Types of division of labor. Social division of labor

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on age, sex, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on the performance of a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the very system of various types of labor activity is becoming more and more complex, since the labor process itself is becoming more complex and deepening.

division of labor(or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in the economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the operation of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can get much more benefits than if everyone would provide himself with everything he needs.

They also distinguish between the division of labor in a broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense division of labor- this is a system of different in their characteristics and at the same time interacting with each other types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, sectoral economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described economic geography. To determine the correlation of various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term "distribution of labor".

In a narrow sense division of labor- this is the social division of labor as a human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transient social relationship. The specialization of labor is the division of the types of labor according to the object, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of development of nature by man and grows along with his development. However, in class formations, specialization does not take place as a specialization of integral activities, since it is itself influenced by the social division of labor. The last dismembers human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the character of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as a person. These partial functions lack their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as requirements imposed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. Such is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the separation of material production, science, art, etc., as separate spheres, as well as the division themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows to a class division.

Due to the fact that the members of society began to specialize in the production of certain goods, professions- individual activities associated with the production of a good.

But the division of labor does not at all mean that in our imaginary society one person will be engaged in one kind of production. It may turn out that several people will have to engage in a particular type of production, or so that one person will be engaged in the production of several goods.

Why? It's all about the ratio of the size of the population's need for a particular benefit and the productivity of a particular profession. If one fisherman can catch in a day just enough fish for all members of the society, then there will be just one fisherman on this farm. But if one hunter from the mentioned tribe cannot shoot quails for everyone and his work will not be enough to satisfy the needs of all members of the economy in quails, then several people will go hunting at once. Or, for example, if one potter can produce so many pots that society cannot consume, then he will have extra time that he can use to produce some other good, such as spoons or plates.

Thus, the degree of "division" of labor depends on the size of society. For a certain population size (that is, for a certain composition and size of needs), there is its own optimal structure occupations in which the product produced by different manufacturers, will be just enough for all members, and all products will be produced at the lowest possible cost. With an increase in the population, this optimal structure of occupations will change, the number of producers of those goods that have already been produced by an individual will increase, and those types of production that were previously entrusted to one person will be entrusted to different people.

In the history of the economy, the process of division of labor went through several stages, differing in the degree of specialization of individual members of society in the production of a particular good.

The division of labor is usually divided into several types, depending on the characteristics by which it is carried out.

Natural division of labor: the process of separating the types of labor activity according to gender and age.

Technical division of labor: determined by the nature of the means of production used, primarily machinery and technology.

Social division of labor: the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors, under the influence of which there is an isolation, differentiation of various types of labor activity.

In addition, the social division of labor includes 2 more subspecies: sectoral and territorial. Sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the conditions of production, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the product being manufactured. Territorial division of labor- this is the spatial distribution of various types of labor activity. Its development is predetermined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors.

Under geographical division of labor we understand the spatial form of the social division of labor. A necessary condition for the geographical division of labor is that different countries (or regions) work for each other, that the result of labor is transported from one place to another, so that there is a gap between the place of production and the place of consumption.

In the conditions of a commodity society, the geographical division of labor necessarily implies the transfer of products from economy to economy, i.e. exchange, trade, but under these conditions, exchange is only a sign for "recognizing" the presence of a geographical division of labor, but not its "essence".

There are 3 forms of social division of labor:

The general division of labor is characterized by the isolation large births(areas) of activity that differ from each other by the shaping of the product.

The private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within the framework of large branches of production.

The individual division of labor characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations.

Differentiation consists in the process of separating individual industries, due to the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used.

Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of focusing efforts on a narrow range of manufactured products.

Universalization is the opposite of specialization. It is based on the release and implementation a wide range goods and services.

Diversification is the expansion of the range of products.

The first and main statement put forward by A. Smith, which determines the greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor and a significant share of the art, skill and ingenuity with which it (progress) is directed and applied, is a consequence of the division of labor. The division of labor is the most important and unacceptable condition for the progress in the development of productive forces, the development of the economy of any state, any society. A. Smith gives the simplest example of the action of the division of labor in small and large enterprises (manufactory in contemporary society) - the elementary production of pins. A worker who is not trained in this industry and who does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of machines was given precisely by the division of labor) can hardly make one pin a day. With the organization that exists in such production, it is necessary to subdivide the profession into a number of specialties, each of which is a separate occupation. One worker pulls the wire, the other straightens it, the third cuts it, the fourth sharpens the end, the fifth grinds it to fit the head, the manufacture of which requires two or three more independent operations, in addition, its nozzle, polishing the pin itself, packaging finished products. Thus, labor in the production of pins is divided into a multi-stage series of operations, and, depending on the organization of production and the size of the enterprise, they can be performed individually (one worker - one operation), or combined into 2 - 3 (one worker - 2 - 3 operations). ). Using this simplest example, A. Smith affirms the undoubted priority of such a division of labor over the labor of a lone worker. 10 workers worked out 48,000 pins a day, while one is capable of 20 pieces at a high voltage. The division of labor in any trade, no matter how much it is introduced, causes an increase in the productivity of labor. Further development (up to the present day) of production in any sector of the economy was the clearest confirmation of the "discovery" of A. Smith.

Plan

1. Division of labor: types, types and forms

2. Commodity production

3. Barter and commodity circulation

1. Division of labor - this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

Types of division of labor:

1. natural;

2. technical;

3. public.

Natural division of labor- there is a segregation of labor by sex and age. This division of labor is called natural because its character flows from the very nature of man, from the delimitation of the functions that each of us has to perform due to our physical, intellectual and spiritual merits.

Technical division of labor- this is such a differentiation of the labor activity of people, which is predetermined by the very nature of the means of production used, primarily technically and technologically.

For example, when the sewing machine replaced the needle, a different organization of labor was required, as a result of which a significant mass of people engaged in this type of activity was released. As a result, they were forced to look for other areas of application of their labor. Here, the very replacement of a hand tool by a mechanism required changes in the existing system of division of labor.

The social division of labor represents the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors (costs, prices, profits, method, supply, taxes, etc.), under the influence of which the separation, differentiation of various types of labor activity takes place. This type division of labor is predetermined by the socio-economic conditions of production. For example, a farmer, having certain land plots, is engaged in both crop production and animal husbandry. However, economic calculations suggest that if some of them specialize mainly in the cultivation and preparation of feed, while others are engaged only in fattening animals, then production costs will be significantly reduced for both.

Sectoral division of labor- is determined by the conditions of production, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the product being manufactured.

Territorial division of labor- characterized by the spatial distribution of various types of labor activity.

Varieties of the territorial division of labor are district, regional and international division of labor. Neither sectoral nor territorial division of labor can exist outside of each other.

Types of division of labor:

1. general;

2. private;

3. singular.

General division of labor- characterized by the isolation of large genera (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the shaping of the product.

It includes the separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, handicrafts from agriculture, and the separation of trade from industry.

Private division of labor- this is the process of isolation of individual industries within the framework of large types of production.

The private division of labor includes both individual industries and sub-sectors and individual industries. For example, within the framework of industry, such industries as mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and mining can be named, which in turn include a number of sub-sectors.

Single division of labor- characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations.

The unit division of labor includes the detailed, node-by-node and operational division of labor. This division of labor, as a rule, takes place within individual enterprises.

Forms of division of labor:

1. differentiation;

2. specialization;

3. universalization;

4. diversification.

Differentiation consists in the process of isolation, "branching" of individual industries, due to the specifics of the means of production used, technology, and there. In other words, it is a process of dismemberment social production for all new activities.

For example, before the commodity producer was engaged not only in the production of any goods, but also in their sale. Now he has focused all his attention on the production of goods, while their implementation is carried out by another, completely independent economic entity.

Specialization It is based on differentiation, but it develops already on the basis of focusing efforts on a narrow range of manufactured products.

For example, a commodity producer produced various types of furniture, but later decided to concentrate on the production of only bedroom sets, the manufacturer did not abandon the production of furniture, but reorganizes production based on the replacement of universal tools with specialized ones.

Universalization is the opposite of specialization. It is based on the production or sale of a wide range of goods and services.

An example is the production of all types and types of furniture and even the production of kitchen utensils, cutlery at one enterprise.

Diversification- under this form of division of labor should be understood the expansion of the range of products.

This is achieved in two ways:

1st - market diversification - it is characterized by the expansion of the range of manufactured goods, which are already produced by other enterprises.

