Literary and national languages. Literary language and national language

Forms of language existence. Literary language. Stylistic resources of the Russian literary language Functional styles.

Literary language- the highest (exemplary and processed) form of the national language. According to its cultural and social status, the literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons, and slang. The literary language is formed in the process of language development, therefore it is a historical category. Literary language is the language of culture, it takes shape at a high level of its development. Literary works are created in the literary language, and cultured people also speak. Borrowed words, jargon, clichés, stationery, etc. clog the language. Therefore, there is a codification (creation of norms) that creates order and preserves the purity of the language, showing a pattern. Norms are enshrined in the dictionaries of the modern Russian language and grammar reference books. The modern Russian literary language is at a high stage of its development, as developed language it has an extensive style system.

The process of formation and development of the national literary language is characterized by a tendency to expand its social base, the convergence of book-written and folk colloquial styles. It is no coincidence that the Russian literary language in the broadest sense is defined in time from A.S. Pushkin to the present day: it was A.S. Pushkin who brought the colloquial and literary language closer together, placing the language of the people as the basis for various styles of literary speech. I. S. Turgenev, in a speech about Pushkin, pointed out that Pushkin "one had to perform two works, in other countries separated by a whole century or more, namely: to establish a language and create literature." Here it should be noted the enormous influence that, in general, outstanding writers have on the formation of the national literary language. A significant contribution to the formation of the English literary language was made by W. Shakespeare, Ukrainian by T. G. Shevchenko, etc. The work of N. M. Karamzin became important for the development of the Russian literary language, about which, in particular, A. S. Pushkin spoke. According to him, this glorious Russian historian and writer "turned it (language) to the living sources of the people's word." On the whole, all Russian classical writers (N. V. Gogol, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, and others) participated to one degree or another in the development of the modern Russian literary language.

The literary language is usually the national language. It is based on some pre-existing form of the language, usually a dialect. The formation of a literary language during the formation of a nation usually occurs on the basis of one of the dialects - the dialect of the main political, economic, cultural, administrative, religious center of the country. This dialect is a synthesis of various dialects (urban koine). For example, the Russian literary language developed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Sometimes a supra-dialect formation becomes the basis of the literary language, for example, the language of the royal court, as in France. The Russian literary language had several sources, among them we note the Church Slavonic language, the Moscow command language (the business state language of Moscow Russia), dialects (especially the Moscow dialect), and the languages ​​of great Russian writers. The significance of the Church Slavonic language in the formation of the Russian literary language was noted by many historians and linguists, in particular, L. V. Shcherba in the article “The Modern Russian Literary Language” said: “If the Russian literary language had not grown up in an atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then that wonderful poem would have been unthinkable Pushkin's "The Prophet", which we still admire to this day. Speaking about the sources of the modern Russian literary language, it is important to say about the activities of the first teachers Slavic Cyril and Methodius, their creation of Slavic writing, the translation of liturgical books, on which many generations of Russian people were brought up. Initially, our Russian written culture was Christian, the first books in Slavic languages ​​were translations of the Gospel, the Psalter, the Acts of the Apostles, Apocrypha, etc. The Russian literary tradition is based on Orthodox culture, which, undoubtedly, was reflected not only in the works of fiction, but also in the literary language.

“The foundations for the normalization of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov combines in the concept of "Russian language" all varieties of Russian speech - command language, lively oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognizes the forms of the Russian language as the constructive basis of the literary language, at least two (out of three) of its main styles " (Vinogradov V.V. “The main stages in the history of the Russian language”).

The literary language in any state is spread through schools where children are taught in accordance with literary norms. The Church has also played an important role here for many centuries.

Concepts of literary language and language fiction are not identical, because the literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also other implementations of the language: journalism, science, public administration, oratory, and some forms of colloquial speech. The language of fiction in linguistics is considered as a broader concept for the reason that in works of art both literary language forms and elements of territorial and social dialects, jargon, slang, and vernacular can be included.

The main features of the literary language:

The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, the norms are stricter than in dialects), the observance of these norms is obligatory in nature, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of native speakers of a given language;

Striving for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;

The adaptability of the literary language to denote the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind and to the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;

Stylistic wealth, which consists in the abundance of synonymous means that allow you to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

The means of the literary language appeared as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and weighty words and phrases, the most expedient grammatical forms and constructions.

The main difference between the literary language and other varieties of the national language is its rigid normativity.

Let us turn to such varieties of the national language as dialect, vernacular, jargon, slang and slang, and try to identify their features.

Dialect(from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - a kind of a certain language used as communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community. There are territorial and social dialects.

Territorial dialect- part of a single language, its actually existing variety; opposed to other dialects. The territorial dialect has differences in sound structure, grammar, word formation, and vocabulary. These differences may be small (as in Slavic languages), then speakers different dialects people understand each other. The dialects of languages ​​such as German, Chinese, Ukrainian are very different from each other, so communication between people who speak such dialects is difficult or impossible. Examples: pan (Eastern Ukraine) - patent (Western Ukraine); stork names in different parts of Ukraine: Chornoguz , leleka ,boqiong , boqiang and etc.

Territorial dialect is defined as a means of communication for the population of a historically established region with specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects take place. The most active formation of dialects took place in the era of feudalism. With the overcoming of territorial fragmentation, the old territorial boundaries within the state break down, and dialects converge.

AT different eras are changing relationship between dialects and literary language. Monuments of the feudal period, written on the basis of mother tongue, reflect local dialectal features.

Social dialects- languages ​​of certain social groups. For example, professional languages ​​of hunters, fishermen, potters, traders, group jargons or slangs of students, students, athletes, soldiers, etc., which differ from the common language only in vocabulary, secret languages, slang of declassed elements.

Social dialects also include variants of the language of certain economic, caste, religious, etc., that are different from the national language. population groups.

Professionalisms- words and phrases that are characteristic of people of one profession and, unlike terms, are semi-official names of the concepts of this profession. Professionalisms are distinguished by great differentiation in the designation of special concepts, objects, actions associated with a given profession, type of activity. These are, for example, the names of some properties of dogs used by hunters: appellation, politeness, superior flair, viscosity, deep climbing, hospitable, non-auditory, tearing, perek, walking, calliness, toughness etc.

vernacular- folk-spoken language, one of the forms of the national language, which is an oral non-codified (non-normative) sphere of national speech communication. The vernacular has a supra-dialectal character. Unlike dialects and jargons, speech that is generally understandable for native speakers of the national language exists in every language and is communicatively significant for all native speakers of the national language.

Vernacular is opposed to literary language. In vernacular, units of all language levels are represented.

The opposition of the literary language and vernacular can be traced in the area of ​​stress:

percent(space) - percent(lit.),

agreement(space) - contracts(lit.),

Deepen(space) - deepen(lit.),

calls(space) - ringing(lit.),

endpaper(space) - endpaper(lit.), etc.

In the field of pronunciation:

[right now] (space) - [ now] (lit.),

[pshol] (space) - [ pashol] (lit.)

