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Phraseology is a branch of the science of language that studies the phraseological system in its current state and historical development. Phraseological units are the object of study of phraseology. The subject of phraseology as a section of linguistics is the study of the categorical features of phraseological units, on the basis of which the main features of phraseology are distinguished and the question of the essence of phraseological units as special units of the language is resolved, as well as the identification of patterns of functioning of phraseological units in speech and the processes of their formation. However, despite the existence of a large number of studies on the main issues of phraseology, there has not yet been a unified approach to the definition of a phraseological unit of a language.
There are a large number of definitions of the concept of "phraseological unit". According to A.V. Kunin, "phraseological units are stable combinations of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning" .
V.M. Mokienko says that a phraseological unit is a relatively stable, reproducible, expressive combination of lexemes that has a holistic meaning.
Since phraseological units are recognized as units of the language, along with words and morphemes, some researchers include phraseological units in the vocabulary of the language, and phraseological units are considered as equivalents of words. As a result, the theory of the equivalence of phraseological units to a word deserves special consideration. It goes back to the theory of identification of expressive facts developed by S. Bally, who pointed out that one of the most common signs of a phraseological turn, which replaces all the others, is the possibility or impossibility to substitute one simple word instead of this turn. Charles Bally called such a word "word-identifier". The presence of such a synonym is considered by S. Balli as an internal sign of the integrity of phraseological units. This point of view raises certain objections. V.P. Zhukov notes that "the semantic integrity of a phraseological unit cannot be established in this way, since variable combinations of words can also have synonymous words" . For example, in Russian:
sleep forever- die;
side by side - near.
In English:
tolookfixedly - to stare (look intently - stare); sufferingofmindandbody - to pain (suffer body and soul - get sick).
In addition, many phraseological units do not have identifying words, but can only be identified using variable word combinations, for example, in Russian:
behind seven castles- well hidden;
In English:
to drink like a fish to drink too much (to drink deeply - drink too much);
in a small way on a small scale (modestly - to be at the lowest level).
It should also be borne in mind that phraseological units with a sentence structure, i.e. proverbs and sayings can only be identified with the help of sentences, for example in Russian:
Take the bull by the horns- not afraid to start a business;
In English:
Birds of feather flock together- (a fisherman sees a fisherman from afar - people who have the same interests, are attracted to each other and stay close together).
JI.V. Shcherba used the term "word equivalent". The researcher said that such a group of words denotes one concept and is a potential equivalent of the word. Thus, a close group of words can denote one concept if it is a phrase.
In the problem of "phraseologism and the word" two directions are noted: lexicological understanding of phraseology as an integral part of lexicology, phraseological units as an equivalent to the word, and a broad understanding of phraseology as an independent discipline. Some supporters of the theory of complete equivalence consider phraseological units as lexical units that need special classification, and which should be classified in the same way as words are classified. A.I. Smirnitsky includes phraseology in lexicology. He recognizes phraseological units as "the equivalent of a word".
The equivalence of phraseological units to a word lies in the fact that "a phraseological unit has two characteristic features of a typical word: semantic integrity and existence as a finished unit in the language, its reproducibility in speech". Further, the scientist notes that phraseological units can be attributed to the field of vocabulary, "but it is more correct to single out the system of phraseological units as a special area in the lexical system of the language" . Thus, the separate formation of phraseological units is their essential difference from the whole word, which is characterized by integral formation. The main feature that distinguishes phraseological units from words and phrases that arise in the process of speech is idiomaticity. However, it is necessary to take into account the fact that "phraseological units should be separated from a special type of idiomatic phrases that could be called proper idioms" .
N.N. Amosova in her works casts doubt on the theory of the equivalence of phraseological units to a word, notes "the relativity of the equivalence of phraseological units to a word and different degrees of even this relative equivalence depending on the type of phraseological units" .
In this regard, it is necessary to consider the position of N.M. Shansky. The scientist characterizes the relationship of the word and phraseological units as follows: "words relate to most phraseological units, as reproducible language units of a lower order to reproducible language units, of a higher order: words consist of significant elementary units of the language, morphemes, and phraseological units - from components of a verbal character" . N.M. Shansky also notes the different grammatical arrangement of the word and phraseological units, where the former are "uniform formations, and phraseological units function in the language as separate formations". According to the researcher, phraseological units have a number of specific characteristics that distinguish them from words and phrases with a free meaning. Phraseological turns are such language units that, with a certain adjacency with words and free combinations of words, have a certain set of differential features:
1) these are ready-made language units that are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the memory of the speakers as a whole;
2) these are linguistic units, which are characterized by constancy of meaning, composition and structure;
3) in accentological terms, also sound complexes in which the constituent components have two or more main stresses;
4) these are segmented formations, the components of which are perceived by speakers as words.
Consequently, phraseological units are only those units that have the totality of the listed features. Thus, "any meaningful unit reproduced in a finished form, consisting of two or more stressed components of a verbal character, is a phraseological unit".
Thus, based on the analysis of the points of view of different scientists, we believe that the equivalence of phraseological units to the word can be recognized in terms of their relationship to language and speech; Phraseologism and word are language units that are used in speech as units of nomination.
Literature
- Amosova N.N. Fundamentals of English phraseology. - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1963. 208 p.
- Zhukov V.P. Russian phraseology. - M.: Higher school, 2006. 408 p.
- Kunin A.V. On phraseological nomination // Phraseological semantics: Sat. scientific tr. - M., 1983. Issue. 211. S. 88-100.
- Kunin A.V. Modern English course. - M.: Higher school, 1996. 381 p.
- Mokienko V.M. Riddles of Russian phraseology. Series: Russian Literature. - M., Publishing house: Azbuka-klassika, Avalon, 2005. 256 p.
- Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - M.: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1998. 260 p.
- Shansky N.M. Phraseology of the modern Russian language: Textbook. Ed. 6th. - M.: Book house "LIBROKOM", 2012. 272 p.
Characteristics of the language features of phraseology
1 Phraseology - as a linguistic discipline
2 Classification of phraseological units
3 Decomposition of phraseological units
4 Modeling problem
Conclusions on the first chapter
Analysis of expressive means in phraseology
2 Lexical expressive means
4 Phonetic expressive means
2.5 Convergence of expressive means in phraseology
Conclusions on Chapter II
Conclusion
Bibliography
linguistic phraseology stylistic convergence
Introduction
Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan On December 10, 2012, it is noted that within the framework of the implementation of the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan "On Education" and the National Program for Training Personnel, a comprehensive system of teaching foreign languages has been created in the country, aimed at forming a harmoniously developed, highly educated, modern-minded younger generation, further integration republics to the world community. In order to radically improve the system of teaching the younger generation foreign languages, training specialists who are fluent in them, by introducing advanced teaching methods using modern pedagogical and information and communication technologies and, on this basis, creating conditions and opportunities for their wide access to the achievements of world civilization and world information resources, development of international cooperation and communication. .modern methodological concepts of teaching foreign languages are developing more clearly and more clearly in the humanistic direction, associated with the search for new approaches to the disclosure of content, strategies for optimizing the real learning process.
This bachelor's work is devoted to a systematic study of phraseological units / phraseological units /, as well as expressiveness and emotionality in modern English. The immediate task of the study is to consider ways of expressing the expressive-emotional function of phraseological units in a literary text. It is supposed to solve the following tasks of a more specific nature:
1. determine the systemic nature of phraseology as a linguistic science;
To trace the extent to which phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological fusions have stylistic coloring;
Describe cases of possible decomposition of phraseological units;
To highlight the theory of stylistic context;
Conduct a stylistic analysis of phraseological units and their functioning in the context;
.to consider special cases of convergence of expressive means as part of phraseology.
To expand the above tasks, this paper uses descriptive, comparative methods and a multi-stage method of definitional analysis, which made it possible to reveal the figurative content of phraseological units.
The work is based on the material of the English-Russian phraseological dictionary of A. V. Kunin.
The paper analyzes a large number of examples /250/ taken in context from the works of English and American classics, modern progressive writers T. Dreiser, S. Maugham, J. Galsworthy, W. Thackeray, W. Scott, E. Hemingway, J. Priestley and etc.
Some contexts are given with translation, due to their hard-to-reach content, and in some cases for a more detailed analysis of a particular phraseological unit.
To solve these problems, it is necessary to clarify a number of concepts related to the context. For this purpose, theoretical studies of our and foreign scientists who contributed to the study of phraseology and context were used. These are the works of V.V. Vinogradova, A.V. Kunin, M. Riffater, N.N. Amosova and others.
The relevance of bachelor's work is determined by the growing interest of researchers in such a phenomenon as the stylistic functions of phraseological units; their expressiveness and emotionality.
The first chapter discusses the characteristics of the language features of phraseology, the linguistic essence of phraseology, the classification of phraseological units, combination and fusion.
The second chapter analyzes expressive means as part of phraseology. The theory of stylistic context is highlighted. Syntactic and phonetic expressive means are also considered.
In conclusion, conclusions are given on the work done.
1. Characteristics of the language features of phraseology
1.1 Phraseology - as a linguistic discipline
In modern linguistic science, phraseology is considered as one of the components: lexicology, stylistics, syntax, lexicography.
However, phraseology is also isolated as an independent discipline. Scientists believe that "Phraseology as a linguistic discipline is still in the stage of latent development, it has not taken shape as a mature fruit of preparatory work ..., and we already need to single out such a discipline, because it is clear to everyone the amateurish helplessness, the failure of the incidental random analysis of this material in lexicography , style, syntax". In phraseological science, with the general definition of a phraseological unit as a special unit of language (that is, having its own categorical features that distinguish it from other units), in the characteristics of its individual sides, the transfer of features of other linguistic units - words or phrases - was observed to it. For its time - the period of the formation of phraseological science, the clarification of its subject and object - such a way of researching a phraseological unit was quite justified and, probably, the only possible one. Moreover, it was this approach to the phraseological unit that contributed to the identification of its categorical originality as a special unit of the language. Modern science has proven that the phraseological unit has to represent all their forms known in the language. But so far this problem cannot be solved due to the limited information available about the paradigmatic forms of nominal and verbal phraseological units.
However, when describing the grammatical properties of a phraseological unit, the grammatical properties of a word are still transferred to it, since the lexical and grammatical characteristics of a phraseological unit are established either by the type of word combinations (by the grammatically main component, by the features of syntactic models, etc.), or by its correlation by grammatical features with a word (as equivalent to a word, as a word of a special structure, as typologically homogeneous with a word, etc.), or a combination of these two approaches to one degree or another.