2nd way - production diversification, which is directly related to scientific and technological progress, with the advent of qualitatively new goods and technologies. Within the framework of industrial diversification, one should distinguish between: technological, detailed and product diversification.

Article on division of labor rewritten 23.12.2017 as for , which constitutes the economic part of science. The term division of labor is ambiguous, since it can mean both the division of the daily time of one person into separate periods for the production of different products, and can be used in relation to whole production, in which there was a division of production into separate operations, each of which is performed by a separate person.

The phenomenon of division of labor

1.2. The phenomenon of division of labor people are the same division of activities, which is inherent in most types of living beings. If we decide to find out - why did the division of labor appear in animals? then we will find the answer in general systems theory, in which one " law of necessary variety ” states that interaction is possible only if the elements have a variety, and the other “ law of hierarchical compensations » argues that interaction within the boundaries of the system is more efficient if the elements have specialization.

1.3. In animal systems, diversity can be achieved by the appearance different forms bodies in representatives of the same species (we look at the communities of ants or bees), but in evolution, diversity of behavior was more often used to increase the effectiveness of interaction. Therefore, when animals form a certain system (herd, flock, marriage pair), their interaction is determined by the difference in behavior. Therefore, we can safely answer the question about the emergence of a division of labor- this division of activity people inherited from their ancestors animals. The division of activity itself is only an expression of the diversity that each element of the system must have in order to effectively interact with other elements.

1.4. The increase in efficiency from participation in the division of labor system, which means an increase in the range and volume of consumption, is the answer to the question: why do people live together in communities? . Of course, people were not pioneers, and division of labor between people have a legacy of the animal past, since (more precisely, activity) is common in animals. There are extreme examples in Nature, for example, bees or ants, in which the division of labor has gone through a change in body shapes into several classes among representatives of the same species. People have only gender differences, and although statistically males are larger than females, a feature of people is that they do not take into account the conformity of the body shape to the nature of work. The thing is that a special evolutionary path of people, when their body evolved into a manipulator with tools, and since an object of any shape could become such a tool, then - into a manipulator universal. Therefore, each person, due to the fact that his body is a universal manipulator, has the opportunity to integrate into any link in the technological chain in which people produce the vast majority of products.

2.2. The frequently used division of labor is ambiguous. Sometimes by it they mean the system of division of labor as a category, sometimes - an act when a certain previously unified is divided into different types labor, and sometimes - the historical process of deepening the division of labor.

2.3. Therefore, in itself, this term (without clarifications) tries to use it to a minimum, only where its specific one is clear from the context.

To readers who division of labor theme interested in a professional level - I recommend the video:

In addition, I suggest dictionary, so the left column is articles from and the right column is orthodox terminology.

THE PROBLEM OF THE DIVISION OF LABOR

3.1. According to the format of the article as a criticism of the orthodox ideas about the division of labor I posted a typical article at the end about types of division of labor, but first I will make a few remarks about the difference in ideas about the concept of division of labor in and neoconomics.

3.2. Firstly, in neoconomics, the real economy can be represented as a combination of many, to which and only the concept can be applied. division of labor, while orthodox economic theory considers everything as homogeneous systems with equal degree of division of labor. After Adam Smith - no one in economic theory and did not look at the economy as a system of division of labor.

3.3. Secondly, due to the historicity in neoconomics - the first economy is the economy that serves perfect example reproductive circuit. Therefore, in neoconomics there is an understanding that the division of labor system is limited by the number of inhabitants, because without people it is impossible to deepen the division of labor - they simply may not be enough for new operations. In orthodoxy, on the other hand, they proceed from the "Robinson model", when new economic entities land on the island, as a prototype of the economy - i.e. "Robinsons" who, for unknown reasons (reasonableness?), are included in the division of labor, from which the conclusion is drawn - the possibility of an infinite growth of the division of labor system. In Rosa Luxemburg's dispute with Lenin about the limited growth of the market and, accordingly, the division of labor, Western economic theory took the side of Lenin, who believed that capitalism itself creates markets without restrictions. This provision reinforced the thesis about the eternity of capitalism, but as a result, in economics (similarly in Marxism) they cannot understand the cause of the current crisis, as the impossibility further growth world division of labor.

Division of labor Wikipedia

3.5. The fact that modern economics considers concept of division of labor too trivial and self-explanatory - you can see by the scarcity of the article division of labor on wikipedia from where I got the following definition of the division of labor:

3.6. Division of labor (also Labor union (???)) - a historically established process of people performing their specialized activities in general for all cases, accompanied by isolation, modification, consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which proceeds in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

3.7. It's easy to understand what it is definition of the division of labor is complex and slurred, so I instead of an article Division of labor Wikipedia posted the text of a good essay. However, for all the development of the theme of the division of labor, it remained a kind of third-party insert, although he also drew attention to a large the importance of the division of labor in economics.

Adam Smith on the division of labor

4.1. It so happened historically that all economic theories did not notice the "Elephant", which is. The founder of political economy set such a descriptive trend in relation to when he wrote in his book:

4.2. “The greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor, and a considerable share of the art, skill and ingenuity with which it is directed and applied, appeared, apparently , a consequence of the division of labor"

4.3. This Smith clause: - « apparently ", rather testified to the honesty of the great economist, who himself, apparently, did not consider himself an expert, therefore, to reinforce his assertion -" The greatest progress ... was the result of the division of labor ”- devoted THREE chapters in the book, as evidenced by their titles:

• Chapter I "On the division of labor"
• Chapter II "On the Cause of the Division of Labor"
• Chapter III "The division of labor is limited by the size of the market"

5.3. The fact is that the national economy was the subject of study of classical political economy, therefore, when comparing, the first economists were struck by difference natural resources at the countries. When transferring the fact that countries have different natural advantages to Robinson's model of economics- thought that the emergence of a division of labor among humans can be explained by limited resources. Like, one subject has a certain set of natural resources, and the other has a different set, then in order to produce something they need to be exchanged. This idea was developed by David Ricardo, thanks to whom division of labor problems shifted to the plane of natural advantages. Moreover, the raw factor to explain causes of the social division of labor seemed clearer even to Karl Marx, so Marxist political economy considered division of labor issue fully resolved in David Ricardo's Theory of Comparative Advantage.

5.4. Understanding the division of labor could not fall into the focus of classical political economy, since the object of research was initially social ties that are formed under the influence of socio-economic phenomena, which especially prevailed in Marxist political economy, which became the pinnacle of classics. Moreover, at present, the entire ideology of international organizations, among which, is based on the ideas of Ricardo and Adam Smith about natural advantages. recommend that developing countries find some advantages in themselves, on the basis of which specialization should be carried out, which should certainly bring countries to a high position in the world division of labor.

5.5. Actually, the vague political economy definition of division of labor adopted neoclassical economic theory, which at the end of the 19th century was created as anti Marxism, as the theory of class struggle gained great popularity. However, about what division of labor connected not with the benefit of specialization, but with natural factors, could not be accepted by neoclassicism, for the reason that the subject of its study was not the economy, but the individual.

5.6. Therefore, aiming to refute the Marxist theory of the class struggle, bourgeois political economy also adopted division of labor as a given, which does not require explanation. By that time, it was familiar to everyone without any explanation. Indeed, everyone understood it as a continuation of the sex-age division of labor, and even more - the division of activities characteristic of many species of animals.

The concept of division of labor

Ideas about the division of labor

6.2. The process of deepening the division of labor was of little interest to Marxist political economy and (micro-macro), which do not go beyond the time frame of capitalist relations and were noticeably politicized, as they opposed in their basic postulates about the finiteness of capitalism. All political economy came out of the concept of surplus value that the capitalist appropriates, which gave rise to the theory of the class struggle, and, which appeared as the antipode of Marxism, today has degenerated into the counter theory - what and how to put on the shelves in order to sell faster.

6.2. Ideas about the division of labor in modern economic theory come from popular model, which is called the "Robinson model". Western economists imagine the economy as an island where certain subjects (Robinsons) land and begin to interact with each other, which implies a certain variety of products they produce. By the way, in neoconomics, the "Robinson model" is also used as an example of the closedness of the reproductive circuit, but due to historicity, it is understood that in reality - the first economy (circuit) was the economy of the TRIBE, with about a hundred members. But in bourgeois economic theory there is no link to the real units of humanity, and therefore the systems of separation in economics can be of any degree of fantasy. As a result of this approach - there are ideas that the division of labor increases the market, and vice versa - the division of labor system has no restrictions on the number of people on the planet (for example, Lenin's arguments against Rosa Luxemburg - "capitalism itself creates markets").