In the field of morphology:

want(space) - want(lit.),

choice(space) - elections(lit.),

travel(space) - drive(lit.),

theirs(space) - them(lit.),

here(space) - here(lit.)

Common speech is characterized by expressively “reduced” evaluative words with a range of shades from familiarity to rudeness, for which there are neutral synonyms in the literary language:

« shy away» – « bump»

« blurt out» – « to tell»

« sleep» – « sleep»

« drape» – « run away»

Vernacular is a historically developed speech system. In Russian, colloquial speech arose on the basis of the Moscow colloquial koine. The formation and development of vernacular is associated with the formation of the Russian national language. The word itself was formed from the one used in the 16th-17th centuries. phrases "simple speech" (the speech of a commoner).

colloquial vocabulary, from one point of view, is an area of ​​illiterate speech, which is entirely outside the literary language and does not represent a single system. Examples: mother, nurse, clothing, cologne, business(with negative value), slimy, ailing, turn around, be angry, from afar, the other day.

From another point of view, colloquial vocabulary is words that have a bright, reduced stylistic coloring. These words make up two groups: 1) everyday vernacular, words included in the literary language and having a reduced (compared to colloquial words) expressive-stylistic coloring. Examples: dunce, carrion, slap in the face, shabby, fat-bellied, sleep, yell, foolishly; 2) rough, vulgar vocabulary (vulgarisms) that is outside the literary language: bastard, bitch, hamlo, mug, foul, slam and etc.

There is also literary vernacular, which serves as the border of the literary language with the colloquial language - a special stylistic layer of words, phraseological units, forms, turns of speech, endowed with a bright expressive coloring of "decrease". The norm of their use is that they are allowed into the literary language with limited stylistic tasks: as a means of social and speech characterization of characters, for the “reduced” characterization of persons, objects, events in the expressive plan. Literary vernacular includes only those speech elements that have become entrenched in the literary language due to their long-term use in literary texts, after a long selection, semantic and stylistic processing. The composition of literary vernacular is mobile and constantly updated, many words and expressions have acquired the status of "colloquial" and even "book", for example: " everything is formed», « whiner», « nerd».

colloquial vocabulary- words that have a slightly reduced (compared to neutral vocabulary) stylistic coloring and are characteristic of the spoken language, i.e. oral form of the literary language, acting in conditions of unconstrained unprepared communication. To colloquial vocabulary carry some nouns with suffixes - Ah, – tai, – Ulya), – un, – w(a), – osh, – yag(a), – yak and etc. ( bearded, lazy, dirty, screamer, conductor, kid, poor fellow, fat man); some adjectives with suffixes - ast–, – at–,

–ovate – ( toothy, hairy, reddish); a number of verbs in - nothing(to be sarcastic, to be fashionable); some verbs with prefixes behind –, on the- and postfix - Xia(to poke around, to look at, to pounce on, to visit); nouns and verbs formed from phrases: stowaway< without a ticket, student's record book < record book, newsletter < be on the ballot, as well as many others. In dictionaries, these words are marked "colloquial". All of them are uncommon in official business and scientific styles.

Jargon- a type of speech used in communication (more often oral) by a separate relatively stable social group that unites people on the basis of their profession (jargon of drivers, programmers), position in society (jargon of the Russian nobility in the 19th century), interests (jargon of philatelists) or age (youth jargon). Jargon differs from the national language in its specific vocabulary and phraseology and the special use of word-formation means. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including disappeared) social groups. Passing from one jargon to another, the words "general fund" can change form and meaning. Examples: " darken» in slang - « hide prey", later -" cunning"(under interrogation), in modern youth jargon -" speak obscure but", " dodge».

The vocabulary of jargon is replenished in different ways:

at the expense borrowings from other languages:

dude- boy (gypsy)

head- bash in Tatar head

shoes- shoes from shoes (English)

ban(computer jargon) - a software ban on the use of a certain Internet resource, imposed by the administrator from English. to ban: banish, exile

din - play computer games from English. game

banging - play computer games from it. spiel

by abbreviations:

basket– basketball

liters– literature

PE- physical Culture

zaruba- foreign literature

disser– dissertation

by rethinking commonly used words:

« rush"- go

« unfasten» - give part of the money

« wheelbarrow"- car

Jargon can be open or closed. According to O. Jespersen, in open groups (youth), jargon is a collective game. In closed groups, jargon is also a signal that distinguishes one from another, and sometimes a means of conspiracy (secret language).

Jargon expressions are quickly replaced by new ones:

50-60s of the twentieth century: money - Tugriks

70s of the twentieth century money - coins, money(s)

80s of the XX century and in this moment – money, green, cabbage and etc.

The vocabulary of jargon penetrates into the literary language through the vernacular and the language of fiction, where it is used as a means of speech characteristics.

Jargon is a means of opposing oneself to the rest of society.

Argo- a special language of a limited social or professional group, consisting of arbitrarily chosen modified elements of one or more natural languages. Argo is used more often as a means of hiding the objects of communication, as well as a means of isolating the group from the rest of society. Argo is considered a means of communication for declassed elements, common among the underworld (thieves' slang, etc.).

The basis of slang is a specific dictionary, widely including foreign language elements (in Russian - gypsy, German, English). Examples:

Fenya- language

feather - knife

tail - shadowing

stand on the lookout, stand on the nix - stand guard at the commission of a crime, warning of impending danger

bucks– dollars, foreign currency

actually- right

sump- a place where pre-sale preparation of a stolen car is carried out

move with your girl- steal a car

box- garage

registration– illegal connection to the car security system

great grandfather - Land Cruiser Prada

work with a horse to transport the loot from the apartment of the owner of the things.

Slang- 1) the same as jargon, slang is more often used in relation to the jargon of English-speaking countries; 2) a set of jargons that make up a layer of colloquial speech, reflecting a familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech. It is used in conditions of easy communication: mura, dregs, blat, buzz.

Elements of slang quickly disappear, being replaced by others, sometimes passing into the literary language, leading to the emergence of semantic and stylistic differences.

The main problems of the modern Russian language in the communicative sphere: obscene vocabulary (foul language), unjustified borrowings, jargon, argotism, vulgarism.

There is a difference between the literary language and the national language. The national language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language. National languages, as a rule, are formed in the era of capitalism.

One can speak about the Russian literary language (see History of the Russian literary language) from the beginning of the 17th century, while it becomes the national language in the first half of the 19th century, in the era of A.S. Pushkin.

In Italy, the literary language made itself known already in the works of Dante, but only in the 2nd half of the 19th century, in the era of the national unification of Italy, did the formation of its national language take place.

The language of fiction includes: dialects, urban vernacular, youth and professional jargon, slang - and all this component Common (national) language.

There are three ways of forming national languages:

1) development of ready-made material;

2) concentration of dialects;

3) "crossing" of dialects and languages.

Dialect - a kind of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by one territory.

it is not a standardized literary language;

its carriers do not have their own state or autonomous entity;

it is not a prestigious form of communication.