Unlike lexicology, which studies individual words and the vocabulary of its language - vocabulary, phraseology studies non-single-word units of the language: stable non-free phrases - collocations, phraseological units (idioms), sayings and proverbs, speech clichés and phrase schemes, etc.
Phraseological units can perform the functions of various parts of speech, for example:
noun (substantive phraseological units): Kazan orphan, a dog in the manger (a dog in the manger); verb: beat the buckets, drink till all s blue (drink up to the green serpent), drink smb. Under the table (drink someone), burn the candle at both ends (burn life), ;
adjective: (adjective phraseological units): drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl - drunken insole);
interjection: gracious me! (like this!);
adverbs (adverbial phraseological units): in one s cups (drunk), tirelessly; headlong, etc.
The main features of phraseological units are: complex in composition, semantically indivisible, characterized by constancy of composition (although some phraseological units have options, for example, from the bottom of my heart - from the bottom of my heart), reproducibility in speech (the word "bosom" entails the word "friend"), the impenetrability of the structure (you cannot add or remove any elements), the stability of the grammatical form (each member of the sentence has a certain grammatical form that cannot be changed), for example, “beat the thumbs” (you can’t say “beat the thumbs”), fixed word order. Like words, phraseological units are:
stylistically neutral or common (used in different styles of speech without any restriction): keep the word, from time to time, stylistically colored (characterized by belonging to some functional style speech): you can't spill water like water off a duck's back - colloquial style, center of gravity - scientific style, people of good will - journalistic style, presumption of innocence - official business style). The use of phraseological units gives speech brilliance, liveliness, expressiveness; often, especially in journalism, there is a rethinking of phraseological units, their renewal, this is a special stylistic device. Using phraseological units in speech, one must be sure of the correctness of its reproduction and it is necessary to know exactly its meaning.
Scientists approached the development of the basic concepts of English phraseology in different ways.
According to the theory of academician V.V. Vinogradova "Phraseology as a branch of linguistics that studies stable word complexes, opposed to free, syntactic phrases, as ready-made language formations that are not created, but only reproduced in speech." So, based on the above interpretation of phraseology, free phrases should be distinguished from stable phrases. So, free phrases are those that can constantly change, and those that are used as ready-made, stereotypical phrases are called stable. .
1. Iron fence - iron fence and east-iron will "iron will" 2. Wolf instinct - wolf instinct wolf in sheep s clothing - a wolf in sheep's clothing3. taste "s bitter - a bitter taste and Tastes differ - they do not argue about tastes 4. red apple - a red apple and Red herring - something that knocks you off the track, intentionally distracting attention; Red letter day" - a festive, joyful, happy, memorable day
The above examples, located in the 1st column, refer to free phrases, i.e. we can easily replace any of the components of these phrases, for example /stone fence, animal instinct, etc.
The phrases in the second column are indecomposable. They form a single lexical and syntactic whole.
In other words, the components of phrases located in the first column are used in their direct meanings, and the components of phrases in the second column have a figurative meaning and thus create a certain expressiveness and effect.
This can be illustrated by one of these examples. Let's compare two phrases: red apple and red herring: in the first phrase both components are used in their direct meaning, and in the second - the dictionary meaning of the words / red - red, herring - herring / do not coincide with the contextual at all.
So, based on the above facts, we come to the conclusion that set phrases carry a certain stylistic coloring.
In the structure of the English language and any other language, there are stable phrases, i.e. phraseological units / PU /, which make up the phraseology as a whole. Their semantic content contains fragments of reality, situations in which we use one or another phraseological unit.
The main function of phraseological units is the emotional coloring of this phenomenon. It should be noted that phraseological units in their meaning and functioning are not identical to the word and its functional purpose is somewhat different than that of the word.
Attesting phraseological units as linguistic units denoting "pieces, fragments of reality", the authors of works on phraseology interpret the sign function of phraseological units in different ways: some believe that not all phraseological units are nominative, others believe that the nomination of phraseological units does not have a substantive meaning, others , - that all phraseological units are characterized by a nominative function, i.e. the designation of "pieces, fragments of reality" ..
The special nature of the nominative function of such units lies in the fact that by naming specific objects, phenomena of the surrounding reality, they simultaneously characterize these phenomena and objects.
That is, phraseological units as units of a special level of linguistic structure /words-phrases-sentences/ are communicative signs.
The function of phraseological units is close, but not identical, to the function of words with a figurative meaning, carrying a characterizing and expressive load.
Phraseological units, i.e. phraseological expressions are stable combinations of words with a complicated meaning of a single word, turn of speech, which are characterized by such features as separate-formality, reproducibility, sometimes equivalence and correlation with the word. Let's consider these signs separately. The first feature is reproducibility. In this case, the phraseological expression is not invented anew each time, but is present in the language, and is familiar to most individuals of the language community or society. Although at the beginning the phraseological expression had a specific author, but then it becomes a common property and a linguistic phenomenon.
Consider the English expression blue stocking - a blue stocking. Turning to the history of the appearance of this expression, you can find out that the author of this phraseological unit is the Dutch admiral Boskoven, who in England in the middle of the 18th century called one of the literary salons "a collection of blue stockings" when he saw how the scientist Benjamin Spellingfleet appeared in this salon in blue stockings. At present, hardly anyone knows about the origin of this phraseological unit. As far as we know, all members of the linguistic community take it for granted, and use it in the sense of ""dry pedant, devoid of femininity"".
The second important feature is semantic integrity. The meaning of the phraseological expression is partially or completely rethought, i.e. the meaning of a phraseological unit does not coincide with the meaning of its individual words. For example, the expression he is wet behind ears is literally translated ""it is wet behind his ears"", and the meaning of the phraseological expression itself is ""he is still green"", i.e. not experienced. This English expression corresponds to the Russian phraseological unit ""his milk has not dried up on his lips"".
The third feature is separation. Phraseological expression consists of two or more words, morphologically formed, but with the meaning of a separate word in the figure of speech, i.e. words in a phraseological expression have morphological indicators of words, but the meaning of a phraseological expression is not the sum of the meanings of these words, the components of a phraseological expression are words that are specifically used, the meaning of which is to some extent obscured or lost.
The fourth feature is resilience. A phraseological expression is the degree of fusion of its components, a measure of the possibility / impossibility of changes in a phraseological expression, both in the composition of a phraseological expression due to the expansion / reduction of the component composition or the replacement of one of the components of this expression with a lexical unit similar to it in the thematic range (structural stability), so and in the meaning of phraseological expression (semantic stability). An example of semantic instability is the phraseological expression in English there s no love lost between them (or us), which until the first half of the 19th century. meant ""they love each other"", in modern English this phraseological expression is used in the opposite sense ""they cannot stand each other, or""they did not love each other""
The structural stability of phraseological expressions manifests itself in different ways: some are more stable, others are less. Words in a phraseological expression can change their grammatical indicators, or one word can be replaced by a word similar to it. In this case, we are dealing with phraseological variation, which is divided into the following types:
. Lexical variants - variants with different lexical composition:
closed (sealed) book - a book with seven seals.
· Grammar variants are expressions with certain grammatical changes: the promised land / the land of promise - the promised land.
Quantitative options - options with an unequal number of components, formed by truncating or expanding them: between the devil and the deep blue sea / between the devil and the deep sea - between the devil and the deep sea (in a hopeless situation).
Positional variants are expressions with a permutation of two or more components without changing the structure of the phraseological expression: the short and the long of it / the long and the short of it - in short, in one word.
1.2 Classification of phraseological units
In connection with the diversity and multiplicity of phraseological units, it is necessary to systematize this phenomenon.
We will use the PU classification proposed by Acad. V.V. Vinogradov. According to his classification, all phraseological units are divided into semantic groups: phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological unions.
A) Phraseological units
First, let's consider phrases that are part of the group of phraseological units, which are characterized as phrases motivated in the system of the modern language, the components of which do not have a related meaning. Phraseological units (or phrasemes) are motivated expressions with a single integral meaning arising from the merging of the meanings of lexical components. For example, the expression to be born with a silver spoon in one s mouth means "to be born in a shirt" (literally, to be born with a silver spoon in your mouth); at the drop of the hat - ""immediately, at the same hour, on the slightest occasion"" (literally, at the moment the hat falls); to keep a dog and bark oneself - "do the work of your subordinate" (literally bark, scold, vent irritation, anger).
Phraseological units are characterized by the heterogeneity of their composition, covering numerous phraseological units. Many of them are based on metaphorical or metonymic transfer.
Examples of phraseological units are the following: the world and his wife - all without exception, a big campaign.
"Miss Pray, Madam, who were the company? Lady Smart, why, there was all the world and his wife." (J. Swift, 1Swift1s Polite Conversation, Dialogue III) This unity is realized in a context with the meaning "who was not there". The word "world" is used in its direct meaning "world, universe", and the word wife "has a figurative meaning. And we conclude that this example contains a metaphor.
Consider another example of figurative unity:
Quick on the trigger - fast reacting, swift Summy s going to divorce Natalie - he ran into her with Tom... and you know how quick on the triggerhe is... (S.Lewis 1 BethelMerriday,1 ch.13).
In this context, phraseological unity is used in order to show Sammy's ardor even more vividly and more figuratively.
Analyzing this example, we see that the word "quick" is taken in its direct meaning "quick, quick", but "trigger" "trigger, latch" is used in a figurative sense.
The quick-tempered character of Sammy is compared to how quickly and sharply the latch, the trigger of a pistol / rifle / comes down.
Based on these and many other examples, we can conclude that phraseological units have a figurative meaning, namely, metaphorical transfer is the basis of these phraseological units.
Phraseological units are syntactically indecomposable. From the point of view of syntactic design, two groups of phraseological units can be distinguished. Some are used in sentences as one of its members, i.e. are the equivalents of a sentence member,
For example:
As the crow flies - the shortest way, in a straight line We cut over the fields ...straight as the crow flies...through hedge and ditch.(Ch. Dickens Oliver Twist* ch.XXV) In this statement, the phraseological unity is based on a metaphorical comparison, it has a meaning - quickly and straight as a crow flies.
There are phraseological units that can act as equivalents of a whole sentence:
May your shadow never be less for you1 re the broth of a boy entirely. (B. Show, John Bulls Other Island , act I)
I wish you good health for many years. You are a good person."