6.4. Depth of the division of labor, taken as a factor, immediately made it possible to study and forecast the results of interaction between the economies of different countries, which act as a set of contours. Therefore, it has become a new level of economic knowledge.

6.5. Actually division of labor theme disclosed in thousands of articles, for example, in mine, however, how economics studies speculative theoretical or, otherwise, abstract concepts. Therefore, this article can be read only for general educational purposes, and entrance to neoconomics begins with an understanding of new terms - speculative as chain of division of labor in the production of a commodity, which is applied to a new speculative object in the economy named .

As a preparation, I recommend readers the book Fundamentals of Economics, author Storcheva M.A. (edited by P.A. Vatnik. St. Petersburg: School of Economics, 1999. 432p.)

According to the format of the article, further I had to lay out a typical definition of the division of labor, which I usually take from Wikipedia (Wikipedia division of labor), but Wikipedia division of labor article is much inferior to the abstract that I found on the page Forms, the essence and meaning of the division of labor on the site of abstracts bibliofond.ru.

Forms, essence and meaning of the division of labor

• Introduction
• 1 Forms of labor organization
• 1.1 Division of labor: concept and general characteristics
• 1.2 Forms of division of labor
• 2 The Importance of the Division of Labor
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

In the production of the necessary means of subsistence, people act on nature. Production, therefore, is the relation of people to nature. However, influencing nature, they have a corresponding effect on each other, entering into a certain relationship. Those relations that are conditioned by the requirements of economic practice are usually called industrial, that is, economic relations. At the center of any production process is work. Samo production can be characterized as a system of labor processes necessary for the production of a given kind of material goods or services provided by individuals or organizations.

Even the most primitive work of primitive man always proceeded with support, interaction with other people. Therefore, the social content of labor activity was already hidden in this. All this suggests that the process of labor and labor itself is an economic category, i.e. it always contains an element of economic, industrial relations. A person is a social being due to the fact that labor makes him organically soldered in relation to other people not only of the present, but also of the past (when the experience of predecessors is adopted) and the future, when his results of labor will serve in the future. considers the production and reproduction of material and other goods necessary for the life of the human race. The disclosure of these questions requires the identification of general or specific laws governing the production relations of people. The relations of production include the relations of people in the process of production, exchange, distribution, consumption and accumulation of material goods. The totality of these relationships is single system economic relations, within which the normal process of life of any economic system is possible. All the material needs of society can be divided into two classes: in the process of production, interaction occurs not only with the means of production, but also with their colleagues, colleagues in joint work, and joint work has its economic significance, since it allows the exchange of not only activities, but also exchange of experience, skills, will to achieve the tasks set for the workers.

The labor of an individual worker, no matter how isolated it may seem, is a particle of total social labor. This is facilitated not only by the production technology itself, but also by constant, not only human, but also industrial training of participants in production, since the joint production and productive activities of people are carried out in the form cooperation and division of labor. This applies not only to the labor process itself, but also to the very organization of the interaction of various forms of ownership and types of economic systems. Samo division of labor It consists in the specialization of an employee for the implementation of any work, operations, production of a particular product.

Forms of labor organization

1.1. Division of labor:concept and general characteristics

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - division of labor between people based on age, sex, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on the performance of a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

Definition of division of labor

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. Division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the very system of various types of labor activity is becoming more and more complex, since the labor process itself is becoming more complex and deepening.

division of labor(or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in the economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a particular good. Thanks to the operation of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can get much more benefits than if everyone would provide himself with everything he needs.

Division of labor Wikipedia describes in the following words:

Division of labor- the historically established process of isolation, modification, consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

They also distinguish between the division of labor in a broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense, the division of labor- these are different in their characteristics and at the same time interacting with each other types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, sectoral economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the correlation of various production functions in terms of their real result, K. Marx preferred to use the term " distribution of labor».

Exist division of labor within society and division of labor within the enterprise. These two main types are interrelated and interdependent. Division of social production on its large genera (such as agriculture, industry, etc.) K. Marx called general division of labor, the division of these types of production into types and subspecies (for example, industry into separate branches) - by private division and, finally, within the enterprise - by individual division.

General, private and single division of labor- are inseparable from the professional, specialization of workers. The term division of labor is also used to denote the specialization of production within one country and between countries - international and territorial division of labor.

In a narrow sense, the division of labor- This social division of labor as a human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transient social relation. Labor specialization is division of labor on the subject, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of development of nature by man and grows along with his development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it is itself influenced by social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as a person. These partial functions lack their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as requirements imposed on them from the outside division of labor system. Such is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), performing and managing labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. The expression social division of labor is the singling out as separate spheres of material production, science, art, etc., as well as the division of them themselves.

Division of labor historically inevitably grows to a class division.

Due to the fact that the members of society began to specialize in the production of certain goods, professions- individual activities associated with the production of a good. The variety of goods in which specialization took place created horizontal division of labor with the singling out of individual branches of production of related goods, in which further fragmentation continued into smaller, highly specialized production operations. Horizontal division of labor occurs with the advent of a new type of product, but inside it naturally appears associated with the division of movement from the extraction of raw materials to final production and consumption into dedicated production operations.

Thus, an important element of the organization of work is division of labor, i.e. separation of types of labor activity between employees, teams and other divisions in the enterprise. This is the starting point for the organization of labor, which, based on the goals of production, consists in assigning to each employee and each unit their duties, functions, types of work, and technological operations. The solution of this issue should provide, along with the requirement for the most rational use of working time and the qualifications of the worker, such specialization of him that the content of labor is preserved, its monotony is not allowed, and the harmonization of physical and mental stress is ensured.

1.2 Forms of division of labor

There are the following forms of division of labor at enterprises:

• functional division of labor- depending on the nature of the functions performed by employees in production and their participation in the production process. On this basis, workers are divided into workers (main and auxiliary) and employees. Employees are divided into managers (linear and functional), specialists (designers, technologists, suppliers) and technical performers. In turn, workers can form functional groups of the main workers, service workers and auxiliary workers. Among the latter, groups of repair and transport workers, quality controllers, energy service workers, etc. stand out. Functional division of labor It manifests itself in two directions: between the categories of workers that are part of the personnel of the enterprise, and between the main and auxiliary workers. The first means the allocation in the composition of the personnel of enterprises of such categories of workers as workers, managers, specialists and employees. A characteristic trend in the development of this division of labor is the increase in the proportion of specialists in the production staff. Another direction of the functional division of labor is the division of workers into main and auxiliary. The first of them are directly involved in changing the shape and condition of the processed objects of labor, for example, workers in foundries, mechanical and assembly shops of machine-building enterprises, engaged in the performance of technological operations for the manufacture of basic products. The latter do not directly participate in the implementation of the technological process, but create the necessary conditions for the smooth and efficient operation of essential workers. Classification of operations corresponding requirements of the division of labor between managers, specialists and employees (three interrelated groups): 1) organizational and administrative functions - their content is determined by the purpose of the operation and the role in the management process. Performed mainly by managers; 2) analytical and constructive functions are predominantly creative, contain elements of novelty and are performed by specialists; 3) information technology functions are repetitive and associated with the use technical means. Performed by employees;
• technological division of labor- this is the division and isolation of the production process according to the subject or operational principle. Due to the development of scientific and technological progress and the deepening division of industries into sub-sectors and micro-sectors specializing in the manufacture of technologically homogeneous products, the production of certain items, goods or services; types of technological division of labor are: subject and operational division of labor; in this case, the forms of manifestation of the separation of people are: profession (focused on the final product) and specialty (limited to an intermediate product or service). Substantive division of labor(detailed), i.e. specialization in the production of individual products, provides for the assignment to the worker of a complex of various operations aimed at manufacturing a certain type of product. Operational division of labor- is based on assigning a limited set of technological operations to specialized jobs and is the basis for the formation of production lines. Technological division of labor classified by phases, types of work, products, assemblies, parts, technological operations. It determines the placement of workers in accordance with the technology of production and to a large extent affects the level of content of labor. At narrow specialization monotony appears in the work, with too broad specialization, the likelihood of poor-quality performance of work increases. The responsible task of the labor organizer is to find the optimal level of technological division of labor;
• - according to specialties and professions. Reflects the production and technological side and the functional content of labor. As a result professional division of labor there is a process of separation of professions, and within them - the allocation of specialties. It is also in relationship with social structure society, because closely related to its social division. Based on this form of division of labor, the required number of workers of various professions is established. Profession- the type of activity of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training. Specialty - a kind of profession, specialization of an employee within the profession; (As determined Profession Wikipedia look at the link profession)
• qualification division of labor- within each professional group, associated with the unequal complexity of the work performed and, consequently, with different requirements for the skill level of the employee, i.e. division of labor of performers depending on the complexity, accuracy and responsibility of the work performed in accordance with professional knowledge and work experience. Expression qualification division of labor serves the distribution of work and workers by category, employees - by position. It is regulated by tariff-qualification reference books. The qualification structure of the organization's personnel is formed from the qualification division of labor. Division of labor here it is carried out according to the level of qualification of workers, based on the required qualification of work.