A dialect is a territorial variant of a language. A dialect can differ from a literary language at all levels of the language system: phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic. So, for example, some northern dialects of the Russian language are characterized by a rounded pronunciation, the replacement of the sound “Ch” by “Ts” (“tsai” instead of “tea”, “tsyorny” instead of “black”, etc.).

But, of course, most of the differences are in the field of vocabulary. So, in the northern Russian dialects, instead of the common Russian “good”, they say “Basque”, instead of “neighbor” - “scribbler”, etc.

Dialect differences in the Russian language as a whole are very small. A Siberian easily understands a Ryazanian, and a resident of Stavropol - a Northern Russian. But in countries such as Germany or China, the differences between individual dialects can be even greater than the difference between Russian and Polish! Since in such countries communication between people speaking different dialects is very difficult or even completely impossible, the role of a national literary language sharply increases in them. The literary language serves here as a factor uniting the entire population of the country into one people.

Question 88.

Literary languages ​​and jargons

The main feature of the literary language is its normalization. It is no coincidence that the English-speaking peoples use the term "standard language" instead of the term "literary language" - i.e. "standard language".

Another feature of the literary language is the richness of its expressive means, primarily vocabulary. In slang, dialects, vernacular, we can communicate almost exclusively on everyday topics. Cultural, political, scientific terminology in these variants of the language is completely or almost completely absent. In the literary language, we can speak and write on almost any topic. Unlike other variants of the language, the literary language is able to serve not only the domestic sphere, but also the sphere of higher intellectual activity. In other words, the literary language is multifunctional.

Jargon (slang, slang) is social option language. Jargon is the language of some more or less closed social group. There is youth jargon, student jargon, sailor jargon, criminal world jargon, and so on. In some cases, as, for example, in a criminal environment, jargon is used as a secret language, incomprehensible to the uninitiated, in others it is just a language game, a way to make your speech more expressive, unusual. In addition, jargon can serve as a kind of "password": the use of jargon words and expressions by someone in the environment where it is accepted, as it were, signals: "I belong here."

The jargon is different from the national language only vocabulary. There is no special jargon phonetics or grammar. Jargons are present in many, but not all, languages ​​of the world. They are not, for example, in the Belarusian or Altaic language.

Question 89.

Interaction of languages; concept of substratum, superstratum, adstratum.

Usually languages ​​influence each other through the contacts of native speakers, or through the contact of cultures. At the same time, words from one language can be transferred to another. This is accompanied by one or another distortion of words, since each language has its own pronunciation and its own grammar, which is different from other languages. The processes of words flowing from one language to another are quite well observed in life. If we touch on the aspect of the interaction of languages, then language contact proceeds as a speech interaction of people who speak these languages.

And substrate and superstratum - these are elements of the defeated language in the victorious language, but since both the language "on which another language is superimposed" and the language "which is superimposed on another language and itself dissolves in it" can be defeated, we can distinguish between these two phenomena.

Language substratum- the influence of the language of the indigenous population on a foreign language, usually during the transition of the population from the first to the second as a result of conquest, ethnic absorption, cultural dominance, etc. At the same time, the local language tradition breaks off, the people switch to the tradition of another language, but in the new language features of the language of the disappeared. The language, in addition to being associated with a certain articulation base, has too deep roots in the life of the people, is too deeply connected with household skills and traditions. Therefore, the transition from one language to another is a complex and difficult process. No matter how great the subjective desire to master a new language in accuracy and perfection, this desire is not fully realized. Some qualities of the native language in phonetics, vocabulary, semantics, typology are held against the will and consciousness of the speakers and continue to "shine" through the superimposed shell of new speech. As a result, the perceived foreign language acquires a special peculiar character in this environment, different from what it had in the original environment. This phenomenon is called the linguistic substratum.

Superstrat- the influence of the language of the alien population on the language of the indigenous as a result of the conquest, the cultural domination of a certain ethnic minority, which did not have enough critical mass to assimilate the conquered or subordinate indigenous population. At the same time, the local linguistic tradition does not break off, but foreign language influences are felt in it (to varying degrees and at different levels, depending on the duration). Unlike the substratum, the superstratum does not lead to loss of language, but its influence on language development can be very significant. Adstrat- a set of features of the language system, explained as the result of the influence of one language on another in the conditions of long-term coexistence and contacts of peoples who speak these languages. Adstrat, in contrast to the terms substratum and superstratum associated with this concept, means a neutral type of linguistic interaction, in which there is no ethnic assimilation and dissolution of one language into another. Adstratic phenomena form a layer between two independent languages. Sometimes the term "adstrat" ​​is used to refer to mixed bilingualism (multilingualism).

BILINGUALISM- use in the state (in the work of parliament, executive power, other bodies) of two languages ​​that are equal and have the same state status. Exists in Canada, Belgium, Belarus, Finland and some other countries.

Question 90.

Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European single languages.

Indo-European languages is the most widespread language family in the world. Present on all inhabited continents of the Earth, the number of carriers exceeds 2.5 billion.

Origin and history

The languages ​​of the Indo-European family come from a single Proto-Indo-European language, whose speakers lived about 5-6 thousand years ago. There are several hypotheses about the place of origin of the Proto-Indo-European language, in particular, they call such regions as Eastern Europe, Western Asia, the steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia. With a high probability, the ancient Indo-Europeans (or one of their branches) can be considered the so-called "pit culture", the carriers of which in the III millennium BC. e. lived in the east of modern Ukraine and the south of Russia.

Compound

The Indo-European family includes the Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic, Tocharian, Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Anatolian (Hitto-Luvian), Greek, Albanian, and Italic language groups. At the same time, the Anatolian, Tocharian and Italic groups are represented only by dead languages.

There are cases when a family consists of 2-3 languages, or even one. This is lone languages who have no established relatives on earth (such as the Japanese).

isolated language(isolate language) - a language that is not included in any known language family. Thus, in fact, each isolated language forms a separate family, consisting only of this language. The best-known examples include Basque, Burushaski, Sumerian, Nivkh, Elamite, Hadza. Only those languages ​​are said to be isolated for which there is sufficient data and entry into the language family has not been proven for them even after strenuous attempts to do so. Otherwise, such languages ​​are called unclassified.

Pseudo-isolated languages

There are languages ​​that are often (or sometimes) classified as isolates, but for various reasons are not.

Basque, Etruscan, Japanese, Ainu, Korean

Place the stresses on the following words. Make up phrases with them. Vision (ability to see) - vision (ghost).

Vision (the ability to see) - Vision perspective.

Vision (ghost) - vision girl

Arrange the stresses in the following words: alphabet, contract, supper, catalog, quarter, more beautiful, cooking, Ukrainian, August, pamper.

alphabet, agreement, supper, catalogue, quarter, more beautiful, cookery, Ukrainian, august, indulge

Correct the errors in the use of phraseological units.

The music made a strong impression on everyone.

Music made a strong impression on everyone.