They differ from sentences only in their syntactic indecomposability, stability, and immutability. Proverbs and sayings belong to the same group of phraseological units, because. they are stable and separate. Proverbs are usually understood as short sayings that apply to various aspects of life, included in colloquial speech. Proverbs are always sentences. They always pursue a didactic goal (to teach, warn), unlike other phraseological units, proverbs are complex sentences. The proverb is as follows:
The higher the ape goes, the more he shows his tail - "the higher the monkey climbs the tree, the more visible its tail" / it is said about a person whose shortcomings are the more obvious, the higher his social position.
implemented in context:
"Margaret retorted: "... your speech, betrays you. It is not till the ape hath mounted the tree that she shows, her tail so plain." (Ch. Reade The Cloister and the Hearth1 ,ch.LII) "Your speech betrays you. As they say, a monkey climbed a tree and everyone saw that it had a tail." The concept of a saying includes different structural and semantic types of stable figurative combinations of words.
So the next saying
calamity is a man "s touch stone is so closely implemented in the context of "We meet again, sir. The world is a small place." (W. Samaugham "Complete Short Stories", The Round Dozen)
English proverbs are very diverse in their content and cover all aspects of the life of the English people. There are a significant number of proverbs with metaphorical meaning,
For example:
calamity is a man s touchstone - "a person is known in trouble"
The word touch stone is used figuratively.
Or: is silver, but silence is golden - the word is silver, silence is gold.
"As the Swiss Inscription says: sprechen ist silbern,ist golden...) (Th. Garlyle Sartor Resartus)
The proverb consists of two components that have a figurative meaning: - silver, golden - gold.
In order to more clearly convey the meaning of proverbs, their nationality, both lexical-stylistic and structural means are used: for example, comparisons, stylistic means and rhyming consonances, alliteration and assonance.
So, for example, "in the following examples, repetitions perform the function of amplification:
Nothing venture, nothing have. There is no victory without risk.
Consider an illustration of this proverb in context:
"We ve all "been young once you know, I can remember when I wanted to throw my cap over the windmill. Nothing venture, nothing win, that How do you feel, isn't t it? We ve all felt it. But you ve got to have a hit of sense. (C.P.Snow, "Time of Hope* Gh.XVl) We were all young once. I remember, and I once paid tribute to madness. If you don't risk it, you won't win, that's how you reason, right? We've all been through it But one must have a little prudence!
Rhyming consonances are widespread in English proverbs.
For example:straw shows which way the wind blows.
In this proverb, rhyme is created by repeating the monosyllabic lexeme /shows and blows/ when the vowel of the rhyming ema coincides, the rhyme is reinforced by the alliteration /while, way, wind/.
In the following examples, alliteration is based on the repetition of a consonant in the first and last words: dogs seldom bite - do not be afraid of a dog that barks sleeping dogs lie - do not wake up a sleeping dog.
Phraseological units also include non-figurative phraseological units: phrase clichés and clichés. Examples are the following phrases:
1. To be in the same boat - to be in the same position with someone. 2. between two fires - between two fires 3. wolffish appetite - wolfish appetite 4. a burning question - a burning question 5. in a nutshell - briefly in a nutshell 6. don t mention it - not worth a thank you 7. with regard - regarding, regarding, with regard to 8. It s all right - Everything is in order
These phrases belong to phrasal clichés and are unimaginative phraseological units. They began to be used as familiar, traditional phrases that lost their original figurative meaning due to their frequent use.
So, we examined phraseological units, consisting of separate figurative or non-figurative stable phrases, which include figurative and non-figurative proverbs and sayings.
From the point of view of syntactic design, they are either equivalent to a member of a sentence and act as one of them; or can act as equivalents of a sentence.
B) Phraseological combinations.
The second group of phraseological units is made up of phraseological combinations, which are motivated formations with a non-free associated meaning of one of the components.
Phraseological combinations are stable expressions in which one of the components has a literal (dictionary) meaning, i.e. These are partially motivated phrases. For example, black frost in translation means "frost without snow" (literally black frost); to pay through the nose - ""pay in three ways"" (literally pay through the nose); to talk through one s hat - ""talk nonsense, smack nonsense"" (literally speaking through a hat); the last straw - ""the last straw"" (literally the last straw); to burn one s fingers - ""burn yourself on something"" (literally burn your fingers).
Consider this limited combination of words that can be used in a given meaning with only one word or with a limited number of words.
For example: a malice - hold a grudge
In this example, the polysemous verb bear, used to mean "to bear, endure, endure, endure", is used with synonyms for the word malicegrudge or "spit".
"Please don't t bear me malice because I can t accede to your wish", said Davidson with a melancholy smile. (W.S. Maugham, Complete Short Stories, Rain )
The following example of phraseological combinations can serve: into being - arise, appear.
In this phrase, the verb come - to come used with a noun being , connecting through the preposition into. Instead of a noun being noun can be used existence being synonyms.
These examples can be attributed to ugly phraseological combinations. Another group consists of figurative phraseological combinations that have certain expressive means. Let's illustrate this with examples:
(as) dull as ditch water ll like it if you don t mind its being as dull as ditch-water;. (S. Maugham "The Razors Edge", Ch.VI)
The phraseological combination "as dull as ditch water" is a metaphorical comparison. Indeed, in the above example, a figurative representation of this modest seaside resort is created, which can be compared with green melancholy. In addition, in this combination there is an alliteration of the sound "d" / dull and ditch /.
The following phraseological combination:
be born with a silver spoon in one s mouth - born in a shirt, born under a lucky star "She was born with a silver spoon in her mouth. She thinks she can do what she likes". (J. Galsworthy, The Silver Spoon ,partI,ch.IX)
It has a complete metaphorical rethinking.
An example of a partial rethinking can be a phraseological combination:
Sit on the fence - remain neutral, take a neutral, waiting position Don t you ever listen for one second... to these... fellows that... love to straddle the fence. (S. Lewis, Elmer Gantry, ch. XX)
Verb sit used in its main meaning sit , and the noun fence , which has a dictionary meaning fence , hedge used in a figurative sense, i.e. is a metaphor.
Based on the foregoing, we come to the conclusion that phraseological combinations differ from phraseological units in their strict compatibility. As well as phraseological units, phraseological combinations can be figurative and non-figurative.
C) Phraseological unions
The third group of phraseological units includes phraseological fusions, which should be considered as unmotivated, i.e. semantically and syntactically indecomposable phraseological unit. The lack of motivation of adhesions is explained from the point of view of their occurrence. completely unluted expressions. For example, red tape (literally, a red tape) means "red tape, red tape"; old bird (literally old bird) means "shot sparrow"; to kick the bucket (literally, to kick a bucket) - ""bend, die"" = ""stretch your legs""; to pull one s leg (literally pull someone by the leg) - "" fool someone's head "".
Consider examples of phraseological fusions:
Have a be in one s bonnet - to rush about with an idea, to be obsessed with something Diana s been talking about New York again about going there to live, she can t be serious but you know how she is once. She gets a bee in her bonnet . (G. Tidal, Washington, D.C., part II, ch. II).
Phraseological fusion have a bee in one s bonnet forms a single indecomposable whole, the meaning of which at first glance does not give anything definite. The author of such fusions is unknown. And only thanks to the phraseological dictionary we understand the meaning of this fusion.
The following phraseological fusion reflects the traditions of the English people.
Sit above the salt - to occupy a high position in society.
According to the old English custom, the salt shaker was placed in the middle of the table, with noble guests seated at the upper end of the table, and humble guests, poor relatives and servants at the lower end.
"We took him up above the salt, and made much of him. (Ch.Kingsley Westward Hoi*, ch.15) Like the previous example, phraseological fusion sit above the salt is rooted in the deep past. It also has its own expressiveness, namely, it is expressed by a metaphor, intensified by the alliteration of the sounds "s" / sit and.salt/ of the first and final words.
Another example is related to English realities:
An Aunt Sally- Aunt Sally" /folk game name/ "They wandered among the sideshows and the many booths where a game of luck or of throwing skill tried to find an exciting new name-spinning-wheels and coco-nut shies, pig-pelting and Aunt Sally ." (J. Lindsay, A Local Habitation*, ch.18)
In the phraseological fusion "an Aunt Sally", this is the name of the folk game, the expressive means of metonymy is used, i.e. the name of the game is replaced by the idiom an Aunt Sally.
An example of this phraseological fusion is associated with the trusts of the English people.
a black sheep - "black sheep", "shame in the family" /according to the old belief, the black sheep is marked with the seal of the devil/. "... like her father, she was, she said, the religious black sheep of the family. She had never been able to believe anything save that which appealed to her as reasonable. (Th.Dreiser, A Gallery of Women, Rona Murtha ).
Here, as in the previous example, metonymy is used in phraseological fusion as an expressive means.
The following example is a phraseological fusion, the lack of motivation of which is created by obsolete social practice:
Show the white feather - to be cowardly, to be cowardly / a white feather in the tail of a fighting cock was considered a sign of a bad breed. In England, receiving a white pen means being accused of cowardice. It is usually sent to people evading military service /. "1 have lost everything, sir, pen groaned out; my honor sgone; I m ruined, irretrievably; I can t go back to Oxbridge . Lost your honor? screamed out the Major. heaven alive , you don't t mean to say you have shown the white feather?! (W. Thackeray, Pendennis", vol. I, ch.XX) -I dead person sir, Pen groaned, I'm dishonored, I can't go back to Oxbridge. Dishonored! roared the Major. - Righteous sky! Have you been cowardly in a duel?
The meaning of each of the components /show, white, feather/ individually and in conjunction does not correspond in modern English to the content of the concepts they denote and forms a single lexical and syntactic whole. This fusion uses metonymy.
Phraseological unions include phraseological units associated with ancient mythology, for example:
a Pyrrhic victory - a Pyrrhic victory / a victory that cost enormous sacrifices, almost equal to defeat / "Not so fast, gentlemen! Other events are taking place that will make the fall of Kiev a Pyrrhic victory." (H.Politt, ServingmyTime ch.7)
In this type of fusion, as in some of the above examples, an expressive means is used - metonymy.
Thus, having considered and analyzed the fusions, we can conclude that phraseological fusions are unmotivated phraseological units. This lack of motivation is due to various reasons / traditions, historical factors, etc.
The fact that phraseological fusions are mostly unmotivated increases expressiveness to a large extent. In many cases it is difficult to understand the meaning of adhesions, and only with the help of a phraseological dictionary can one find out the meanings of adhesions.
The study of phraseological fusions is of interest if we compare them with the two previous groups, phraseological units and phraseological combinations. Phraseological fusions are less subject to cliché. While in phraseological units and combinations we can observe cases of transition to cliches.
1.3 Decomposition of phraseological units
Let us remind once again that phraseological units are a unit of the language, and not an individual entity. And as mentioned above, unlike phrases, phraseological units are stable formations.
According to N.N. Amosova, "a researcher-phraseologist cannot get past the analytical rarefaction of the problem of the stability of word combinations, because without this the boundaries of phraseology and the very concept of phraseological interconnection of words remain uncertain and unreasonably wide."