There are also three forms social division of labor:

• characterized by the isolation of large genera (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product (agriculture, industry, etc.);
• private division of labor- this is the process of separating individual industries within the framework of large types of production, divided into types and subspecies (construction, metallurgy, machine tool building, animal husbandry);
• single division of labor characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations, i.e. the separation of various types of work within the organization, enterprise, within its certain structural divisions (workshop, section, department, management, team), as well as the distribution of work between individual workers.

2 . The essence and significance of the division of labor

For solving issues of division of labor use the concepts the boundaries of the division of labor" and " level of division of labor". The boundaries of the division of labor- lower and upper limits, below and above which the division of labor is unacceptable. Level of division of labor- the accepted calculated or actually achieved value characterizing the state of the division of labor.

With the division and cooperation of labor, the question is solved: who will do what, how and with whom he will interact. For the organization of highly productive labor, it is also necessary to solve the following question: how, in what way work should be done.

As an example, consider a branch of industry in which the division of labor was very often noted, namely pin production. A worker who is not trained in this production (the division of labor made the latter a special profession) and who does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of the latter was probably also given by this division of labor) can hardly, perhaps, with all his diligence make one pin a day and, in any case, will not make twenty pins. But with the organization that this production now has, it as a whole not only represents a special profession, but is also subdivided into a number of specialties, each of which, in turn, is a separate special occupation. One worker pulls the wire, another straightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth sharpens the end, a fifth grinds one end to fit the head; the manufacture of the head itself requires two or three independent operations; its nozzle is a special operation, the polishing of a pin is another; an independent operation is even wrapping finished pins in bags. Thus the complex labor of making pins is divided into about eighteen independent operations, which in some manufactories are all performed by different workers, while in others the same worker often performs two or three operations.

In every other craft and manufacture consequences of the division of labor similar to those described in this production, although in many of them labor cannot be so divided and reduced to such simple operations. However division of labor in any trade, in whatever size it may be introduced, causes a corresponding increase in the productivity of labour. Apparently, the separation from each other of various professions and occupations was caused by this advantage. At the same time, this distinction usually goes further in countries that have reached a higher stage of industrial development: what in the wild state of society is the work of one person, in a more developed society is done by several. In every developed society the farmer is usually only concerned with farming, the owner of the manufacture is busy only with his manufacture. The labor necessary for the production of some finished object is also almost always distributed among a large number of people. How many different trades are employed in every branch of linen or cloth production, from those who grow flax and sheep, supplying wool, and ending with those who are engaged in bleaching and polishing linen, or dyeing and finishing cloth.

It is true that agriculture, by its very nature (as an exception, having seasonality from climatic conditions) does not allow such a diverse division of labor, nor such a complete separation from each other of various works, as is possible in manufacture.

It is impossible to completely separate the occupation of the pastoralist from the occupation of the cultivator, as is usually the case with the professions of carpentry and blacksmithing.

The spinner and the weaver are almost always two different persons, while the laborer who plows, harrows, sows and reaps is often the same person. In view of the fact that these various kinds of labor must be performed at different times of the year, it is not possible that an individual worker should be constantly employed in each of them throughout the year. The impossibility of so completely separating out all the various kinds of labor practiced in agriculture is perhaps the reason why the increase in the productivity of labor in this field does not always correspond to its increase in industry.

Such a significant increase in the amount of work that can be done as a result division of labor the same number of workers depends on three different conditions: first, from increased agility each individual worker; Secondly, from saving time, which is usually lost in the transition from one type of labor to another; third, from invention a large number machines, facilitating and reducing labor and allowing one person to do the work of several.

This is achieved by establishing rational methods and methods of labor. Of course, the way work is done is largely determined by technology, but each technological operation can be performed in different ways: with a greater or lesser number of movements, more or less skillfully, with the expenditure of a different amount of time and physiological energy. Establishing a method the most economical performing each action, reception, operation, each work is the responsible task of the labor organizer. It involves the analysis and development of all parts of the labor process, including all calculations and construction, and coordination of movements, the choice of a comfortable working posture, the way to own a tool and control machines and mechanisms, rest time, downtime, etc.

It should be noted that division of labor, meaning the simultaneous coexistence of various types of labor activity, plays an important role in the development of the organization of production and labor:

• firstly, the division of labor is a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;
• Secondly, division of labor
• third, division of labor

But division of labor as a process of specialization of workers cannot be regarded only as a narrowing of the scope of human activity by performing more and more limited functions and production operations.

Division of labor is a multilateral, complex process that, changing its forms, reflects the operation of the objective law of the change of labor: the socio-economic law of social production, expressing objective, essential, continuously growing and expanding links between revolutionary changes in the technical basis of production, on the one hand, and functions workers and social combinations of the labor process - on the other. The accelerating mobility of labor functions is an immutable requirement of this law. In the context of requirements, we are talking about the universality of the labor force, its flexibility, versatility, adaptability as a condition for its ability to change labor. The main reasons causing the need for a change in labor are revolutions in the technical basis of production. Firstly, by changing the technique, technology and organization of production, they lead to the disappearance of certain professions and the emergence of new ones, associated with the use of more advanced technology. high level. Secondly, by creating more progressive branches of production, revolutions in the technical basis drastically change the proportions in the balance of the labor force, which leads to a change in its professional and qualification structure. If at the first stages of the development of large-scale industry during the labor activity of one generation, changes in the professional structure were hardly perceptible in order to discern a trend towards a change in labor, then at the present stage, one generation has a need to change profession two or three or more times. The nature of large-scale industry is constantly revolutionizing division of labor within society and continuously throws masses of capital and masses of workers from one branch to another. Therefore, the nature of large-scale industry determines the change of labor, the movement of functions, the all-round mobility of the worker.

Revolutionization of the division of labor entails radical changes in its content, and the latter creates the prerequisites for the emergence of new sectors of the economy and new professions. The change of labor can be carried out in time, in space, and also in time and space simultaneously. When considering the change of labor over time, it is necessary to distinguish between complete switching from one type of work to another, carried out over large intervals of time, and the alternation of various types of activity. The change of labor in space is connected with the management of complexes automatic systems involving a variety of types of work. In domestic production, it manifests itself in three main forms: the change of labor within the boundaries of a given profession; transition from one type of work to another; a combination of the main work with various types of activities on a voluntary basis. The variety of forms of manifestation of the law directly depends on the degree of development of scientific and technological progress.

It is important to note that when division of labor in enterprises not only the growth of labor productivity should be taken into account, but also the conditions for the comprehensive development of workers, the elimination of the negative impact of the production environment on the human body and the increase in the attractiveness of work. Degree of division of labor largely depends on the specific conditions of the enterprise: belonging to the industry, type and scale of production, level of mechanization, automation, output volume and specifics of products, etc.

The Importance of the Division of Labor is an:

• a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;
• allows you to organize sequential and simultaneous processing of the object of labor in all phases of production;
• contributes to the specialization of production processes and the improvement of the labor skills of the employees participating in them.

The unit of division of labor is the production operation., which is understood as part of the labor process performed by one or a group of workers at one workplace, on one subject of labor. A change in at least one of these signs means the completion of one operation and the beginning of another. Manufacturing operation, in turn, consists of techniques, labor actions and movements.

labor movement represents a single movement of the arms, legs, body of the worker in the process of labor (for example, reach out to the workpiece).

labor action- this is a set of labor movements that are performed continuously and have a particular purpose (for example, the labor action “take a workpiece” consists of the movements “reach out to the workpiece”, “grab it with your fingers” performed sequentially and continuously).