Science is of the utmost importance.

Science is of the utmost importance.

The boy liked to let the fog in his eyes, talking about his successes.

The boy liked to splurge, talking about his successes.

Determine the gender of these nouns and abbreviations, motivate your answer. Coffee, Hindi, attache, Capri, Mississippi, tush, kangaroo, Moscow Art Theater, Youth Theater, ATS.

Coffee is masculine, the word is exception

Hindi - masculine, exceptions to the rules

Attache is a masculine indeclinable noun denoting men.

Capri is masculine, as the island is masculine

Mississippi - feminine, since the river is feminine

Touch is masculine, since the second declension.

Kangaroo - masculine, indeclinable nouns of foreign origin denoting animals and birds, usually refer to the masculine gender

Moscow Art Theater is masculine, since the main word is theater, it is masculine.

Youth theater is masculine, since the main word is theater, it is masculine.

ATS is feminine, since the main word station is feminine.

Make up sentences so that the following words have different meanings depending on the context. lexical meaning. Example: fire up. An argument broke out between them. Lights lit up in the windows of neighboring cottages.

Speak, view, bypass.

Ivan Sergeevich made a report at the meeting.

The building was built with a ledge forward to the street.

The chairman, having looked through the papers, made several questions to the bailiff and the secretary.

Doctors overlooked the moment on which everything depended.

A big old sheepdog - three times calmly walked around the horse.

Having gone around all the paths, examining every bush and flower, we again went out into the alley.

Determine how these paronyms differ from each other. Make up a phrase with each word. To weaken - to weaken, neighboring - neighborly, swampy - swampy, diploma student - diploma student.

The patient is exhausted, exhausted by a sleepless night,

Neighbor village, Neighbor's daughter

Wading bird, Wetlands.

Diploma of the competition, future diploma student

Correct the suggestions.

The speech of Shukshin's heroes differs from the heroes of other works.

The speech of Shukshin's heroes is very different from the speech of the heroes of other works.

Compare the data of the last analysis with the previous one.

Compare the results of the last analysis with the previous ones.

Form the form from given nouns nominative case plural. Specify the options.

Address, accountant, century, year, diesel, director, jumper, contract, engineer, driver.

Address - addresses

Accountant - accountants

Century - centuries

Year - years, years

Diesel - diesels

Director - directors

Jumper - jumpers

Contract - contracts

Engineer - engineers

Chauffeur - chauffeur

Put the nouns in genitive case plural.

Amp, orange, barge, boot, Georgian, sock.

Ampere - ampere

Orange - oranges

barge - barge

Boot - boot

Georgian - Georgians

Sock - socks

Explain the meaning of Aesopian phraseological unit language.

Aesopian language - speech, manner of presentation, expression, based on allegory, allusions and other similar techniques that deliberately mask the thought, idea of ​​the author. Aesopian language is an allegorical language, full of omissions, allusions, allegories. The expression comes from the name of the legendary Greek fabulist Aesop. Aesop was a slave; since it was dangerous for him to talk freely about many things, he turned to an allegorical, fabled form.

Decline the number 547 in cases

I.p. five hundred forty seven

R.p. five hundred forty seven

D.p. five hundred forty seven

V.p. five hundred forty seven

etc. five hundred and forty seven

P.p. five hundred forty seven

Determine the lexical meaning of words

mentality

legitimate

Identical

Mentality-attitude, worldview, determined by folk-national customs, way of life, thinking, morality.

Legitimate - legally legal, in accordance with the current given state by law. Legitimate actions, an act of will. Legitimacy is a property of the legitimate.

Identical - Identical, exactly the same

Insert the missing letters P ... rollon, pr ... zent, int ... l ... ect, producer ... er, b ... calavr, gram ... student.

Foam rubber, present, intellect, producer, bachelor, literate, student.

What is the difference between national and literary language? (theoretical question).

The national language is a form of existence of the language in the era of the existence of the nation, a complex systemic unity, including the literary language, dialects, jargons, vernacular and slang.

The concept of the national language is not generally accepted: for example, S.B. Bernstein denied any linguistic content behind this concept, understanding it as a purely ideological construct. On the contrary, V. V. Vinogradov defended the linguistic reality of the national language as a hierarchical integrity, within which there is a regrouping of linguistic phenomena - in particular, the pushing of dialects further and further to the periphery.

Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually supplant dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the spokesman of the true national norm.

The formation of the national language goes in the direction of the formation and strengthening of the language norm, the acquisition by the literary language (due to its positions in governing, educational and cultural institutions, starting from a certain period associated with the idea of ​​the nation) of a priority position in relation to regional dialects, as well as, in a number of cases, in the struggle to oust the dominant foreign language in culture and politics (Latin, Church Slavonic, the languages ​​of the metropolitan countries in former colonies). The colloquial form of the national language, which is based on one or more dialects, according to some experts, is already formed under the influence of the literary language.

National language, the language of the nation, formed on the basis of the language of the people in the process of the development of the people into a nation. The intensity of this process depends on the pace and special conditions of the development of a nationality into a nation among different peoples. The national language is a system of several forms of language existence: the literary language (oral and written forms), folk-spoken varieties of the language and dialects. In the process of the formation of the national language, the relationship between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is a developing form that occupies a leading position, gradually replacing the dialects that dominated the early stages of language development, especially in the field of oral communication. At the same time, the formation of new dialect features ceases, and under the influence of the literary language, the sharpest dialect differences are leveled. At the same time, the scope of the literary language is expanding, and its functions are becoming more complex. This is due to the complication and development of the national culture of the people, as well as the fact that the literary form of the national language, developing on a folk basis, displaces written languages ​​alien to the people (for example, Latin in Western Europe, Church Slavonic in Russia). The national literary language also penetrates into the sphere of oral communication, where the dialect previously dominated. The most important feature national literary language is its normalized nature. In connection with the need to satisfy the increasingly complex and diverse needs of society, caused by the development of fiction, journalism, science and technology, as well as different forms oral speech, the syntactic system and vocabulary of the national literary language are intensively developing and enriching. In the era of the existence of bourgeois society, the national literary language serves mainly the ruling stratum of society (i.e., its educated part). The rural population, as a rule, continues to use dialects, and urban koine compete with the literary language in cities. Under the conditions of the development of socialist nations, a single normalized nationwide literary language becomes, in connection with democratization and the widespread dissemination of education, the property of every member of the nation.

Literary language, a processed form of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form. The concept of "processed form" is historically changeable (in different eras and among different peoples). In the era of feudalism, a number of peoples of the world used a foreign language as a written literary language: among the Iranian and Turkic peoples - classical Arabic; the Japanese and Koreans have classical Chinese; among the Germanic and West Slavic peoples - Latin; in the Baltic States and the Czech Republic - German; from the 14th-15th centuries for some states and from the 16th-17th centuries. for others, the vernacular displaces the foreign language from many functional areas of communication.

Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity. The notion of "fixed" norms. It has a certain relativity (with all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the problem itself. There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either about the written and literary language, or about the colloquial literary language, or about the language of fiction, and so on. It cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, though related concepts. Literary language is the property of all who own its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it usually focuses on the same norms, contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted. in different historical eras and among different peoples, the degree of closeness of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal. There is a difference between literary and national language. The national language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language. National languages, as a rule, are formed in the era of capitalism. One can speak about the Russian literary language already from the beginning of the 17th century, while it becomes the national language in the 1st half of the 19th century, in the era of A.S. Pushkin. Monuments of the French literary language have been known since the 11th century, but only in the 17th - 18th centuries is the process of gradual formation of the French national language observed. In Italy, the literary language made itself known already in the works of Dante, but only in the 2nd half of the 19th century, in the era of the national unification of Italy, did the formation of its national language take place. A special problem is the correlation and interaction of the literary language and dialects. The more stable the historical foundations of dialects, the more difficult it is for a literary language to unite all members of a given nation linguistically. Dialects are still successfully competing with the literary language in many countries of the world, for example, in Italy and Indonesia.

The concept of literary language usually interacts with the concept of linguistic styles existing within the boundaries of each literary language. Linguistic style is a kind of literary language that has developed historically and is characterized by a certain set of features, some of which can be repeated in other styles, but a certain combination of them and their peculiar function distinguishes one style from another. The Leninist national policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet state ensured the flourishing of the literary language of the peoples inhabiting the USSR. Previously unwritten languages ​​were written. The theory of the literary language is being successfully developed, which is based on the experience of the development of languages ​​of different peoples of the world.

Let us now turn to the question of what determines the comparative dignity of individual literary languages. It does not require proof that it is determined, first of all, by the wealth of available means of expression, both for general and for particular concepts. It is not so obvious that it is also determined by the richness of synonymy in general. However, it is easy to see that synonymic rows usually form a system of shades of one and the same concept, which under certain conditions may not be indifferent. Take, for example, the cycle of the word famous (as applied to a person), which competes with famous, outstanding, wonderful and big. All these words mean, of course, the same thing, but each approaches the same concept from a slightly different point of view: a great scientist is, as it were, an objective characteristic; an outstanding scientist emphasizes, perhaps, the same thing, but in a somewhat more comparative aspect; a remarkable scientist speaks of the special interest he arouses; a famous scientist notes his popularity; the famous scientist does the same, but differs from the famous scientist superlatives quality.

In a similar way, one could parse a series: some of the readers, individual readers, some readers, and many other synonymous series.

The importance of synonyms for denoting new concepts is not so obvious; however, it is clear that the word dancer is a synonym for the word dancer, dancer, differentiated from his fellows. Synonyms, therefore, are to some extent an arsenal of ready-made designations for newly emerging concepts that are differentiating from old ones.

Even less obvious is the technical role of synonyms. Meanwhile, only it gives freedom of maneuvering in the literary language. Indeed: in the original draft of my report, I wrote: "Two people in one way or another socially connected with each other, who, as we say, understand each other perfectly." It turned out to be an awkward repetition of a similar expression, but a synonym for each other instead of each other immediately saved the situation.

Finally, - and this is perhaps the most important, although the least obvious - the dignity of a literary language is determined by the degree of complexity of the system of its means of expression in the sense that I have drawn above, i.e. richness of ready-made possibilities to express various shades.

The question is, does our Russian literary language satisfy all these requirements? The objective answer, it seems to me, is given by our really great literature: since it was possible to create such a literature, it means that our language is up to the level of the tasks facing it. And I see objective confirmation that our literature is truly great in the fact that it is not only national literature, but that it is also international. Despite the difficulties of the language, it is translated and read by the whole world; moreover, it had one or another undeniable influence on the course of world literature, and this is not stated by our Russian scientists, who can be suspected of partiality, but this is stated by foreign scientists, who, of course, are far from all of them, rather, and often not without grounds can be suspected of reverse predilection.

Turning to the consideration of the issue in the linguistic aspect, it is necessary to state, first of all, the historically established property of the Russian language - not to shy away from any foreign borrowings, if only they benefit the cause.

The Russian literary language began by acquiring, through the medium of the mediaeval international language of Eastern Europe—Eastern Latin, if I may say so—the language unfortunately called Church Slavonic—a whole arsenal of abstract concepts derived from the Greeks. Grace, thank, blessing, passion, distraction, inspiration, creation and many other similar words - all this is a Greek heritage in a Slavic shell. Poetics, rhetoric, library - all these late words had their Greek predecessors in the form of piitika, rhetoric, vivliophics, etc.

But the point is not only in this Greek heritage, but in this “Eastern Latin” itself, in this Church Slavonic language. Being, in contrast to real Latin, in general, understandable to any Russian person, the so-called Church Slavonic language enriched Russian not only with a baggage of abstract concepts and words, but also with endless doublets that were immediately created in the Russian language. complex system synonymous means of expression: he is the head of the whole thing and he is the head of this business; as a result of the coup, the townspeople turned into citizens; the difference in years made them live apart; give birth to children - give birth to high thoughts, etc.

If the Russian literary language had not grown up in an atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then it would have been unthinkable that Pushkin's wonderful poem "The Prophet", which we still admire to this day. In order to make my thought more concrete, I will cite the text of this poem, noting all its stylistic “Church Slavonicisms”, which are perceived by everyone in this way, and therefore create a clear stylistic perspective in the language; the note will indicate historical Church Slavonicisms, more precisely, everything that entered our literary language not from everyday, everyday language, but from the old bookish language, but is not stylistically perceived as something special, although it retains a certain peculiar flavor that makes it possible to more finely stylize our speech. Elements common to bookish and everyday speech have remained unnoticed, especially since they represent the vast majority.

Literary language - the common language of writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, schooling, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes oral. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns. It is difficult to point to another linguistic phenomenon that would be understood in such a different way as the literary language. Some are convinced that the literary language is the same national language, only "polished" by the masters of the language, i.e. writers, artists of the word; supporters of this view, first of all, have in mind the literary language of the new time, and, moreover, among peoples with a rich artistic literature.

Others believe that the literary language is the language of writing, the language of the book, opposed to living speech, the language of conversation. The basis of this understanding is the literary languages ​​with ancient writing (comparison with the fresh term "newly written languages"). Still others believe that the literary language is a language that is generally significant for a given people, in contrast to dialect and jargon, which do not have signs of such general significance. Supporters of this view sometimes argue that the literary language can exist in the pre-literate period as the language of folk verbal and poetic creativity or customary law.

The presence of different understandings of the phenomenon denoted by the term "literary language" testifies to the insufficient disclosure by science of the specifics of this phenomenon, its place in the general system of language, its function, its social role. Meanwhile, with all the differences in the understanding of this phenomenon, the literary language is a linguistic reality that cannot be doubted.