The traditional understanding of stability is based on the statement of F. de Saussure, who believes that “The most characteristic property of speech is the freedom of combination: it is necessary, therefore, to raise the question of whether all syntagmas are equally free. First of all, we meet with a huge number of expressions that are unconditionally to the language, these are quite ready-made sayings in which the custom forbids changing anything even if it is possible, upon reflection, to distinguish significant parts in them / get married, etc. /. Approximately the same, although to a lesser extent , refers to such expressions as pawn behind a tie, through the sleeves ... Their usual / fixed by linguistic custom / character is clear from the peculiarities of their meaning or their syntax. Such turns cannot be improvised; they are transmitted ready-made according to tradition "[25, 16 ].
The stability of phraseological units does not always help to solve the problem of influencing the audience. Therefore, the author often tries to give the phraseological unit a different, not quite familiar look for the reader, to modify its form. Such a violation of the integrity of phraseological units can be called the decomposition of a phraseological unit. But the decomposition of phraseological units cannot be considered in isolation from their stylistic functions, because the author always acts consciously and intentionally changes the form.
So, for example, in many cases, a simple replacement of one component of a phraseological unit with another leads to the transformation of a phraseological unit.
Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail. Mind! I don't t mean to say that I know of my own knowledge what there is particularly dead about a door-nail. I might have been inclined, myself, to regard a coffin-nail as the deadest piece of iron-mongery in the trade. But the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simile... You will therefore permit me to repeat emphatically that Marley was as dead as a door-nail. (Ch. Dickens *A Christmas NI Carol Stave I)
As can be seen from this passage, phraseology as dead as a door-nail , which means without any signs of life, lifeless; finally dead , decomposes, and there is a violation of the generally recognized meaning of the combination, which acquires additional emotional expressiveness dead about a door-nail This phrase takes on fresh force and effect to prove that the person was actually dead.
The transformation of a phraseological unit may be the result of other types of decomposition of phraseological units, for example, wedging:
Lead somebody a dance = lead somebody a prettydance "lead someone by the nose", "deliver someone into a false, ridiculous, embarrassing situation". "Didn't look at the bronze face! and the philosopher looked back from his hollow eyes , as if saying: "What do you know of human heart, my boy...? A pretty dance the heart will lead you yet! (J. Galsworthy beyond , part If, ch.IV) He looked at the bronze face, and the philosopher also looked at him with empty orbits of his eyes, as if to say: "What do you know about the human heart, young man? You will still get into trouble because of heart affairs."
In this example, the transformation is achieved not only by inserting the word pretty, but also by rearranging the components, as a result of which the emotional coloring of the entire statement is enhanced.
In English literature, a stylistic device is widely used, when several phraseological meanings of a word are realized in the same sentence. This technique is often referred to in the style of "zeugma". The use of zeugma in an English text usually creates some humorous or ironic effect. It was especially widely used in the works of the American writer O Henry.
For example:
And now must come swift action, for we have here some four thousand words and not a tear shed and never a pistol, joke, safe, nor "bottle cracked. (O Henry, A Night in New Arabia )
Simultaneous combination of the verb to crack with nouns that are heterogeneous in semantics pistol - pistol, revolver , joke - joke, joke , safe - safe, fireproof box or closet , bottle - bottle, bottle - conveys the author's ironic attitude to the accessories of a detective novel. The degree of figurativeness of zeugma is usually insignificant. As a rule, this is a relatively weak stylistic means.
Sometimes the effect of deceived expectation is created due to the fact that the reader is prepared for the perception of a stable well-known phrase. But at the last moment, the author makes changes to this semantic phrase and this creates a stylistic increment. Actually, the perception of this phraseology is also changing. The above is well seen in the following example:
I came, I saw, I conquered - came, saw, conquered "When Ramsay Macdonald became Foreign Minister in the first Labor Government it was said of him he came, he saw, he was conquered ..." (WorldNews, Jan. 17 ,1959)
The author made changes to the semantic phrase / was conquered /. Based on the above examples and many others, it follows that the development of the variability of phraseological units in modern English, as well as the emergence of a large number of structural synonyms, violates the idea of \u200b\u200b"the immutability of structural phraseological units". The constancy of the composition of phraseological units does not exclude the possibility of changing their structure within certain limits, for example:
give away the show = give the show away - give away, spill a secret, spill the beans.
The translation of phraseological expressions from English into other languages causes certain difficulties due to their semantic integrity and complexity. A literal (literal) translation of a phraseological expression distorts the meaning of the statement; an adequate transfer of the meaning of the phraseological unit into the second language is required. There are the following ways of translating phraseological expressions:
) equivalent - translation of a phraseological unit from the first language by a phraseological unit of the second language, coinciding with it in meaning and in the structural composition of the components. Absolutely adequate phraseological expressions of two languages are called full (or absolute) equivalents: to pull chest nuts out of the fire for smb. - to drag chestnuts out of the fire for someone; to stew in one s own juice - Russian to cook in one's own juice; wolf in sheep s clothing wolf in sheep's clothing ?oytericin zhamyl?an?as?yr; between two fires - rus. play with fire, kaz. Otpen oinau; to be born under a lucky star - rus. be born under a lucky star; to pour oil on the flames - rus. pour oil on the fire, Kaz. from? and may?? Incomplete (or partial) equivalents are those phraseological expressions that have structural and grammatical or lexical differences, when one component of the English phraseological expression does not coincide with the phraseological expression of the second language, but belongs to the same thematic group: like a squirrelin a cage - Rus. like a squirrel in a wheel (literally, like a squirrel in a cage); to get out of bed on the wrong side - rus. get up on the left foot, Kaz. Sol aya? ymen t? ru.
) similar - translation of a phraseological expression from the first language by a phraseological unit of the second language, adequate in content, but different in structural and component composition. For example, as stiff as a poker (literally frozen like a poker) - Rus. as if swallowed arshin, Kaz. O?tau w?t?andai?a?ayu; a fly in the ointment (literally a fly in the ointment) - Rus. a fly in the ointment in a barrel of honey, Kaz. Bir?arynmaidy bir??small? wide; as like as two peas (literally similar as two peas) - Rus. like two drops of water, Kaz. Egiz? one "s in a blue moon (literally, once upon a blue moon) - Russian when the cancer whistles on the mountain, Kaz. of a mole hill (literally, to make a mountain out of a molehill) - Russian to make an elephant out of a fly, Kaz.
) descriptive - descriptive translation of a phraseological expression or one equivalent word, or a group of equivalent words (in the event that the second language does not have a phraseological unit corresponding to the phraseological unit of the first language). For example, a white elephant (literally a white elephant) - Russian. burdensome or ruinous property; a burden, a gift that you don’t know how to get rid of; to knit one s brows (literally tie, splice someone's eyebrows) - kaz. ?aba?tiya (shitu); red tape (literally red tape) - red tape, bureaucracy; to fiddle while Rome is burning (literally play the violin while Rome is burning) to deal with trifles in the face of serious danger; ships that pass in the night (literally ships that sail past in the night) - fleeting meetings; a black sheep (literally a black sheep) - a shame in the family.
) combined transfer - the transfer is carried out by a combination of the above methods. Phraseological expression-analogue and equivalent plus descriptive translation. This method is used when the phraseological unit of the second language does not fully reveal the meaning of the phraseological expression of the first language. For example, spick and span - Russian with a needle, elegant, dandy; far cry (literally a distant cry) - Rus. like heaven and earth; big difference, kaz. k?kpen poles; a millstone about smb s neck (literally, a millstone burden) around someone's neck) - Rus. stone on the neck; heavy responsibility; to live on the fat of the land (literally live on the fat land) - Russian to ride like cheese in butter; live in luxury, live in clover.
4 Modeling problem
The phraseological model is understood as the uniformity inherent in some categories of phraseological units.
In the phraseological literature, the irregularity of the linguistic organization of stable verbal complexes is noted. Irregularity is understood as the absence of a rule according to which an unlimited number of language units of the same content and structure of the same type could be generated and transformed. In the event of the emergence of a generative model of a variable word combination or sentence due to the collapse of a single combination, the process of dephraseologisation occurs, which is widespread in the English language. Thus, the word black in the sense of "boycotted by the trade union" (in support of the strike) was originally used only with the word steamer (1927) - a steamer that union members refuse to unload. Later, the compatibility of the word black in this meaning expanded (black freighter, ship, work, etc.), and a generative model arose. A white man means a person of the white race and figuratively an honest, decent, morally pure person. In a figurative sense, this turnover in the XIX century. was single, i.e. phraseme in the understanding of N.N. Amosova. According to the Big Oxford Dictionary, the earliest example of this usage dates back to 1865:
The person ... was one of the whitest men Iknew (M.Twain. "Sketches").
In the 20th century, around 1910, the word white acquired the meaning of honest, decent, and by conversion also honest, decent , and its compatibility has expanded. Interesting examples given in DAS:
The teaching staff... always referred to Doctor Son-tag as a mighty white Jew (S. Longstreet. "The Ped-blocks", 1901, p. 300).
"That"s damn white of you, Doc..." (G.D. Mac Donald).
She isn't a lady - but she's white, white as hell (Marks. "Plastic Age", 1924, p. 54).
When the meaning "pure, decent" entered the structure of the word white and began to be fixed in dictionaries, it began to be combined with various nouns, i.e. a generative model arose as a result of the collapse of the singular combination of the word white, and the turn a white man passed into the category of recurrent turns, i.e. became the most common variable phrase formed according to this structural-semantic generative model.
The grammatical model is universal, since the vast majority of phraseological units are formed according to the grammatical models of phrases, sentences and exocentric phrases (in the terminology of L. Bloomfield), i.e. one-vertex revolutions (according to the terminology of A.I. Smirnitsky) with one significant word (at all - 1) completely, completely; 2) in general; at least - at least, at least; by heart - by heart; by the way - by the way, by the way, by the way, etc.).
Less common are models of phraseological units without significant words: by and by - gradually, over time; by the by - by the way, by the way, by the way; out and out - 1) undoubtedly, undoubtedly; completely; 2) complete, perfect; burnt, notorious, etc.
When highlighting semantic models PhU takes into account the semantic regularity carried out within the framework of various structures. At the same time, there is no regular correspondence between semantic information and grammatical structure. For example, the concept of saving is expressed by the following metaphorical phraseological units: cut one "s coat according to one" s cloth - live within your means; \u003d stretch the legs along the clothes; keep one "s head above water - "stay on the surface", fight for existence, not get into debt; make both ends meet - make ends meet; pay one "s way - live within your means, do not get into debt; put by (or save) for a rainy day - postpone for a rainy day.
