentration of means of production and labor in order to produce a wide range of products. Diversification refers to the expansion of the range of products produced by an enterprise.

5. The division of labor, speaking in various forms and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development of commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on its individual types forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain what they lack. good.

The division of labor is the separation of certain types of labor activity according to common characteristics. The process of division of labor has developed historically. Depending on some signs, certain types of labor activity were “combined”.

There are several types of division of labor:

• Public. It has gone through a number of stages, as a result of which whole branches of one or another type of activity have emerged with the allocation of classes of society.
  Stages of social division of labor:
  1. As a result of the separation of agriculture from gathering, agriculture was formed, and with it the class of society - the peasantry.
  2. As a result of the separation of craft from agriculture, industry was formed. As a consequence, a class of artisans who then became industrialists;
  3. From crafts and agriculture, trade emerged, and a class - merchants.
  4. From trade "follows" banking and finance. A class of usurers is formed.
  5. As a result, management is formed as a process for managing enterprises. A class of technocrats appears - the technical intelligentsia.
• Private division of labor within industries. Entire sectors are being formed “within” industry, agriculture and other large areas of activity.
  For example, in industry there was a separation of light and heavy industry.
• Single - directly at the enterprise. For example, allocation at the enterprise of departments.

All forms of division of labor are interconnected. "Under the pressure" of the social division of labor, in each major field of activity there was a separation of industries, which led to the separation of departments and departments at enterprises.

Many factors influence the division of labor. It:

• Technical progress. Under its influence, new tools of labor appear, the use of which leads to the release of new types of materials and energy;
• Automation and mechanization of production. This leads to a change in the structure of entire industries. Within the enterprise, changes occur in technological processes and in vocational training frames.
  Improvement of technologies in individual industries. This leads to a change in the tools of labor in production.

The social division of labor includes specialization and cooperation.
Specialization is the division of labor within an entire industry. At the same time, each participant labor process performs a separate labor function. This is one of the basic conditions for the existence of a modern market economy.
Cooperation is an association of specialized performers in the course of labor activity.

There are several forms of cooperation:

• within the enterprise;
• within the industry;
• within society.

Specialization and cooperation lead to the fact that people tend to get narrow knowledge in any particular field of science, focus on one occupation.
Consequences of this:

• increase in production efficiency;
• most effective use available resources;
• effective use of their knowledge, skills and abilities;
• merging several industries into one production process for the efficiency of labor activity. This leads to the "branching" of completely new industries and technologically new production processes.

The development of technological progress strongly influences the division of labor, the allocation of new specialties and the cooperation of existing ones. With the improvement of technology to replace manual labor machine labor came, and the worker turned into a highly qualified specialist.

The division of labor (or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in the economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a particular good. Thanks to the operation of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can get much more benefits than if everyone would provide himself with everything he needs.

The division of labor involves the specialization of individual performers in the performance of a certain part. joint work which cannot be carried out without a clear coordination of actions individual workers or their groups.

The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative features. The division of labor on a qualitative basis involves the separation of types of work according to their complexity. Such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. The division of labor on a quantitative basis ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The totality of these features largely determines the organization of labor as a whole.

Ensuring a rational division of labor in the enterprise within the framework of one or another labor collective(team, site, workshop, enterprise) is one of the important areas for improving the organization of labor. The choice of forms of division largely determines the layout and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing, payment and provision of favorable conditions. working conditions. The division of labor in the enterprise, in the workshop determines the quantitative and qualitative proportions between certain types labor, selection and placement of workers in the production process, their training and advanced training.

Properly chosen forms of division of labor and its cooperation make it possible to ensure the rational loading of workers, clear coordination and synchronism in their work, reduce time losses and equipment downtime. Ultimately, the magnitude of labor costs per unit of output and, consequently, the level of labor productivity depend on the forms of division of labor. This is the economic essence of a rational division of labor.

The division of labor in society has three types: general, particular, individual.

General division of labor is a division on the scale of the whole society into such large areas as production and non-production, industrial, agricultural, construction, transport, trade, scientific, government controlled etc.

Private division of labor there is a deepening of the process of isolation of labor within each sphere and industry into separate specialized sub-sectors and enterprises and organizations.

Single division of labor means the separation of various types of work within the enterprise:

First, within its structural divisions(workshop, section, brigade, department);

Secondly, between professional groups of workers, within groups - between workers of different qualifications;

Thirdly, the operational division of the labor process, which can deepen to individual labor methods.

The individual division of labor is subdivided into forms: technological, functional, vocational.

Technological division of labor based on the separation of works on the basis of their technological homogeneity, can be enlarged and element-wise, depending on the type of production.

There are four types of technological division of labor: substantive, detailed, operational, by type of work.

In the substantive division of labor, the performer is assigned the performance of work associated with the manufacture of the finished product. (Used in a single production).

The detailed division of labor consists in assigning to the workers the manufacture of the finished part of the product - the part.

Operational division of labor is used when the process of manufacturing a part within a given phase is divided into separate operations, each of which is performed by a separate performer. Used in mass production.

Technological division by type of work is used when the above types are not suitable, for example, welding, painting.

Based on the technological division of labor, the work performed, functions, i.e. the functional division of labor is defined.

Functional division of labor reflects the separation of individual groups of workers depending on the production functions they perform.

The following groups are distinguished: employees, workers, junior service staff, students, security.

Employees - are divided into managers, specialists, other employees (technical performers). Workers are divided into main, engaged in the production of basic products, and auxiliary, performing work on maintenance of production.

Organizational structure enterprise management is determined by the functional division of labor, ensuring the implementation of the main technological function, serving the technological function, managerial function.

Vocational and qualification division of labor consists in the division of workers by profession and specialty and represents the distribution of work, depending on their complexity, between workers of different qualification groups.

A profession is a kind of activity (occupation) of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training.

Specialty - the specialization of an employee within the profession.

The skill level of workers is established on the basis of assigning them qualification categories. The level of qualification of managers and specialists is determined by the positions they hold. Categories are established for specialists.

The division of labor has positive and negative aspects. His economic importance due to an increase in labor productivity, the rapid development of professions, and low costs of creating jobs. From a social and physiological standpoint, the consequences of the division of labor can be narrow specialization, impoverishment of the content of labor, monotony, monotony of labor, and fatigue.

Designing the division of labor in enterprises by making optimal organizational decisions is very effective and is one of the most promising areas for improving the organization of labor.

The most important conditions for the efficiency of the division of labor are: a sufficiently large volume of production and high level his specialization; enough a large number of technological equipment; correspondence between the number of operations and jobs; fragmentation of operations and work should not reach such an extent that the savings in time on the main operations are absorbed by the increased time spent on auxiliary and transport.