The literary language is a means of developing social life, the material and spiritual progress of a given people, an instrument of social struggle, as well as a means of educating the masses and familiarizing them with the achievements of national culture, science and technology. Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity. Numerous studies by Soviet scientists are devoted to general theoretical and concrete historical questions of the formation of various national literary languages: the specifics of the functions of the language of the nation in comparison with the language of the people, the exact content of the very concept of "national language" in its correlation with such categories as "literary language", "literary norm", "national norm", "territorial dialect", "cultural dialect", "interdialect", colloquial and literary form of the national language.

To determine the differences in the patterns of formation and development of national literary languages, languages ​​with different types of traditions were involved, at different stages of development, taking shape in different historical conditions. Very little material was extracted from the history of Slavic literary languages. Meanwhile, it turned out that the literary language in different periods development of the language of the people takes in its system different place. In the early periods of the formation of bourgeois nations, the literary language was owned by limited social groups, while the bulk of the rural, as well as the urban population, used dialect, semi-dialect and urban vernacular; thus, the national language, if we consider it the core of the literary language, would turn out to be the property of only a part of the nation. Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually supplant dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the spokesman of the true national norm. The main sign of the development of the national language, in contrast to the language of the nationality, is the presence of a single, common to the entire nation and covering all areas of communication, a normalized literary language that has developed on a national basis; therefore, the study of the process of strengthening and developing the national literary norm becomes one of the main tasks of the history of the national literary language.

The medieval literary language and the new literary language associated with the formation of a nation are different in their attitude to folk speech, in the range of their action and, consequently, in the degree public interest, as well as the consistency and cohesion of its normative system and the nature of its stylistic variation.

A special and unique place among the problems and tasks of studying the development of national literary languages ​​is occupied by the question of the presence or absence of local (regional) literary languages ​​(for example, in the history of Germany or Italy).

The East Slavic modern national literary languages, just like the West Slavic ones (in principle), do not know this phenomenon. The Bulgarian, Macedonian and Slovene languages ​​also do not use their literary-regional varieties. But the Serbo-Croatian language shares its functions with the regional Chakavian and Kajkavian literary languages. The specificity of this phenomenon lies in the fact that "regional" literary languages ​​function only in the sphere of fiction, and then mainly in poetry. Many poets are "bilingual", they write in general literary - Shtokavian, and in one of the "regional" - Kaikavian or Chakavian (M. Krlezh, T. Uevich, M. Franichevich, V. Nazor, etc.).

For the national literary language and its development, there is a typical tendency to function in various spheres of folk-cultural and state life - both in oral and written communication - as one and only. This tendency makes itself felt with no less force and sharpness in the formation and functioning of the languages ​​of the socialist nations, where the processes of linguistic development proceed very rapidly. Usually, the gap between the written-book and folk-spoken varieties of the literary language acts as an obstacle to the development of a single national culture on the path of the progress of the people as a whole (comparison of the current situation in the countries of the Arab East, Latin America). Nevertheless, in some countries, the formation and development of the national literary language has not yet freed the people from its two variants (for example, in Norway, Albania, Armenia), although here, too, the trend towards the unity of national literary languages ​​is increasing.

A common feature of the development of national languages ​​is the penetration of the literary norm into all spheres and forms of communication, speech practice. The national literary language, more and more displacing dialects and assimilating them, is gradually acquiring national significance and distribution.

The literary language has special properties:

The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, the observance of which is of a general educational nature and does not depend on the social, professional and territorial affiliation of native speakers of a given language;

Possession of a rich lexical fund;

The desire for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;

Adaptability not only for designating the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind, but for the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;

Stylistic wealth, which consists in the abundance of functionally justified variant and synonymous means, which allows you to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

Concentration and the best organization into a single system of linguistic elements of all levels of the language: vocabulary, phraseological units, sounds, grammatical forms and constructions of a national character; all these linguistic elements have been selected from the national language for many decades by the efforts of many generations of writers, publicists, and scientists;

Availability of written and oral forms.

Of course, these properties of the literary language did not appear immediately, but as a result of a long and skillful selection, carried out by the masters of the word, the most accurate and weighty words and phrases, the most convenient and expedient grammatical forms and constructions. The nature of literary languages ​​is based on some provisions:

The evolution of vernacular languages ​​is a natural-historical process, while the evolution of literary languages ​​is a cultural-historical process. The folk language has a tendency to dialect fragmentation, while the literary one, on the contrary, has a tendency to leveling, to establish uniformity. But dialect speech, as unwritten speech, is gradually losing its differences, since, along with the development of literacy and literary education, the population is moving to the general use of the literary language. This is the process of integration in the language. In the literary language, on the contrary, differentiation increases: special languages(for example, terminological, the language of fiction, slang). So, in its peripheral areas, the Russian language breaks up into separate areas of communication associated with the division in the areas of everyday life, occupations of Russian speakers. However, there is a constant exchange between the core of the literary language and its peripheral areas. In addition, there is an expansion of the areas of communication located around the core (for example, the language of the mass media, computer science).

The purpose of the literary language is completely different from the purpose of the folk dialect. Literary language is an instrument of spiritual culture and is intended to develop, develop and deepen not only fine literature, but also scientific, philosophical, religious and political thought. For these purposes, he has to have a completely different vocabulary and a different syntax than those that popular dialects are content with.

Even if the literary language arose on the basis of a single dialect, then, due to its tasks, it is unprofitable for it to be closely related to this dialect, since the association of the literary language with the dialect interferes with the correct perception of words that entered the literary language from the dialect, but acquired new ones in it. values.

Folk dialects, both phonetically and lexically, and even grammatically, develop much faster than the literary language, the development of which is retarded by the school and the authority of the classics. Therefore, moments come when the literary language and folk dialects represent such different stages of development that both of them are incompatible in the same folk-linguistic creation: here there will be either a victory of the folk dialect, on the basis of which in this case a new literary language is created, or, Finally, a compromise.

If the folk language is divided into dialects according to the geographical principle, then the principle of specialization, functional differentiation prevails in the literary language: educated people who come from different localities do not speak and write in exactly the same way, and it is often easy to determine where he comes from by the language of the writer's works. But differences in the types of special application are much stronger in the literary language: in almost all modern literary languages, official business, scientific, journalistic and colloquial styles stand out.