In the structural-semantic modeling of phraseological units, there is a regularity of correspondence between the semantic information transmitted by them and the grammatical structure. A peculiar structural-semantic modeling is observed in stable comparisons (similes), usually called comparative phrases. The main types of comparative phrases with the structure of a phrase are adjective and verbal. Adverbial comparatives are relatively few in number. Comparative modeling is characterized by a high degree of regularity.
Conclusions on the 1st chapter
The above analysis of phraseological units: phraseological units, phraseological combinations, phraseological fusions allows us to conclude that among the three groups, phraseological fusions are the most expressive due to the fact that they can in no way be subject to clichés due to their integral and indecomposable structure.
An analysis of the expressive means used in phraseological units also allows us to conclude that the most striking and frequent expressive means of phraseological units are metaphor and metonymy, as the dominant expressive means, and side by side, the most common expressive means adjoin them: alliteration, rhyme / concomitant means /, and syntactic repetition.
2. Analysis of expressive means as part of phraseology
1 Coverage of the theory of stylistic context
The task of this chapter is the stylistic analysis of phraseological units, as well as the identification of the features of their functioning in the context.
Before moving on to solving the main problem, it is necessary to define the concept of context. The context problem has been developed by many scholars.
The linguistic definition of the context was given more than once by VG Kolshansky. The context is defined by him as "a set of formally fixed conditions under which the content of any linguistic unit is unambiguously revealed.".
In semantic-linguistic terms, the concept of context was developed by N.N.
In Kolshansky's definition, the main emphasis is on the presence of formally fixed conditions in which the content of a linguistic unit is unambiguously realized.
In the definition of N.N. Amosova, this idea finds its further development and confirmation.
This context definition corresponds to the conditions in which the value of any PU is realized, namely, the presence of formally fixed conditions and uniquely realized PU values.
In order to imagine in more detail the conditions under which phraseological units are implemented in this work, the concept of micro- and macro-context is introduced.
Thus, we will call the minimal formally fixed conditions under which the meaning of phraseological units is realized the microcontext.
Under the macrocontext, we mean the context in which the emotional and expressive possibilities of phraseological units are realized. It can be several sentences, a paragraph, a story, and even a completed work of fiction. So, for example, the novel C, Maugham Cakes and Ale is built on the realization of the meaning of the phraseological unit, which the author took out in the title of his novel. The emotionally expressive meaning of this phraseological unit runs like a red thread through the entire novel, creating a certain stylistic expressiveness.
Thus, the analysis of the functioning of phraseological units in the text is directly related to the concept of stylistic context.
The stylistic context is a specific concept, not identical to the context in the linguistic sense. This is the background against which the expression of this or that element arises. Such a context is not yet well developed and requires further research.
So, in particular, M „Riffater outlines the contours possible solution question of stylistic context.
"The stylistic context, in his understanding, is not a verbal context in which the ambiguity of the meaning of the word is presented. The stylistic context can be a model that is suddenly violated due to the introduction of an unpredictable element / in our case, this is the expansion of phraseological units /
see page and the contrast resulting from this is the so-called stylistic increment.
The contextual concept of M. Riffater is based on the information-theoretic approach. For the writer, literature is a channel for transmitting information, in relation to which the reader will be the direct recipient of the transmitted information. The stochastic properties of speech can cause shallow reading, skipping much of what the text contains. In order to mobilize the reader's attention, the text must contain elements of the unpredictable, attracting the reader's attention with their unexpectedness, originality. For example, in the case of phraseological fusions used in the text / see p. /. It is these elements that are most informative, emotionally charged. They serve as a signal in the transmission of the most important moments of the message for the author. The author does not use neutral statements or paraphrases, but intentionally, for a specific purpose, introduces phraseological units /or phraseological fusions/ into the fabric of the literary text.
All of the above defines the concept of style given by Riffater. Style, in his opinion, is emphasizing and highlighting emotionally charged elements. To highlight emotionally charged, original elements, a background consisting of ordinary elements is needed.
The macrocontext is intended to serve as such a background.
A stylistic context is a segment of a literary text interrupted by an element that has the property of unpredictability, i.e. PU in relation to the given text and makes a contrast with it, creating one or another stylistic effect. The contrast arises as a consequence of the principle of "deluded expectation". Riffater's interpretation of the principle of "deluded expectation" follows from his concept of stylistic context.
According to Riffater, "deluded expectation" is stimulated by "increased expectation", which precedes the effect of "deluded expectation" and is created by the special nature of the stylistic context. The root cause of the stylistic effect lies in the elements with low predictability, encoded in one or more immediate constituents; other components that make this contrast possible form
stylistic context.
This can be illustrated with the following example:
He ll mend, he ll mend, pronounced the Bailie. Like sour ale in simmer, added Davie Gellatley, who happened to be nearer the conclave than they were aware of. (W. Scott, Waverley*, ch.XlV)
In this macro context, taken from the work of V. Scott, the phraseological unit /mend/ like sour ale in summer is realized with the meaning "become even worse, worsen".
This phraseological unit contains the main meaning of the entire macro context, i.e. the ironic function of phraseology is realized here.
The relationship between the microcontext and the element contrasting with it in Riffater's theory can be compared with the relationship between the dependent element of the lexical context and its immediate semantic and syntactic environment in N.N. Amosova's contextological concept.
In addition to the relationships that develop between the microcontext, there are relationships that develop within the microcontext. One aspect of these relationships is the notion of convergence.
In accordance with the definition of M. Riffater, "the convergence of stylistic devices is the convergence at one point of a bundle of stylistic devices / SP / aimed at achieving a stylistic effect.
We take this definition of convergence as a basis, but with a certain reservation. In our case, there is no need to talk about any stylistic devices that make up phraseological units. In order for a joint venture to appear, certain conditions for the functioning of PU are necessary. We do not set ourselves the goal of identifying these conditions. This is another problem. In our case, convergence is understood as the convergence in one bundle of several expressive means of the language.
Let's consider what expressive means are most implemented in the composition of phraseology. Our analysis is built on three language levels: lexical, syntactic, phonetic. Consider the first of these levels.
2.2 Lexical expressions
Lexical stylistic means of modern English are a variety of expressive means of the language, which are based on the use of semantic, stylistic and other features of a phraseological unit. They give brightness, expressiveness to the whole statement and thus make the speech original and expressive, different from neutral.
A) metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the word.
Metaphors can be based on the following types of similarities:
.similarity of position. For example:
"The dance-hall was a mass of stamping, pushing, circling humanity... As he sat there pale and silent, like a fish out of water..." (A.J. Cronin, A Thing of Beauty, part I, ch. VII)
FE a fish out of water in combination with the context, it realizes one of its meanings, clearly alien to the elements. Expressiveness and emotionality are achieved through a metaphor that points to the fact that just as a fish can live without water, so this person, who got into the dance hall, where the crowd was having fun, felt lonely, a stranger to this society.
.Another kind of metaphor based on similarity is age similarity:
"Certainly we write not for babes and suckling , but for the world at large..." ( morning star. April 11,1968)
In this context, the following PU value is realized:
"babies, that is, people who are completely inexperienced, who do not understand anything in life, like babies." This example is also interesting because the words "babes" and "sucklings" are synonymous words, which further proves the inexperience and ignorance of some people.
.The third kind of similarity is color similarity:
"The windows were blind, with rain and the room so dark that Henry turned on the lights. I don t suppose that s ever been done Before except in a pea-soup fog , he said cheerfully. (N. Marsh, "Surfeit of Lampreys, ch. XVII)"
In this context, the meaning of PU is realized as "fog as thick as pea soup". Sometimes in London thick fog yellow, due to air pollution. And the metaphor contained in this phraseological unit helps the reader to imagine the gloom and darkness of the room.
.Similarity of taste sensations:
The week before, Lady Weatherby had been given a large party and neither she nor Henry had been invited. It had been a bitter pill for Alice to swallow, she had always grided herself on being particularly close to EleonorWeatherby... (A.J. Cronin, The Northern Light, part I, ch. fourteen."
In this context, the meaning of PU is realized: "a bitter pill" in the sense that Alice found herself in an insulting and humiliating position with which she has to put up with.
This list does not limit the use of metaphor as one of the most striking and common means of expression. The above cases are the most common types of similarities in modern English phraseology.
B) Metonymic transfer of the meaning of the word
The other most common means of phraseological units is metonymy.
In accordance with the classification of A.V. Kunin, we distinguish the following types of metonymic rethinking of the meaning of the word: An organ instead of the function performed by it, for example:
make a poor mouth - pretend to be poor, show shame * And the railroads ... were asked for the surplus due to the Government. And at once, of course, the poor poverty-stricken railroads began to make a poor mouth to cry "confiscation"... (Th. Dreiser, "Tragic America", ch.) And, of course, the railroads, which immediately fell into poverty, began to show shame and shout about "confiscation" ...
In this example, the phraseological phrase "make a poor mouth" is used in the meaning of "shrink". The mouth organ, which performs the chewing function in this phraseological unit, acts as an organ instead of a function. Using the names of certain persons instead of what is associated with them.
Big Bertha - "Big Bertha", a large-caliber German cannon / named after the wife of the largest weapons manufacturer Crusch von Bohlen / The Germans constructed, enormous siege guns, known as "Big Bertha", and set them up in a forest behind Laon, and were firing shells into Paris from a distance of seventy-five miles." (IT. Sinclair worlds end , ch.22)
III. The name of the street instead of the institution located on it or people associated with it:
Wall-Street - Wall Street, American financial oligarchy / on Wall Street in New York are the largest banks, the stock exchange, etc. / "America had entered World Way I as a debtor nation. It came out of it the creditor. wall streethad been the only victor in the war." (G. Green, The Enemy Forgotton , ch.II) America entered the First World War as a country in debt. She left. She was already a creditor country. Wall Street was the only winner in the war 1.For comparison
One of the most common expressive means of phraseological units is comparison. Comparisons are characterized by the duality of the meaning of the compared elements. The first component of comparisons is usually used in its main dictionary meaning. The function of the second component is always amplifying. Very often, comparisons are based on the typical properties of animals:
Laugh like a hyena - shrill, shrill laugh "They both laughed like hyenas as stuff that wasn't ever funny. I didn't t even enjoy sitting next to them in the movies. (J, Salinger "The Catcher in the Bye*, ch.V)"
Imagery is created by comparing the laughter of a man with a hyena.
Drink like a fish - drink heavily, drink deeply "...Perkins and Cooper had fallen upon evil days: Cooper drank like fish. and ... the linen drapers filed their petition in bankruptcy. (W.S. Maughamy Of Human Bondage, oh.15)
In this example, the author uses the comparison drink like a fish in order to more figuratively show what Cooper's bankruptcy led to, in what a desperate situation he found himself .. Comparisons express various qualities, properties of people, objects and phenomena.