Labor reception is a set of labor actions united by one purpose and representing a completed elementary work.

The boundaries of the division of labor(ignoring them may adversely affect the organization and production results) obviously coincide with the beginning and end labor reception in a manufacturing operation:

1. division of labor should not lead to a decrease in the efficiency of the use of working time and equipment;
2. it should not be accompanied by depersonalization and irresponsibility in the organization of production;
3. division of labor should not be excessively fractional, so as not to complicate the design and organization of production processes and labor rationing, and also not to reduce the qualifications of workers, not to deprive labor of content, not to make it monotonous and tedious.

The monotony of labor is a very serious negative factor that manifests itself in the process of deepening the division of labor in production.

Means against monotony can serve as a periodic change of jobs, the elimination of the monotony of labor movements, the introduction of variable work rhythms, regulated breaks for outdoor activities, etc.

Tasks of the division of labor:

• growth in labor productivity;
• comprehensive development of employees;
• elimination of the negative impact of the production environment on the human body;
• increasing the attractiveness of work.

Degree of division of labor largely depends on the specific conditions of the enterprise: belonging to the industry of production, type and scale of production, level of mechanization, automation, output volume and specifics of products, etc. The degree of division of labor depends on the number of production operations necessary for the production of goods using a specific technology.

Conclusion

Exactly division of labor caused the separation from each other of various professions and occupations, which primarily contributed to an increase in productivity, and the higher the stage of the country's industrial development, the further such a separation goes. What in the savage state of society is the work of one person, in a more developed state it is done by several. , necessary for the production of some finished item always distributed among a large number of people.

Division of labor, speaking in various types and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development of commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on its individual types forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain the benefits they lack.

Bibliography

1. Bychin B.V., Malinin S.V., Shubenkova E.V., Organization and regulation of labor. Textbook for universities - Moscow, 2003
2. Razorvin I.V., Mitin A.N., ECONOMICS OF LABOR, Educational and methodological complex, - Yekaterinburg, 2003
3. Karl Kautsky. "The economic doctrine of Karl Marx" - Moscow, 2007
4. A. Smith "Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations", Moscow, 1999
5. Yandex dictionary http://slovari.yandex.ru/
6. 6. World Economic Forum http://business.polbu.ru/fomichev_inttrading/ch10_xiv.html

In fact, in Marxism division of labor problem(see Division of Labor Great Soviet Encyclopedia) is revealed more declaratively as the cause of technological progress, while the main emphasis is on productivity. Samo concept of division of labor is not difficult and studied in detail, but I draw the reader's attention to the fact, what depth of division of labor or as it is called in the article - degree of division of labor- has never been used by anyone to characterize the economy.

So when I took level of division of labor AS A FACTOR, then he was perplexed - how did it happen that hundreds of years before him no one guessed to compare economies according to such a characteristic as the degree of division of labor. Now, in real economies, it has become possible to single out separate ones - locally closed in the territories or around the production of one product, to which Grigoriev gave the name - neoconomics

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on age, sex, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on the performance of a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

The division of labor is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the very system of various types of labor activity is becoming more and more complex, since the labor process itself is becoming more complex and deepening.

The division of labor (or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in the economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a particular good. Thanks to the operation of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can get much more benefits than if everyone would provide himself with everything he needs.

They also distinguish between the division of labor in a broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense, the division of labor is a system of different in their characteristics and simultaneously interacting with each other types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economic sciences, demography, etc. Territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the correlation of various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term "distribution of labor".

In a narrow sense, the division of labor is the social division of labor as a human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transient social relationship. The specialization of labor is the division of the types of labor according to the object, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of development of nature by man and grows along with his development. However, in class formations, specialization does not take place as a specialization of integral activities, since it is itself influenced by the social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as a person. These partial functions lack their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as requirements imposed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. Such is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), performing and managing labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the singling out as separate spheres of material production, science, art, etc., as well as the division of them themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows to a class division.

Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of certain goods, professions appeared in society - separate types of activities associated with the production of any good.

Under the division of labor in the organization is understood the differentiation of the activities of people in the process of joint work.

The division of labor involves the specialization of individual performers in the performance of a certain part. joint work which cannot be carried out without a clear coordination of actions individual workers or their groups.

The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative features. Division of labor according to quality The feature involves the separation of types of work according to their complexity. Such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. Division of labor according to quantitative The characteristic ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The totality of these features largely determines the organization of labor as a whole.

Ensuring a rational division of labor at an enterprise within the framework of a particular labor collective (team, section, workshop, enterprise) is one of the important areas for improving the organization of labor. The choice of forms of separation largely determines the layout and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing, payment and the provision of favorable production conditions. The division of labor in an enterprise, in a shop determines the quantitative and qualitative proportions between individual types of labor, the selection and placement of workers in the production process, their training and advanced training.

Properly chosen forms of division of labor and its cooperation make it possible to ensure the rational loading of workers, clear coordination and synchronism in their work, reduce time losses and equipment downtime. Ultimately, the magnitude of labor costs per unit of output and, consequently, the level of labor productivity depend on the forms of division of labor. This is the economic essence of a rational division of labor.

At the same time, the role of the social aspect of the scientifically substantiated division of labor is great. Right choice forms of division of labor contributes to an increase in the content of labor, which ensures the satisfaction of workers with their work, the development of collectivism and interchangeability, increased responsibility for the results of collective labor, strengthening labor discipline.

In enterprises, the following types of division of labor are distinguished: technological, functional, professional and qualification.

Technological the division of labor involves the separation of groups of workers on the basis of their performance of technologically homogeneous work in separate phases, types of work and operations (at machine-building and metalworking enterprises - foundry, forging, machining, assembly and other work; at mining enterprises - mining and preparation and cleaning work; at enterprises of the worsted production of the textile industry - scutching, loosening, carding, tape, roving, spinning, twisting, winding, sizing, weaving and other works). Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, for example, assembly, depending on the degree of fragmentation of labor processes, there are operational, detailed and substantive division of labor.

The technological division of labor largely determines the functional, professional and qualification division of labor in the enterprise. It allows you to establish the need for workers by profession and specialty, the level of specialization of their work.

functional the division of labor differs in the role of individual groups of workers in the production process. On this basis, first of all, two large groups of workers are distinguished - the main and service (auxiliary). Each of these groups is divided into functional subgroups (for example, a group of service workers - into subgroups employed in repair, adjustment, instrumental, loading and unloading, etc.).

Ensuring at enterprises the correct ratio of the number of main and auxiliary workers on the basis of a rational functional division of their labor, a significant improvement in the organization of labor of service workers are important reserves for increasing labor productivity in industry.

Professional the division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of workers and involves the performance of work at the workplace in a particular profession (specialty). Based on the volume of each type of these works, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession for the site, workshop, production, enterprise and association as a whole.

Qualifying the division of labor is determined by varying complexity, requiring a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. For each profession, the composition of operations or work of varying degrees of complexity is established, which are grouped according to the assigned working wage categories.

The process of improving the division of labor must be continuous, taking into account the constantly changing conditions of production, contributing to the achievement best performance production activity.

The development of measures to improve the division of labor is usually preceded by a quantitative assessment of the division of labor. For this, the coefficient of division of labor is calculated ( Cr.t), recommended by the Research Institute of Labor. It characterizes the degree of specialization of workers and is calculated taking into account the time they spent on performing functions that correspond to their qualifications and provided for by production assignments, according to the formula

To r.t =1 - /t cm *np (1)

where - the time spent on performing functions not provided for by the tariff-qualification guide for workers in this profession, min;

Time spent on performing functions not provided for by the technological documentation, min;

tcm - shift duration, min;

np- total (list) number of workers at the enterprise people;

The total loss of working time in the enterprise associated with downtime for technical and organizational reasons, as well as violations of labor discipline.

It can be seen from the above formula that the less the time spent on performing an operation (works) that is not provided for by the tariff-qualification guide, standardization or technological documentation, the greater the numerical value of the coefficient and, therefore, the more rational the division of labor with its accepted cooperation.

In the conditions of any enterprise, there are opportunities for choosing the most rational forms of division of labor. In each case, the choice should be made on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the specifics of production, the nature of the work performed, the requirements for their quality, the degree of workload of workers and a number of other factors.

In modern conditions, increasing the efficiency of labor by improving its division should be carried out on the basis of a wider combination of professions, expanding the scope of multi-machine (multi-aggregate) services, and further developing the collective (team) form of organizing the work of workers.