If vernacular languages ​​can influence each other only when they are in contact in space and time, then a literary language can be strongly influenced by another language, even if this latter belongs to a much older era and has never geographically come into contact with the territory of this living literary language. language. Thus, the vocabulary of modern literary languages ​​is largely formed from words borrowed from the old languages ​​of culture - ancient Greek, Latin, Church Slavonic, Sanskrit, Arabic. Territorial differentiation of the language The division of the national language into many local varieties is obvious. It consists of dialects, adverbs, dialects. Dialect is the smallest local variety of the national language; it is realized in the speech of one or several nearby settlements. In dialects, as in the literary language, their own laws apply. So, the inhabitants of one village near Moscow say: In our strength, adin gopas ("speaking"), and in Afsshtkavi another, e Afsyapikavi, they say incorrectly. A set of dialects that share the same basic linguistic features is called a group of dialects. The attitude to dialects as to "uncultured" speech is unfair. All dialects are linguistically equivalent and are an integral part of Russian culture. Dialects are the basis of any literary language. If Moscow had not become the capital of Russia, the Russian literary language would have been different. The Russian literary language was based on the central Central Russian dialects, i.e. Moscow dialect and the dialect of the villages surrounding Moscow. Recently, a new classification of Russian dialects has been developed. It was possible to take into account with the help of a computer about 4 thousand linguistic features out of 4 thousand dialects. A territorial dialect is a territorial variety of a language characterized by the unity of the phonetic, grammatical and lexical system and used as a means of communication in a certain territory. To define a dialect, concepts such as dialect difference and isogloss are used. Difference is a linguistic feature that sets one dialect against another; for example, okanye contrasts northern Russian dialects with central and southern Russian dialects, which are characterized by okanye. Isogloss is a line on a linguistic map showing the boundaries of the distribution of one or another dialect difference; each dialect is characterized by a set of isoglosses that fix its peculiar linguistic features and show the boundaries of its distribution. An adverb is the largest unit of territorial division of a language, uniting several dialects. The boundaries between adverbs, dialects and dialects are usually blurred, mobile; isoglosses drawn on the map show that according to one phenomenon the boundary passes in one place, and according to another - in another; distinguish transitional dialects - dialects that contain the features of two bordering dialects at the same time. The norms of a dialect, dialect are valid only for residents of a certain region, district, are assimilated orally, since dialects do not have written fixation. An important difference between the entire set of dialects and the literary language is that dialects have big variety names for the same concepts, with the same stylistically neutral characteristic (for example, a rooster in southern Russian dialects is called a kochet, and in northern Russian - peun). Similar differences are observed in phonetics, orthoepy, grammar, word formation of dialects. It follows from this that dialects cannot serve as a common language for all speakers of a national language. But dialects influence literary language.

List of used literature

literary language patois dialect

• 1. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - 3rd ed., Rev. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989.
• 2. Spelling dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1999.
• 3. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. O.Ya. Goykhman. - M.: INFRA-M, 2008.
• 4. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. IN AND. Maksimov. - M.: Gardariki, 2008. - 413 p. (Recommended by the Ministry of Education Russian Federation as a textbook for university students).
• 5. . Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language. M .: LLC "Publishing house AST-LTD", 1998.
• 6. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - 3rd ed., Rev. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989.

Literary language - the national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school education, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of this language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in the broadest sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.

Signs of literary language:

• 1) the presence of writing - affects the nature of the literary language, enriching its expressive means and expanding the scope;
• 2) normalization - a fairly stable way of expression, which denotes the historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Normalization is based on language system and enshrined in the best examples of literary works. This mode of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;
• 3) codification, i.e. fixed in the scientific literature; it is expressed in the presence grammar dictionaries and other books containing rules for the use of the language;
• 4) stylistic diversity, i.e. variety functional styles literary language;
• 5) relative stability;
• 6) prevalence;
• 7) general usage;
• 8) general obligation;
• 9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.
• 10) the dialectical unity of book and colloquial speech;
• 11) close connection with the language of fiction;

The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. Literary language unites the people in terms of language. The leading role in the creation of the literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: the literary language and live colloquial speech. Alive colloquial speech every person masters from early childhood. The assimilation of a literary language occurs throughout the development of a person, right up to old age.

The literary language should be generally understandable, that is, accessible to perception by all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to observe the grammatical, lexical, orthoepic and accentological norms of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general laws of language development and the optimal conditions for its functioning.

The modern Russian literary language, expressing the aesthetic, artistic, scientific, social, spiritual life of the people, serves the self-expression of the individual, the development of all forms verbal art, creative thought, moral revival and improvement of all aspects of the life of society at a new stage of its development.

The national language is the language of the nation, which has developed on the basis of the language of the people in the process of the development of the people into a nation. The intensity of this process depends on the pace and special conditions of the development of a nationality into a nation among different peoples. The national language is a system of several forms of language existence: the literary language (oral and written forms), the colloquial language (varieties of language and dialects). In the process of the formation of the national language, the relationship between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is a developing form that occupies a leading position, gradually replacing the dialects that dominated the early stages of language development, especially in the field of oral communication. At the same time, the formation of new dialect features ceases, and under the influence of the literary language, the sharpest dialect differences are leveled. At the same time, the scope of the literary language is expanding, and its functions are becoming more complex. This is due to the complication and development of the national culture of the people, and also to the fact that the literary form of N. Ya., which develops on a folk basis, displaces written languages ​​alien to the people (for example, Latin in Western Europe, Church Slavonic in Russia). The national literary language also penetrates into the sphere of oral communication, where the dialect previously dominated. The most important feature of the national literary language is its normalized character. In connection with the need to satisfy the increasingly complex and diverse needs of society, caused by the development of fiction, journalism, science and technology, as well as various forms of oral speech, the syntactic system and vocabulary of the national literary language are intensively developing and enriching. In the era of the existence of bourgeois society, the national literary language serves mainly the ruling stratum of society, that is, its educated part. The rural population, as a rule, continues to use dialects, and in cities, urban pronunciations compete with the literary language. Under the conditions of the development of socialist nations, a single normalized nationwide literary language becomes, in connection with democratization and the widespread dissemination of education, the property of every member of the nation.

Any developed language, including Russian, performs a variety of functions, is used in the most different situations, over large areas and the most different people, which sometimes have only one common property - they all speak a given language, so the latter has a complex and branched structure. In this regard, it becomes necessary to introduce a number of concepts (later they will be actively used in other chapters) that make it possible to reflect the differentiation of the language and give an idea of ​​the features and purpose of each of its varieties.

The Russian language has a rich history and is constantly evolving. Naturally, it is extremely difficult for a modern person to read, say, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" without translation, so first we need to determine when the language appeared that can serve as a means of communication for us without requiring translation from Russian into Russian, i.e. ., in other words, introduce chronological boundaries modern Russian language.

In Russian studies, it is believed that the modern stage of development of the Russian language begins with the era of A.S. Pushkin - approximately from the 1830s. It was then that the literary variety of the language was formed, which still serves as the basis for the development of the dictionary, grammar, and the system of functional styles, and phonetics, and orthoepy. It is this circumstance that serves as the basis for counting the current stage in the development of the Russian language.

A huge role in creating the system of the modern literary language as a set of means of expression and ideas about the literary norm as the basis of this system was played by A. S. Pushkin, who went down in history not only as the "sun of Russian poetry" (in the words of V. F. Odoevsky), but also as a great reformer - the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

However, almost 200 years have passed since Pushkin's time, and the language has inevitably undergone significant changes, especially in the 20th century. During this period, first the October Revolution, and after 70 years the collapse of the USSR significantly influenced the development of both the lexical-phraseological, grammatical (albeit to a lesser extent), and especially the functional-stylistic system of the Russian language. There was also a transformation of the social conditions of its existence. For example, in connection with the introduction of compulsory school education after the revolution, the circle of native speakers of the literary language expanded. In connection with the ubiquity of the media, territorial dialects die off and remain only as a fact of the history of the language. Other changes are also taking place.