As cool as cucumber- completely calm, calm, not losing his cool "This morning they were all back on their jobs, the Chinese cook and all. There they were, as cool as cucumbers; you would have thought they owned the place. (W.S. Maugham "Complete Short Stories", The Outstation") Imagery is achieved by comparing the quality of an inanimate object / cucumber /, and the comparison itself refers to people. Another example of this kind of comparison: red as cherry - ruddy, with blush all over the cheek
"The girl s page was Peg. Her cheeks were as red as cherries..."
(A.J. Cronin "The Stars Look Down", book III, ch. IV)
In this comparison as red as cherry refers to people, although it conveys one of the meanings of a plant.
Comparison is often formed with the help of a metaphor:
a face as long as a fiddle - a gloomy, sad face,
long face "in the old days, when variety was variety. ve known myself. Looked up for two years...look it now. When you see a manages, his face is as long as a fiddle.
(J.B. Priestly They Walk in the City, ch.VII)
In this context, this comparison means a part of the body / face / which compares to a violin. Dictionary meaning fiddle violin perceived by us in a figurative sense elongated look like a violin / a sign of an inanimate object / and is enhanced by the alliteration of the sound / f / / face fiddle /.
So, from the above examples, we come to the conclusion that comparison is a rather strong expressive means in phraseology. This statement becomes clear if PU with ordinary phrasal comparisons such as as white as day, as white as snow, as black as night, as ball as billiard ball. and others, in which the meaning of each of the components is used in its direct meaning.
d) epithet
The next most common expressive means is the epithet.
An epithet is an expressive means based on highlighting a quality, a sign of the described phenomenon, which is formed in the form of attributive words or phrases that characterize this phenomenon from the point of view of this perception of this phenomenon.
Traditional epithets are divided at the bottom of the group: associated and non-associated.
Associated epithets include those that highlight one of the signs of the phenomenon, secondary, but characteristic of this phenomenon, such as:
Almighty dollar closed book, gray ware, green light
Of great interest is the second - non-associated group of epithets, when a phenomenon is endowed with some feature, a sign unusual for this phenomenon.
We will classify such epithets as part of phraseology according to the following criteria:
.Color-based epithets, for example: red letter day - festive, joyful, happy, memorable day / original. public holiday marked in red on the calendar
"It was a red letter day for Willoughly. The general for once, had not bothered him.(S.Heym , The Crusaders, bo.VI,ch.8)
In this context, FE a red letter day implements the value "lucky day". On the face of the author's individual-evaluative attitude to the subject of thought, that for Willoughby turned out to be an extremely successful day. Therefore, we can say that here the combination "red letter" is an epithet.smb. green light- "give the green light", "open the way"
If you give me a green light, I can bring some of them back.
(F.Khebel and Ch.Bailey Convention ch. fourteen)
a white man - a decent, honest, well-mannered person / the expression reflects the attitude of the ruling classes towards the peoples of the non-white race /
"Sit down and tell me about your sister and John. Is it a marriage of true minds? ... It certainly is. John is a pretty white man...
(J. Galsworthy The Silver Spoon, partI,ch.I)
2.Allusive epithets: the Chiltern Hundreds - to resign as a member of parliament / The Chiltern districts were institutions to combat numerous robbers.
"Don't get first thought that his life as a legislator might be allowed to come to a natural end, that he might die as it were in his bed, without suffering the acute pain of applying for the Chiltern Hundreds."
(A. Trollope The Three Clerks, ch.XLW)
3.An example of a metaphorical epithet is the following PU:
A green old age - happy, cheerful old age
"Ladied and Gentlemen, - May we all live to a green old age. and "be prosperous and happy."
(M. Twain, The Innocents Abroad, ch.X)
Word green has a figurative meaning as "peppy" and is expressed attributively, which is an epithet "because the subject-logical meaning of the word green is realized .
It should be noted that the epithet is often combined with other lexical expressive means. The epithet is the most spatial expressive means in the system of lexical expressive means.
e) Hyperbole
Hyperbole, like other expressive means, is used to make phraseological units expressive and emotional.
For example: be a demon for work "The speed with which Joe worked won Mafctin* s admiration. Joe was a demon for work".
(J.London, Eartin Eden ch.XVI).
Using the method of definitional analysis, it can be established that the word demon in the explanatory dictionary of the English language defines as: man fierce or energetic person, or a man who works with great energy. The author uses hyperbole to show with what maximum energy Martin Eden worked. Expressiveness and a certain emotional coloring of phraseological units is created due to hyperbole.
I have not seen you for ages - I have not seen you for ages.
"I have not seen Uncle Kabel for ages. Now I want to look at him and hear him talk".(S.Heym, The Eyes of Reason,book II, ch.I)
In this example, the hyperbolic value is expressed by the word ages -century , which is used, of course, in an exaggerated sense.
Hyperbole also serves for emotional coloring. The writer, using hyperbole, always expects the reader to understand the exaggeration as a deliberate stylistic device.
In modern English there are a large number of expressive means that create the expressiveness of phraseology. The scope of this work does not allow to consider all existing means.
The main conclusion that we come to as a result of the study is that undoubtedly lexical expressive means are the leading means of creating expression.
2.3 Syntactic expressions
The syntactic expressive means of the language create a special organization of the utterance, which distinguishes such an utterance from an utterance in a "neutral" form of presentation,
A) repetitions
Repetition is the repetition of one of the components that make up phraseological units. Repetitions are usually classified according to the compositional principle, that is, the place of the repeating unit in the PU.
So the repetition-anaphora stands out.
For example: cut diamond - one will not yield to another
"Bring a gun..." - "A gun? Why?" - In some of these places they try to roll you". "Can"t you bring one?"
"I don't happen to own one." - "Nor do I, and he believed he caught in the receiver the metallic sound of a chamber being checked. Diamond cut diamond, he thought, and smiled.
(Gr. Greene, "Our Man in Havana", part V.ch.V)
Or: come, first served - The first one is served first and handsome is as handsome - a person of business is painted
The repetitions at the end of phraseological units are called epiphora.
God helps them that help themselves - hope in God
but don't be bad yourself; God saves man, who save himself
"Never, never despair, Mr. Aubrey.helps those who help themselves.
(S.Warren, "Ten Thousand a Tear", ch.21)
Other examples of repetition might be:
1.He laughs best who laughs last - last. He who laughs last laughs best
2.don't trouble trouble until trouble troubles you-
do not wake dashing while it sleeps
The use of repetition undoubtedly contributes to the creation of emotional coloring of phraseological units. However, it should be noted that in most cases repetition enhances the main semantic content of phraseological units. It is, as it were, an auxiliary tool and highlights those components of phraseology that are semantically loaded.
B) Inversion
The most common case of PU inversion is when the predicate comes before the subject.
For example:
Burn the midnight oil - work at night
"Here s where I burn the midnight oil now and then, sometimes with one or two young lawyers to help".
(F.Knebel, * Night of Camp David*, ch.6)
Or, assume airs - assume importance
"Who were the aristocracy, to give themselves airs?! Half of em descendants of those who had got what they had by robbery or jobbery!
(J, Galsworthy The Silver Spoon, part. I, ch.VI)
It should be noted that inversion is used in a small amount in phraseological units. However, its presence creates greater expressiveness and capacity for the statement.
B) Parallelism
Parallelism is a composition of a statement in which the individual parts are built in the same way.
Examples of parallelisms are:
1)after dinner sit a while, supper walk a mile.
"sit after dinner, walk a mile after dinner."
Parallelism is enhanced by rhyme.
)not to let one s left hand know what one "s right hand does -
"The left hand doesn't know what the right hand is doing."
It should be noted that parallelism, of course, contributes to the emotional coloring of phraseological units and creates the prerequisites for their quick memorization and reproduction, because similarly constructed parts of the statement are easier for the reader to perceive. However, the frequent use of this expressive means creates unnecessary monotony, monotony. The main expressive property of parallelism is that against the background of similarly constructed phrases, repeating elements clearly stand out. Thus, parallelism serves as a background for revealing the semantic content of phraseology.
4 Phonetic expressive means / alliteration, rhyme
Euphonia is special reception sound organization of the utterance, which is designed for the desired rhythmic-melodic effect.
a) alliteration
The essence of this technique is to repeat the same sounds or combinations of sounds at a relatively close distance.
For example:
as bright as a button - clean; elegant, with a needle.
The good Irishwoman has made one place bright as new pin.
(R. Greenwood, The True History of a Little Beegamuffin, ch.II)
In the first case, alliteration does not carry any semantic function. It is only an additional emotional impact, as if musical accompaniment of the main idea of the statement.
There are a large number of similar examples in English:
.contest the chrome - compete, challenge
2.sit above the salt - "occupy a high position in society"
3.possess one s soul in patience- "be patient"
4.wheels within wheels - "interlacing of interests, influences, interest"
In the last example, there is an alliteration of the /w/ sound, as well as a repetition of the word /wheels/. Sounds in themselves cannot be carriers of any ideological, semantic content, but repetition sounds are a kind of means of artistic expression,
Rhyme is the repetition at regular intervals of the same or similar sound combinations at the end of words.
Many proverbs rhyme
For example:
1.Birds of feather flock together - "the fisherman sees the fisherman from afar
.snug as a bug in a rug - "comfortable"
In some phraseological units, alliteration and rhyme interact:
1.snug as a bug in a rug - people of different professions, a diverse audience.
Rhyme in itself, just like alliteration, cannot be a means of conveying any semantic content. It serves as a kind of means of expression.
Thus, we can conclude that phonetic means of expression always accompany lexical and syntactic means of expression. They are, as it were, adjoining, amplifying expressive means.
Thus, after a short review of the functioning of expressive means in the structure of phraseology, we come to the conclusion that syntactic and phonetic expressive means serve as concomitant means of creating expressiveness, for the most part they are combined with lexical expressive means. This provision gives us the right to believe that lexical expressive means are dominant, revealing both the semantic and grammatical content of phraseology.
2.5 Convergence of expressive means
The previous sections outlined ways to create convergence. In this section, we will dwell on the concept of convergence in more detail and demonstrate the stylistic possibilities of this phenomenon. We will consider combinations of two or more expressive means as part of a microcontext.
Consider the following examples:
(as) steady as a rock - hard as a rock
(as) fierce as a tiger - fierce as a tiger
Stones will cry out /about something outrageous?