The search for and introduction of new forms of division of labor require their obligatory experimental verification. Only in practice can one finally establish the effectiveness of one form or another of the division of labor, to identify both its positive and negative sides.

The main direction of improving the division of labor is the choice of its best option for each specific area, taking into account economic, technical, technological, psychophysiological and social requirements.

The main economic requirement for the optimal division of labor is to ensure the output of products in given volumes and High Quality at the lowest labor, material and financial costs.

Technical and technological requirements provide for the performance of each element of the work by the appropriate contractor on this equipment during the established working hours. These requirements decisively determine the technological, functional, professional and qualification division of labor.

Psychophysiological requirements are aimed at preventing workers from overworking due to heavy physical exertion, nervous tension, impoverishment of the content of work, monotony or physical inactivity (insufficient physical activity), which often leads to premature fatigue and a decrease in labor productivity.

Social requirements imply the presence of creative elements in the composition of works, an increase in the content and attractiveness of work.

These requirements, as a rule, are not met by a single organizational solution, so it becomes necessary to choose one option for the division of labor. The complexity of this task lies in its diversity, in the choice of criteria for determining boundaries, the multivariance of methods for the division of labor in various types enterprises.

It is known that as a result of the division of labor, specialization of workers occurs, which, on the one hand, ensures a reduction in labor costs, and on the other hand, can impoverish its content, lead to an increase in monotony (after a certain limit) and a decrease in productivity. An increase in the load of performers does not always mean an increase in the time of productive operation of the equipment; an inverse relationship is also possible.

With the establishment of more intense time standards, the required number of performers decreases, but the likelihood of a decrease in the quality of work increases. The provision of creative elements as part of the operations performed is often associated with additional time spent per unit of output, however, it increases the content and attractiveness of the work, reduces staff turnover, etc.

The choice of the most optimal solution must balance the action various factors and ensure the most efficient achievement of the production goal. For this, it is sometimes necessary to conduct special experiments and studies using mathematical methods and computer technology (to select the best option). However, the economic and social effect of these works should significantly cover the costs of their implementation.

Designing the division of labor in enterprises by making optimal organizational decisions is very effective and is one of the most promising areas for improving the organization of labor.

The division of labor is the most important factors production, which largely determines the forms of labor organization.

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on age, sex, physical, physiological and other characteristics. But man was able to take a qualitative step forward and move from the natural division of functions to the division of labor, which became the basis of the economy and socio-economic progress. The mechanism of economic cooperation of people assumes that some group or individual focuses on the performance of a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

The concept of "division of labor"

If you pay attention to the isolation of the types of activities that are performed by each member of society, then you can see that all people are isolated from each other in one way or another by the nature of their occupations, activities, functions performed. This isolation is the division of labor. Consequently, the division of labor is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which takes place in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

Now we know that in our lives we are doomed to perform only certain types of activities, while in the aggregate they represent a “borderless sea” for the free choice of the method and direction of our “swimming”. But are we really so free if our activity is narrowly focused? Why does it happen that, performing only a rather narrow and specific type of activity, we have all the necessary benefits that are in no way connected or are connected very conditionally with our work activity? After some reflection, one can come to the conclusion that people have everything (or almost everything) they need only because they exchange the results of their labor activity.

The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the very system of various types of labor activity is becoming more and more complex, since the labor process itself is becoming more complex and deepening.

Concentrating efforts on the manufacture of any one thing and exchanging the products of his labor for the products of the labor of other people, a person soon discovered: this saves him time and effort, since the productivity of labor of all participants in the exchange of goods increases. And therefore, the mechanism of expanding and deepening the division of labor, launched in ancient times, is still working properly to this day, helping people to use the available resources in the most rational way and receive the greatest benefit.

The isolation of various types of labor activity creates conditions for each participant in the production process to achieve high skill in his chosen business, which ensures a further improvement in the quality of manufactured products and an increase in their output.

Productivity and labor intensity

It can be concluded that a commodity is a product of labor intended for exchange in order to satisfy social needs, i.e. the needs of not the commodity producer himself, but of any member of society. As already noted, any commodity has an exchange value, or the ability to exchange in a certain proportion for other goods. However, all goods enter into exchange only because they can satisfy this or that need. This is the value of the acquired good by one or another economic entity.

Barter and commodity circulation

Initially, people entered into a simple commodity exchange, or such exchange relations in which the sale and purchase of goods coincided in time and took place without the participation of money. The form of such commodity exchange has next view: T (goods) - T (goods). As a result of the development of commodity exchange, more and more opportunities opened up for the isolation of types of activity, because the guarantee of obtaining the missing goods or products, from the production of which the commodity producer deliberately refused, increased. In the process of development of commodity relations, commodity exchange underwent significant transformations until it was replaced by commodity circulation, which is based on money - a universal purchasing tool that has the ability to exchange for any product.

With the advent of money, exchange was divided into two opposite and complementary acts: sale and purchase. This created the conditions for the intermediary merchant to join in the exchange. As a result, a new major division of labor took place (earlier there was a separation of hunting from agriculture, then handicrafts from agriculture) - the separation of trade into a special large type of economic activity. Thus, commodity circulation is an exchange relationship that is mediated by a monetary equivalent. It has the following form: T (goods) - D (money) - T (goods).

Types of division of labor

For a general idea of ​​the system of division of labor, we will give a description of its various types.

Natural division of labor

Historically, the natural division of labor was the first to appear. The natural division of labor is the process of separating the types of labor activity according to gender and age. This division of labor played a decisive role at the dawn of the formation of human society: between men and women, between adolescents, adults and the elderly.

This division of labor is called natural because its character stems from the very nature of man, from the delimitation of the functions that each of us has to perform due to our physical, intellectual and spiritual merits. We must not forget that initially each of us is most naturally adapted to perform certain types of activities. Or, as the philosopher Grigory Skovoroda said, the "affinity" of each person to a certain type of activity. So whatever kind of division of labor we consider, we must remember that visibly or invisibly, the natural division of labor is always present in it. The natural moment manifests itself with the greatest force in the search for ways, forms and methods of self-realization by each person, which often leads not only to a change of place of work, but also a change in the type of work activity. However, this, in turn, depends on the availability of freedom of choice of labor activity, which is predetermined not only by the personal factor, but also by the economic, social, cultural, spiritual and political conditions of human life and society.

No socio-economic system, no matter how advanced it may be, can or should abandon the natural division of labor, especially with regard to women's work. It cannot be associated with those types of labor activity that can harm a woman's health and affect a new generation of people. Otherwise, the society will suffer in the future not only colossal economic, but also moral and moral losses, deterioration of the genetic fund of the nation.

Technical division of labor

Another kind of division of labor is its technical division. The technical division of labor is such a differentiation of the labor activity of people, which is predetermined by the very nature of the means of production used, primarily equipment and technology. Consider an elementary example illustrating the development of this type of division of labor. When a person had a simple needle and thread for sewing, this tool imposed a certain system of labor organization and required a large number employed workers. When the sewing machine replaced the needle, a different organization of labor was required, as a result of which a significant mass of people engaged in this type of activity was released. As a result, they were forced to look for other areas of application of their labor. Here, the very replacement of a hand tool (needle) by a mechanism (sewing machine) required changes in the existing system of division of labor.

Consequently, the emergence of new types of equipment, technologies, raw materials, materials and their use in the production process dictates a new division of labor. Just as the natural division of labor is initially imposed by the very nature of man, so the technical division of labor is imposed by the very nature of the emerging new technical means, the means of production.

Social division of labor

Finally, it is necessary to dwell on the social division of labor, which is the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors (costs, prices, profits, demand, supply, taxes, etc.), under the influence of which isolation, differentiation of various types of labor activity. The concept of social division of labor includes the natural and technical division of labor due to the fact that any kind of activity cannot be carried out outside of a person (natural division of labor) and outside the material and technical means (technical division of labor) that are used by people in the production process. In production activities, people use either outdated or new technology, but in either case it will impose a corresponding system of technical division of labor.

As for the social division of labor, we can say that it is predetermined by the socio-economic conditions of production. For example, farmers, having certain land plots, are engaged in both crop production and animal husbandry. However, accumulated experience and economic calculations suggest that if some of them specialize mainly in the cultivation and preparation of feed, while others are engaged only in fattening animals, then production costs will be significantly reduced for both. Over time, it turns out that savings on production costs can be achieved through a separate occupation of meat and dairy farming. Thus, there is a separation of crop production from animal husbandry, and then, within animal husbandry, there is a division of labor into meat and dairy areas.