Although Pushkin's language remains both generally understandable and exemplary for us, we ourselves, of course, no longer speak, let alone write, Pushkin. This was noted back in the 1930s. Soviet linguist L. V. Shcherba: "It would be ridiculous to think that now you can write in the sense of the language quite in Pushkin's way." In this regard, it became necessary to allocate a period for present stage the evolution of a language that would take into account precisely the ongoing metamorphoses.

This is how the idea arose of the actual modern stage of language development, the beginning of which dates back to the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

Thus, the stage of evolution of the modern Russian language begins with the reform of A. S. Pushkin, and within this period, from the beginning of the last century, the actual modern language which we use.

Now let's answer the question: what language is called national? In short, the national language is the language of the Russian nation as a whole, a developed multifunctional and multifaceted system. Being the main means of communication, it serves all spheres of public and private life of people and is an essential element of national identity and unity. Historically, the Russian national language has been formed into an integral entity since the 17th century. together with the transformation of the Great Russian people into the Russian nation.

On the one hand, the national language includes elements that are generally understood and generally accepted, used in any situation, and on the other hand, those whose use is limited or attached to certain kind activities, or territory, or social causes.

The structure of the national language can be represented as follows.

The core of the national language is literary Russian language, i.e. a historically established exemplary form of the existence of a national language, which has a number of important properties that allow it to play the role of a generally understood, socially sanctioned means of communication and serve all the most important spheres of life. These properties are:

• 1. Literary language - processed tongue. All its elements (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, style) have gone through a long historical process of processing and selection, and in folk art in the works of writers and poets, in the language of other authoritative masters of the word, therefore the resources of the literary language are the most accurate, figurative and expressive and most adequately reflect the peculiarities of the national mentality, create the Russian language picture of the world, serve as the basis of Russian culture.
• 2. Literary language - normalized language, with the established generally accepted system of units of all levels and unified system rules for their use. Vocabulary, phraseology, grammatical forms of the literary language, as well as the rules for using these units (from pronunciation and spelling to stylistic features) are described and fixed in dictionaries, grammars, reference books, educational literature, and geographical, administrative, historical and some other names are fixed by law.
• 3. Literary language - language both traditional and developing. Each younger generation inherits the language of the older one, but at the same time develops those of its means and trends that most fully reflect its socio-cultural tasks and conditions of speech communication.
• 4. Literary language - integral branched stylistic system. In it, along with neutral means applicable in any situation, there are means that are stylistically colored. Stylistic coloring reflects the attachment of language resources to the oral or written form of the language, to various thematic areas, conveys various expressive, emotional and other shades of meaning. AT explanatory dictionaries, for example, this is reflected by the system of stylistic labels that a word or expression is supplied with: book.- bookstore unfold- colloquial iron. - ironic poet.- poetic rough.- rude mouth- obsolete, etc.

In addition, several functional styles are distinguished in the literary language - varieties of the literary language, each of which serves a specific area of ​​communication. According to the classification of V. V. Vinogradov, these styles include the following: colloquial, scientific, business, journalistic, style of fiction. Currently, the nomenclature of styles is being specified: in particular, many researchers single out a preaching, or religious, style.

5. Literary language functions in two varieties - book and colloquial. In general, any of the styles belongs to one of these forms. Business, scientific, journalistic, religious styles represent book speech, colloquial - respectively colloquial. Art style with its dominant aesthetic function, it combines both literary and colloquial features.

However, within the limits of book business and scientific styles, oral genres are distinguished (job interview, conference call, oral reprimand), and accordingly, the possibilities of using colloquial speech resources are expanding.

• 6. Literary Russian language accumulates all the best that is in the national language. This allows him to be a model, to serve as a universal means of communication, to perform the functions state language and one of the working languages ​​of international communication.
• 7. Literary language - language that exists and functions in two varieties: oral and written(see 1.5). Written fixation, along with traditionality, allows the literary language to become the basis for the accumulation and inheritance of knowledge and experience of predecessors, the continuity from the older generation to the younger of the achievements of science, material and spiritual culture and civilization as a whole.

The periphery of the national language is vernacular, territorial dialects, social and professional jargons. Unlike literary, non-literary varieties of the national language, which will be discussed, of course, can be recorded in writing, but they function in oral form.

Territorial dialects- These are variants of the national language, characteristic of a particular area. They differ from each other in pronunciation. For example, in northern dialects they are okayut (they say words like beard, sequentially distinguishing sounds a and about), and in South Russian akayat (pronounce barada). Vocabulary is also partially different in different dialects (for example, delusional in the Pskov dialect means willow), phraseology, morphological and syntactic forms (for example, K. I. Chukovsky in the book "Alive, like life" gives a dialect form a person (What kind of person are you?), whereas in literary language the form Human). Invaluable observations of the dialectal features of word usage are given by the dictionary of V. I. Dahl.

In general, the topic of speech communication in folk dialects is rather limited, which is reflected in thematic groups ah vocabulary: rural and household, interpersonal relationships, folklore, traditions and rituals.

At present, due to the ubiquity of electronic media oriented to oral literary speech, territorial dialects of the Russian language as integral systems, territorial varieties of the national language are dying out. Only elderly people remained among their speakers, while younger people often retain only some features of dialectal pronunciation.

Remain outside the literary language jargon- group varieties of the national language. According to the functions and who are their carriers, they distinguish professional and social jargon. The first group is oral, everyday colloquial equivalents professional languages: jargon of doctors, lawyers, rock musicians, computer, etc. The second group is the jargon of social groups: school, student, sports fans, social bottom (drug addict, criminal), etc. Jargon is characterized by its own vocabulary, relatively quickly replaced and highly emotional, generally reduced stylistic coloration, the predominance of certain thematic groups in the vocabulary, its own phraseology, sources of its replenishment and word-formation models. So, for youth and school jargon, truncation of the bases is characteristic as a way of word formation (people- Human, teacher or prep - teacher, nerd, bot(from slang botanist)- a diligent student) and replenishment of the lexical composition to a large extent due to anglicisms and jargons of the social bottom.

In addition to the term "jargon", the concepts of "social dialect" (otherwise "sociolect"), "slang", "slang", "interjargon" are used to designate group varieties of the national language. The latter includes words common to several jargons, and this brings it closer to urban rough vernacular. Argo is a secret, secret group language, for example thieves' slang.

Not included in the literary language and vernacular- the speech of an insufficiently educated part of the urban population, the urban lower classes. There are two types of vernacular: rude (starting from rough vocabulary and ending with taboo curses) and illiterate - non-normative (non-normative can be observed at the level of pronunciation, vocabulary, morphology, syntax).

Words that go beyond the literary language are not included in general language dictionaries and are recorded only in specialized publications, for example, in jargon dictionaries.