Historically, the division of labor between livestock and crop production initially proceeded under the direct influence of natural and climatic conditions. The difference in them just ensured lower costs in both cases. Both sectors benefited from sharing their results. It should be noted that in the conditions of market relations the division of labor is decisively predetermined economic feasibility, obtaining additional benefits, income, cost reduction, etc.

Sectoral and territorial division of labor

Within the framework of the social division of labor, it is necessary to single out the sectoral and territorial division of labor. The sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the conditions of production, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the product being manufactured. The territorial division of labor is characterized by the spatial distribution of various types of labor activity. Its development is predetermined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors. With the development of productive forces, transport, and communications, economic factors play a predominant role. However, the development of extractive industries and agriculture is dictated by natural factors. Varieties of the territorial division of labor are the regional, regional and international division of labor. But neither sectoral nor territorial division of labor can exist outside of each other.

General, private and individual division of labor

From the point of view of coverage, degree of independence, as well as technical, technological, organizational and economic relationships between different types of production in the social division of labor, it is important to distinguish three of its forms: general, private and individual. The general division of labor is characterized by the separation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product. It includes the allocation of pastoral tribes, i.e. separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, crafts from agriculture (later - industry and agriculture), separation of trade from industry. In the XX century. there was a separation and isolation of such large types of activity as services, scientific production, public utilities, agro-industrial complex, credit and financial sphere.

The private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within the framework of large branches of production. It is characterized by the release of finished homogeneous or similar products, united by technical and technological unity. The private division of labor includes both individual industries and sub-sectors and individual industries. For example, within the framework of industry, such industries as mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and mining can be named, which in turn include a number of sub-sectors. Thus, in mechanical engineering, there are more than seventy sub-sectors and industries, including such as machine tool building, transport engineering, electrical engineering, and electronics. Such a separation is also characteristic of all the other major types of production listed above.

The individual division of labor characterizes the isolation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the allocation of individual technological operations. It includes sub-detailed, node-by-unit (production of parts, assemblies, components) and operational (technological operations for physical, electrophysical, electrochemical processing) division of labor. A single division of labor, as a rule, takes place within individual enterprises.

Historically, the trend in the development of the social division of labor was determined by the transition from the general division to the particular and from the particular to the individual division of labor. In this regard, we can say that in its development the social division of labor went through three stages, each of which was determined by the general division of labor, then the private, then the individual. However, apparently, it is not necessary to absolutize this scheme of development of the social division of labor. It will be shown below that each subsequent type of division of labor can become the initial basis for the development of the historically preceding types of its division.

Forms of manifestation of the division of labor

The forms of manifestation of the social division of labor include differentiation, specialization, universalization and diversification.

Differentiation

Differentiation consists in the process of isolation, "branching" of individual industries, due to the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used. In other words, it is a process of dividing social production into more and more new types of activity. For example, before the commodity producer was engaged not only in the production of any goods, but also in their sale. Now he has focused all his attention on the production of goods, while their implementation is carried out by another, completely independent economic entity. Thus, a single economic activity was differentiated into two of its varieties, each of which functionally already existed within this unity.

Specialization

Specialization should be distinguished from differentiation. Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of focusing efforts on a narrow range of manufactured products. Specialization, as it were, consolidates and deepens the process of differentiation. In the above example, there was a separation of production from sales (trade). Suppose a commodity producer produced various types of furniture, but later decided to concentrate his efforts on the production of only bedroom sets. The commodity producer has not abandoned the production of furniture, but is reorganizing production on the basis of replacing universal labor tools with specialized ones; the workforce is also selected on the basis of the benefits of experience and knowledge in the specific area of ​​activity. Of course, there are many conventions and transitional states, but it is still necessary to distinguish between these two concepts - differentiation and specialization.

Universalization

Universalization is the opposite of specialization. It is based on the production or sale of a wide range of goods and services. An example is the production of all types and types of furniture and even the production of kitchen utensils, cutlery at one enterprise. An analogue of such production in trade can serve as a department store.

As for the concentration of production, it finds its technical manifestation in the ever-increasing concentration of the means of production (machinery, equipment, people, raw materials) and labor within one enterprise. However, the direction of development of production depends on the nature of their concentration: whether it will follow the path of universalization, or - specialization. This is due to the degree of homogeneity of technology and applied technologies and raw materials, and hence the workforce.

Diversification

Diversification of production deserves special attention. Diversification should be understood as the expansion of the range of products. This is achieved in two ways. The first is market diversification. It is characterized by the expansion of the range of manufactured goods, which are already produced by other enterprises. At the same time, quite often the process of such diversification is accompanied by absorption or mergers with enterprises that produce the same products. The main thing is that in this case, as a rule, there is no enrichment of the range of goods offered to the buyer.

The second way is production diversification, which is directly related to scientific and technological progress (STP), with the emergence of qualitatively new goods and technologies. This type Diversification, unlike market diversification, creates and satisfies previously non-existing needs or satisfies existing needs with a new product or service. As a rule, production diversification is closely interconnected with the existing production at a given enterprise and grows organically from it.

Within the framework of industrial diversification, one should distinguish between technological, detailed and product diversification. Product diversification is developing on a large scale. So, with the help of the same technological operations, parts, assemblies, components, it is possible to assemble finished products and products that are very diverse in their functional purpose. But this becomes possible only under the conditions of expanding the process of diversification of the production of constituent components of finished products. It was production diversification, as a result of scientific and technical progress, that led to a change in the development trends of the general, private and individual division of labor.

Modern trends in the development of the division of labor

Structural and technological commonality of products

So, let's consider the current trends in the development of the social division of labor. First of all, we note that under the influence of scientific and technical progress, the constructive and technological commonality of the types of products produced, primarily assemblies, parts, and components, is increasingly manifested. Thus, about 60-75% of modern equipment and vehicles consist of similar or identical components and parts. This is a consequence of detailed and technological diversification.

The diversification of social production could not but affect sectoral differentiation. In conditions of unprecedented pace of product diversification, the principle of sectoral differentiation came into conflict with the tendencies of the social division of labor and the requirements of scientific and technological progress.

The growing constructive and technological commonality of the ever-increasing mass of various types of products gives rise to a complex and contradictory process of real isolation of the production of finished products and their constituent components. The fact is that many types of products of the same economic branch are structurally incompatible with each other in terms of units, assemblies, parts and components, while products from other industries have a lot of structurally common elements with them. For example, there is nothing in common between cars and trucks, except for the principles of their functioning and the names of components and parts, while the latter have a lot of identical components with products of the corresponding class of equipment for road construction, tractor, agricultural engineering.

The development of a single division into a private one

The modern production of component products, apparently, is at that stage of its development, at which their production has gone beyond the scope of individual enterprises and has already reached isolation into separate industries. The exit of a single division of labor beyond the boundaries of the enterprise is necessarily and objectively associated with the development of another trend - the development of a single division of labor into a private one. As long as the dedicated specialized production of component products remains closely connected with one final product, one can speak, albeit with certain, and sometimes significant deviations, of a single division of labor. When such production closes on itself a complex of technical, technological, organizational, economic ties for the production of a number of final products, then it acquires an independent, equal, and sometimes predetermining significance in relation to the choice of directions for the development of industries that produce finished products.

The development of detailed and technological specialization of production within society creates the basis for the transition from simple cooperation (based on the division of labor by kind, type, type of product) to complex, based on the combination of detailed and technologically highly specialized industries within industrial complexes, rather than individual enterprises, associations . With the growth of separate industries for the production of units, parts, components and the identification of their constructive and technological commonality, the integration of identical industries occurs. This leads to the formation of independent industries and industries for the production of intersectoral products.

The economic content of these processes lies in the fact that the rigid attachment of the constituent component to a certain type of finished product indicates the prevailing role of the use value of the partial product and, on the contrary, the use of the partial product in a wide range of products indicates the leading role of value. It can be said that the more use value dominates exchange, the wider the scale of the individual division of labor, the more often and more urgently exchange value manifests itself, the more obvious is the development of the particular division of labor. Therefore, with the development of a single division of labor into a private one, an increasing part of partial products acquires an independent value as a commodity, which indicates a new stage in the development of commodity production, market relations.

The growing role of the private division of labor in the process of further development industrial production manifests itself, on the one hand, in the formation of intersectoral industries for the production of structurally and technologically related semi-products, and on the other hand, in the integration of related, but separate industries and industries into industrial complexes.

Private division of labor as the basis of its general division

The considered trend of a private division of labor, of course, does not exclude its development in the traditional way - within the framework of the division of labor. At the same time, various types of labor activity, arising, transforming and separating, thereby create the basis for the formation of new large types of economic activity. Such new formations include public utilities, the agro-industrial complex (AIC), infrastructure, and scientific production. These new large spheres of social production were formed on a qualitatively new basis - through the integration of individual industries, i.e. on the basis of a private division of labor. Thus, the agro-industrial complex was formed on the basis of industries serving agriculture and agricultural production. Utilities integrated into itself heat supply, energy supply, gas facilities. Consequently, what is currently happening is not the “growth” of a particular division of labor from the general one, but, on the contrary, the formation of a general division of labor on the basis of the particular one.

Having considered various aspects of the division of labor, I would like to draw attention to the fact that the more extensive and deeper the division of labor, the more developed the productive forces of society. A. Smith called the division of labor the leading force in economic development. It personifies the social productive force that arises from the form of labor organization and production management. Sometimes this productive force costs society little, but gives a huge return, expressed in the growth of social labor productivity.

Trends in the development of the division of labor as a universal form of the existence of social production make it possible to determine the most important directions for improving economic relations. Consequently, economic relations represent a social shell for the existence and development of the division of labor. Any changes in the system of division of labor immediately affect the system of relations between economic entities: between some of them, economic ties cease, while between others, on the contrary, they arise. So, the social division of labor and its socialization reflect both the material and technical (productive forces) and socio-economic (production relations) aspects of social production.

Socialization of labor and production

The expansion and deepening of the division of labor presuppose the mutual conditioning and predetermination of separate types of activity and make it impossible for them to exist without each other. In this regard, we can conclude that with the process of deepening and expanding the division of labor, the process of its socialization is simultaneously unfolding. The socialization of labor is the process of drawing various types of labor activity, connected either by the exchange of directly labor activity, or by its results or products, into a single social labor process.

The considered types, types of division of labor and forms of their implementation, as well as the trends of its development, mark the process of unification of disparate spheres and subjects of economic activity into a single socialized production process. In the course of technical and socio-economic progress, various types of activities are combined, because most of the modern benefits are the result of the activities of a mass of people, some of whom are engaged in the production of individual parts, others - components, others - units, fourths - components, fifths - the implementation of individual technical operations, the sixth - assembly and assembly of finished products. The merging of fragmented production processes of various branches and spheres of the national economy into a single social production process is called the socialization of production.

The socialization of production is a contradictory unity of the socialization of labor and the means of production, which lies in the very process of labor, which presupposes both one form or another of the interaction of the total labor force, and one or another socialized form of the functioning of the means of production. Therefore, they can complement each other or develop in opposite directions, entering into conflict.

At the same time, in the relations of the socialization of the means of production, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: the socialization of the means of production as a factor of production, i.e. as the material and material content of the process of socialization, and as an object of property relations. Therefore, in the socialization of the means of production, it is necessary to see both a material factor and socio-economic relations.

The division of labor, its socialization and the socialization of the means of production are closely interconnected and complement each other. The relationship between them is mobile to the extent that the very material and technical base of social production is changeable, i.e. productive forces, the division and socialization of labor, and to what extent the forms of property are able to evolve in the direction of the socialization of the means of production in accordance with the requirements of the development of the productive forces.

As in the case of the technical division of labor, the very nature of the means of production used changes both the principle and the extent of their interaction, as well as interaction with labor force. Therefore, the socialization of the means of production as productive forces does not depend on the social form of management.

However, it is necessary to realize that the means of production can function outside economic relations, the dominant property relations, and therefore the socialization of the means of production as productive forces is influenced by public form their functioning.

So, before the advent of machine production, individual property, individual capital, was dominant, which then, thanks to its own accumulation, moved to manufacturing production (manufactory division of labor). However, the appearance of machines and their use in production opened the way to a qualitatively new division of labor and the socialization of production on the basis of the unification of isolated capitals into social capital in the form of joint-stock companies. Despite the private nature of this corporate form of ownership, in its way of functioning it acts as an integrated social force, as social capital. Thus, private capital, unable to ensure the appropriate division of labor and the socialization of production, was forced to transform into a social form.

Understanding the process of socialization of the means of production in its material, technical and social aspects in unity with the socialization of labor allows, as a first approximation, to consider the dynamics of social production. The first impetus in its development comes from the productive forces, but its real transformation (as well as economic utilization, the functioning of new productive forces) begins to take place only with the onset of changes in the system of economic relations.

Production loses its private character and becomes a social process due to the absolute dependence of producers on each other, when the means of production, even if they are the property of individuals, appear as public ones by virtue of their relation to production. In the same way, labor in individual enterprises turns out to be really socialized within the framework of a single production process. In this regard, I would like to draw attention to the following aspects of the socialization of the means of production and labor as components of a single process of socialization of production.

The socialization of the means of production can proceed in the following forms. First, by concentrating capital, i.e. increasing its size through the accumulation of investment in the production of part of the profits.

Secondly, on the basis of the centralization of capital, i.e. its growth through the absorption of weak competitors or the merger of relatively equivalent capital into a single entity. The processes of takeovers and mergers lead to the formation of oligopolistic and monopoly capital, which cannot function outside state supervision, and under certain conditions it can be expected to be nationalized.

However, a much larger scale of the real socialization of the means of production is represented by corporate capital with its system of participation in the financial control of branches, branches, subsidiaries and grandchildren, associated enterprises, as well as tens of thousands of "independent" enterprises, which turn out to be tightly tied technologically, technically, organizationally, economically to corporate capital by a system of agreements on scientific, technical and industrial cooperation. This whole set of seemingly legally independent enterprises functions as a single whole, as social capital in a single corporate reproduction process.

At the same time, far from any socialization of the means of production, the growth of capital embodies the socialization of labor and production. Formally, there may be an appearance of socialization of the means of production and labor, while they function in completely unrelated industries. This can also be observed within the framework of corporate capital, when it acts as a conglomerate, i.e. associations of diverse industries and services, which are disparate types of economic activity. Here there is no cooperation of labor between the individual links of production, and the exchange of results of economic activity.

It is necessary to distinguish between direct (direct) and indirect (indirect) socialization of labor. Wherein importance It has cooperation, which can be realized in the form of a direct exchange of labor activity within a separate economic unit (enterprise) and in the form of an exchange of the results of labor activity based on the implementation of production cooperation in the manufacture of certain types of products or by-products. In the latter case, the labor of employees of individual enterprises acts as a part of the labor of the total workers participating in cooperation in the manufacture of certain products. As a result, the labor of all participants in production acquires the social character of the total worker in a given area of ​​production. Under the conditions of scientific and technical progress, a huge number of enterprises are drawn into a single intersectoral production process on the basis of truly cooperative labor, even if the latter is mediated by commodity-money relations.

Thus, the need for a constant exchange of the fruits of specialized labor predetermines the cooperative nature of relations in the sphere of production of goods and services. Production cooperation is the combination of separated production operations or separate releases of units and parts necessary for the manufacture of final products into a single production process.

findings

1. The division of labor is the historical process of separating various types of labor activity into independent or interrelated productions, while the socialization of labor is aimed at drawing various types of labor activity directly or indirectly by exchange into a single social production process.

2. There are three types of division of labor: natural, technical and social. The natural division of labor is predetermined by the separation of labor activity according to gender and age, the technical division of labor is determined by the nature of the equipment and technology used, the social division of labor is determined by the nature of economic relations expressed in prices and costs, supply and demand, etc.

3. Within the framework of the social division of labor, it is necessary to distinguish between individual, private and general division of labor. The first characterizes the division of labor within the enterprise, the second - within individual industries, the third - within the boundaries of large areas of social production.

4. Forms of manifestation of the division of labor are differentiation, specialization, universalization and diversification. Differentiation expresses any process of isolation of certain types of production activity. Specialization expresses a type of differentiation characterized by the concentration of means of production and labor on the production of a narrow range of products, while universalization, on the contrary, is accompanied by a concentration of means of production and labor in order to produce a wide range of products. Diversification refers to the expansion of the range of products produced by an enterprise.

5. The division of labor, speaking in various types and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development of commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on its individual types forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain what they lack. good.