Yarrido did his job well: he knew that the stones cry out, and he didn't t leave any stones. (Gr.Greene The Lawless Hoads", ch.6)
Word stone has a figurative metaphorical meaning "to be a heartless person (have a heart of stone he hard hearted). This metaphorical meaning is reinforced by the verb cry which creates an impersonation, i.e. private metaphorization, because verb cry used with living beings, animals, birds, the Explanatory Dictionary gives the following definition of the word cry : make (usually) load) sounds that express feelings, e.g. pain, hut not ideas, thoughts; or means weep, shed tears (with or without sounds).
This phraseological combination can be considered as a metaphorical hyperbole, because impossible, unrealistic actions are realized in it. The same can be seen in the following FUs:
(as) steady as a rock, (as) fierce as a tiger
In these examples, the presence of conjunctions as...as signals the presence of a stylistic comparison. But along with this expressive means, hyperbole is used.
Hyperbolic meaning is created through the use of the word rock . Using the method of multistage definitional analysis, we will demonstrate the presence of a hyperbolic value in this phraseological unit. In the explanatory dictionary of the English language, the word rock means solid, stony part of the earth s crust. In this definition, the main capacity is acquired by the words solid and stoney . In turn, the analysis of the word solid reveals the following value: of strong or firm material or construction able to support weight or resist pressure. And the word stoney mean hard, cold, unsympathetic.
All this taken together gives us the right to say that a sufficiently strong hyperbolic value is realized in this PU.
Often convergence is achieved by the interaction of phonetic and lexical expressive means:
(as) fit as a fiddle- in good health; never better
"Have you had any news of your horse this morning?"
"Yes, he's fit as a fiddle."
(J. Galsworthy, The Country House, p.I, ch.I)
The presence of the union as ... as indicates that this phraseological unit is a comparison. Word fiddle violin has a figurative meaning, because this word means another meaning "mood, state". I. these lexical means are reinforced by the alliteration of the sounds f and i. Two lexical expressive means / metaphor, comparison / and a phonetic expressive means / alliteration / are concentrated here.
Conclusions on the 2nd chapter
I. Having conducted a study of phraseological units at three language levels: lexical, semantic and phonetic, we can conclude that undoubtedly lexical expressive means are one of the leading means of creating expression. And syntactic and phonetic expressive means serve as accompanying means. In most cases, they are combined with lexical expressive means.
Based on the above examples, we can conclude that convergence is a fairly common phenomenon, which consists in the combination of several expressive means as part of a microcontext.
The most common case is a combination of lexical and phonetic means.
Conclusion
1. Phraseology is defined by us as one of the most effective components of stylistics.
The paper gives a distinction between free and stable phrases. This distinction allows us to identify the expressive possibilities of set phrases.
The classification of phraseological units into 3 groups /phraseological units, phraseological combinations, phraseological fusions/ makes it possible to see the disparity of this linguistic phenomenon. Phraseological unions or combinations have the highest expressiveness, because they may be less subject to cliché.
The decomposition of phraseological units creates the effect of a deceived expectation, which has a fairly strong stylistic value.
The expressiveness of phraseological units is revealed in the linguistic context. Under the linguistic context, we mean "formally fixed conditions" under which the content of any linguistic unit is unambiguously revealed. "Based on this definition, the content of micro- and macro-contexts is revealed.
Under the macrocontext we mean the context in which the expressive-emotional possibilities of phraseological units are realized.
Under the microcontext - the minimum formally fixed conditions in which the value is realized in phraseological units.
The interaction of macro- and micro-contexts creates a stylistic context.
Under the stylistic context, we mean the background against which the expression of this or that element arises.
By convergence, we mean the convergence of expressive means at one point, aimed at achieving a stylistic effect /i.e. as part of the microcontext/. Convergence is realized in the metaphorical and metonymic word transfer, as well as in the use of comparison, various structural types of epithet, hyperbole, etc.
All of the listed lexical means are strengthened as a result of the use of syntactic expressive means. The most common of these are repetition and parallelism.
The paper shows the role of phonetic expressive means used in combination with the above lexical and syntactic means.
The expressiveness of expressive means is ambiguous. So lexical expressive means are dominant, and syntactic and phonetic expressive means play a secondary role. They perform an amplifying function.
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1. www.oxfordhouse.com
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The concept of phraseology.
Phraseologism(phraseological turn) is a stable combination of words with a holistic generalized figurative meaning that arose on the basis of a figurative rethinking (semantic transformation) of the verbal complex. (Malt).
Phraseologism- these are stable combinations of words, that is, separately formed formations with completely or partially rethought components, phraseological meanings. Phraseological units are characterized not by stability in general, but by stability at the phraseological level, regular dependencies of verbal components and structural-semantic non-modeling (Kunin).
Classification of phraseological units of the Russian language, proposed by V.V. Vinogradov and subsequently applied also to other languages, provides, in addition to free combinations, three main types of phraseological units in descending order of the degree of closeness of the connection between the components:
phraseological fusions;
phraseological units;
phraseological (non-free, otherwise stable) combinations.
Phraseological fusions (idioms)
Phraseological fusion (idiom) is a long-established in the language, usually emotionally colored, frozen figure of speech. The main feature of phraseological unions, in contrast to combinations and unities, is that their general meaning is not motivated by the meaning of the constituent elements and cannot be derived from them. The words that are part of the fusion have completely lost their semantic independence and their meanings, therefore, do not explain the meaning of the entire turnover as a whole. For example:
“A skeleton in the cupboard” - “family secret; a nuisance hidden from strangers”; "Grin like a Cheshire ca" t - "grin from ear to ear"
Phraseological units
Phraseological units- these are phraseological units, the integral generalized figurative meaning of which can be figuratively motivated on the basis of the LZ components included in their composition. For example:
“to pour oil on the flame (s)” - “pour oil on the fire”, “to tear one's hair” - “tear one's hair”, “(to live) a cat and dog life” - “live like a cat with dog."
Their high connotation is due to the phraseological image, or internal form, i.e. visual representation, that “picture”, on the basis of which the integral generalized figurative meaning itself is comprehended and perceived. Theoretically, the presence of phraseological units identical in their meanings and internal forms can be explained by a certain commonality of figurative-conceptual associations that arise in different languages and among different peoples as a result of the similarity of their life experience; cultural realities, to some extent reflecting the common paths of development of these peoples, can play an important role in this.
illustrative examples the following phraseological units can serve: “to carry coals to Newcastle” - “to engage in useless and unnecessary business” - is semantically identical with phraseological units in Russian - “to travel to Tula with your samovar”; “when pigs fly” - “literally, when the pigs fly i.e. never" - is semantically identical with the phraseological unit in Russian - "when the crayfish whistles on the mountain (and the fish sings)".
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological combinations are a mobile semantic complex, the components of which retain their basic meaning, but come into combination only with certain words. For example:
“to keep one’s distance” - “know your place; stay away; stay away; keep a respectful distance"; "to keep one's ears open" - "keep an eye out, be on guard, alert"; “to keep oneself to oneself” - “to be closed, unsociable, prefer loneliness; keep aloof, avoid people, withdraw into yourself.
In the above examples, the word to keep cannot be replaced by any other word that is close in meaning. this will lead to incompatibility of words and distortion of the meaning of the phraseological unit.
Modern linguistics is unthinkable without a comparison of the objects under study. Comparison and opposition of units, forms, categories, categories and other linguistic phenomena acts as a prerequisite for characterizing each of them. This fully applies to the study of phraseological units. The study of similarities and differences between specific phraseological units of several languages removes difficulties in translation, facilitates the perception and understanding of speech.
One of the brightest stylistic means of speech are phraseological phrases or phraseological units (from the Greek phrases - turn of speech, logos - teaching). Phraseological units are a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologisms present great difficulties for English learners. Ignorance of the semantics of phraseological units can lead to misunderstanding in the process of communication with native speakers and cause difficulties in translating fiction and scientific journalism.
The object of this study is the phraseological units of two languages: English and Russian. However, not the entire phraseological range of these languages is studied, but only somatic phraseological units with the keyword “head” - “head”.
Somatic phraseological units are such turns of speech that contain a component with the meaning of a body part. This lexical-semantic group was chosen due to its wide distribution, figurativeness and expressiveness.
The subject of this study is the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”.
1. Definition of a phraseological unit and its main components.
The researchers of the phraseological composition of the compared languages have many opinions about what a phraseological unit is. The most well-known definitions of phraseological units are Kunin A. V., Chernysheva, I. I., Shansky N. M. The authors define the relation to phraseological units of various groups of phrases in different ways. So, for example, Shansky N. M. includes proverbs, sayings, proverbs, winged words, aphorisms in the composition of phraseological units. The Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language (FSRYA) includes various descriptive and analytical phraseological units of the language, complex conjunctions, complex prepositions, compound terms, etc. In general, a phraseological unit is characterized as a “combination of words with a figurative meaning”, as a “stable phrase with idiomatic meaning" as "stable phrase". Phraseological units are characterized by metaphor, figurativeness, expressive and emotional coloring. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Ozhegova S. I. and Shvedova N. Yu. gives the following definition of a phraseological unit - it is a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologism, phraseological unit, idiom, a stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figuratively), not deduced from the meaning of the components of Ph. components. This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.
But in our opinion, the most complete is the definition of A. V. Kunin:
A phraseological unit is a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.
Phraseological units consist of lexemes that have partially or completely lost their subject correlation. They cannot be distinguished as members of a sentence, since the phraseological unit itself is a member of the sentence.
Thus, phraseological units are understood as turns of speech, consisting of two or more words, having reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, as well as a holistic meaning.
1. 2. Types of phraseological units in terms of semantic stability (confluence) of their components
The classification of phraseological units in terms of the semantic unity of their components belongs to Academician V. V. Vinogradov. As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative sense. Gradually, portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, V. V. Vinogradov divides them into four types: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions. Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to the modern English language.
Phraseological fusions:
Phraseological fusions, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: keep one`s head - to lose your head.
Phraseological fusions arose on the basis of the figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of the modern language.
Thus, in phraseological fusions, the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost, figurative for them has become the main one. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.
Phraseological units:
Phraseological units are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, signs of the semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved: raise it's head - raise your head, perk up.
"Phraseological units are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their figurativeness, metaphor." But unlike phraseological fusions, in phraseological units figurativeness, transference is realized from the point of view of the modern language.
Phraseological combinations:
Phraseological combinations are stable turns, which include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a wooden head is a dull head.
Unlike phraseological fusions and phraseological units that have a holistic indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability”. In this respect, they are close to free phrases.
Phraseological expressions:
Phraseological expressions include phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which entirely consist of words with “free nominative meaning and semantically articulated”. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.
Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and sayings that are used in the literal sense, do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: Better be the head of a dog than the tail of lion (it is better to be the first among the last than the last among the first).
Chapter 2. Characteristics of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head".
2. 1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" according to the method of formation.
Depending on the method of formation in our work, we consider two main types of phraseological units: continuous phrases and semantic blocks.
Fused phrases are formed by combining components, each of which has structural and systemic phrase-forming properties.
Semantic blocks are formed by transforming the meaning of the entire phrase as a whole.
English language Russian language
Fused phrases (phraseological units)
The first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second is the meaning of phraseological units.
(leading component highlighted)
Put one's head into the lion's mouth. Head (not) cooks
1. 1. Putting your head in the mouth of a lion Someone is either (not) smart
1. 2. Put yourself in danger or risk. Soap your head
Bury one's head in the sand. scold for something
2. 1. Bury your head in the sand
2. 2. Adhere to the ostrich policy, turn a blind eye to what is happening. 3. 1. Dedicate yourself entirely to something
Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 1. Better to be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 2. It is better to be the first among the common people than the last among the nobles.
Semantic blocks (phraseological fusions)
(the first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second is the meaning of the phraseological unit)
1. Be head and ears in debt (be head over heels in debt). Head up
2. Go about with one's head in the air. (important). 1. 1. Feel confident
3. Have a bad head for smth. (be with a bad head). 2. Bow your head
4. Open one's head (to chat, chat). 1. 2. Reconcile
3. Head to toe
3. 1. Completely
Of the 68 English phraseological units that made up the card index of English phraseological units, 57 are semantic blocks, and 11 are fused phrases. And out of 33 Russian phraseological units that made up the card file of Russian card files, 24 are semantic blocks, and 9 are fused phrases.
Conclusion: After analyzing the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phraseological units, both English and Russian, are formed by rethinking free phrases, transforming the knowledge of the entire phrase as a whole.
1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" in structure.
Depending on the nature of the leading component, it is possible to distinguish both in English and in Russian phrases: substantive (the main component is a noun), adverbial (adverbial), verbal, adjectival.
English language Russian language
Substantive A good head
(Strong head) man)
A level head
(balanced person)
(smart enough)
Verbs: Hang one's head
(Hang your head, get upset) (Get very discouraged)
Lose one's head
(Lose your head, (Get very discouraged)
get confused)
Adjective: Out of one’s alone head There are no such phraseological units in the studied dictionaries
(fictitious)
Adverbial: Head first
(Swiftly, recklessly) (Quickly, recklessly)
One's head off
(as much as you like)
In the Russian card index of 33 phrases: substantive - 7, verbal - 22, adverbial - 4, no adjectives were found. In the English card index out of 68, substantive - 6, verbal - 42, adverbial - 6, adjective - 2. Thus, both in the English and Russian card index verbal combinations and adverbial predominate, substantive ones are less common and adjective ones are practically not found.
2. 3. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" according to the syntactic function in speech.
Phraseological units can also be classified according to their syntactic function. In this case, it is possible to single out phraseological combinations that appear in the sentence as:
subject: Vanya, the head of the garden, got a deuce in class.
John, a swollen head, was a stubborn boy.
John, the smart guy, was very stubborn.
Predicate: They put their heads together and agreed upon
They immediately discussed everything and determined a plan of action.
Circumstance: They made head against the wind. He examined her from head to toe and decided to take her to
They walked and walked forward into the wind. yourself to work.
Extra: You are turn her head with flattery! I bow my head before you.
You will turn her head!
Having studied the syntactic functions of phraseological combinations, we noticed that both English and Russian phraseological units rarely act as a subject.
So, having compared the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units in terms of the method of formation and structural classification, we came to the conclusion that the structure of English and Russian phraseological units coincides in these parameters. This makes it possible to make an assumption about the relationship of these groups of phraseological units.
2. 4. Semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian.
Native speakers use words that call their organs to describe the most diverse areas of human life. This includes cognitive processes (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination), volitional and emotional, as well as the manifestation of various mental properties of the individual. The bulk of phraseological units in both languages is based on metaphor.
The vast majority of phraseological units are anthropocentric in nature, that is, they refer to a person or to what is associated with him. These turnovers are estimated. Ratings can be either positive or negative.
After analyzing phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian, we divided them into three thematic groups:
1. Phraseological units denoting the mental abilities of a person.
2. Phraseological units denoting the emotional state of a person.
3. Phraseological units that characterize the behavior and actions of a person.
Group 1: Phraseological units denoting the mental abilities of a person.
English language Russian language
1. Have an old head on young shoulders1. Soft in the head
(be wise). (not all at home, idiot). dedicate yourself to something). easy to imagine).
2. Two heads are better than one 2. Have a head like a sieve (be 2. Raise your head 2. Head and two ears
(mind is good, but two is better). scattered). (Feel confident). (unintelligent person).
Group 2: Phraseological units denoting the emotional state of a person.
English language Russian language
1. Keep one’s head 1. Be not right in one’ head 1. Raise your head 1. Hang your head
(stay calm). (be out of your mind, go crazy). (to feel confident). (get discouraged).
2. Be head and ears in love 2. Have a bad head for heights. 2. Lose your head
(to the ears to be in love). (it’s bad to endure (not to know from excitement what to do, what height, to be afraid of height). to do).
Group 3: Phraseological units that characterize the behavior and actions of a person.
English language Russian language
1. Buy smth over smb’s head 1. Better one’s head against a brick 1. About two heads 1. Lather your head
(offer a better service). wall (recklessly bold). (to scold for something).
2. Knock smth on the head (to climb on the rampage). 2. Head over heels
(put an end to something). 2. Be head and ears in debt (be on (quickly).
ears in debt).
mental abilities +7; -2 +4; -7
emotional state +2; -11 +1; -3
behavior and actions +9; -14 +1; -eleven
As the analysis shows, the number of phraseological units with a positive estimated value, in each of the three groups presented, prevails in the English language.
Having carried out a meaningful analysis of phraseological units with the keyword head in the Russian language, we assumed that the presence of phraseological turns denoting daring, recklessness, recklessness reflect such a characteristic feature inherent in the Russian mentality as “maximalism”. And vice versa, the presence in the English language of a large number of phraseological phrases with a positive evaluation of people's actions and their mental activity can be a confirmation of the presence in the English national character of such a feature as "clearness of mind, restraint, equanimity".
Conclusion.
In the first chapter of this work, the definition of "phraseological unit" is given, its main components are considered and the main characteristics of phraseological units are disclosed from the point of view of the semantic stability (fusion) of their components.
In the second chapter, an attempt was made to analyze the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head", to conduct qualitative analysis phraseological units in each of the studied groups, draw conclusions on the topic. Comparison and analysis of phraseological units was carried out according to the following parameters: according to the method of formation, according to the structure, according to the syntactic function in speech A separate chapter is devoted to the semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian. After analyzing the data, we came to the conclusion that most often word combinations in general, i.e., semantic blocks (phraseological fusions) predominate. In both languages, verb combinations predominate, substantive, adverbial are less common. In sentences, phraseological units with the keyword "head" most often act as an object, less often as a subject.
As the analysis of the semantic features of phraseological units shows, the number of them with a positive estimated value, in each of the three presented groups, prevails in the English language. This chapter is of particular interest to us, since in the future we will try to consider phraseological units with the keywords "head", "eyes" and "hands" in more detail from the point of view of their semantic features in English and Russian. We believe that this comparison will help us more accurately understand the similarities and differences in the features of the national character of the representatives of the two countries. In addition, knowledge of the semantics of phraseological units will help to correctly translate these constructions, correctly determining the desired meaning in this context.
Of course, the vocabulary of the language is subject to change. Phraseological composition changes, replenishes.
A phraseological unit is (phraseological unit, phraseological phrase) lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, integral in meaning, a phrase reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. From the point of view of semantic fusion, there are:
1) Phraseological unions (idioms). Phraseological phrases with absolute semantic solidarity of parts, the integral meaning of which is not derived from the meanings of their constituent words (often outdated, retaining an archaic grammatical form and syntactic connection not justified by modern rules). To beat the thumbs, to be amazed, the railway, out of hand, how to give a drink, a caesarean section, without any hesitation, to stay with a nose, headlong, put your hand on your heart, get into a mess, eat a dog, sharpen balusters, celebrate a coward, tell a joke.
2) Phraseological units. Phraseological turns, the integral meaning of which (usually figurative) is motivated to one degree or another by the individual meanings of their constituent words. Fly out into the pipe, hold the stone in your bosom, bring it to a white heat, throw a fishing rod, bury talent in the ground, plug it in your belt, play hide and seek, redcurrant, break through an open door, an inclined plane, lather your head, zero attention, first violin, lumpy first pancake, go with the flow, put teeth on the shelf, splurge, seven Fridays a week, caecum, pulverize, freezing point, pull the strap, specific gravity, go into your shell, center of gravity.
3) Phraseological combinations. Phraseological turns, which include words with a free and phraseologically related meaning, and the integral meaning follows from the meaning of individual words. Castle in the air, exclamation mark, hurt pride, bosom friend, sworn enemy, touch on a sense of honor, pitch hell, frown eyebrows, win, lower your head, break your nose, burn with shame, bare your teeth, sudden death, longing takes, biting frost, fragile prow, delicate question, delicate position.
The main features of phraseology.
1. Reproducibility of phraseological units in speech as ready-made units.
2. The integrity of the meaning of phraseological units lies in the fact that, despite the dismemberment of the structure, they have a generalized holistic meaning, which, as a rule, is a rethinking of a phrase, which is based on a specific semantic content. Obvious examples of the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit does not consist of the meanings of its components are stable combinations, one of the members of which is obsolete and is not used in modern language outside of this expression. However, the speaker does not have the feeling that this word is unfamiliar to him, since he knows the general, integral meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Such expressions, in which it is possible to trace the connection between the general meaning of a stable combination and the values of its constituent components, also have a generalized holistic value.
3. The constancy of the component composition, stability distinguishes phraseological units from a free phrase. A feature of stable combinations is that they are, as a rule, constant in composition and structure, i.e. they include certain words arranged in the prescribed order. The interchangeability of the components of a phraseological unit is possible only in general language phraseological variants, i.e. in stable combinations that have the same meaning, the same figurative structure, but differ in their lexical and grammatical composition.
4. The equivalence of a phraseological unit and a single word means that a stable combination has much in common with the word. Like the word, it is a unit of the language, it is reproduced in finished form, and not created anew each time, it has an independent meaning and grammatical correlativeness, which lies in the fact that a phraseological unit, like a word, refers to a certain part of speech. It is possible to single out nominal phraseological turns (a shot sparrow is an experienced person), adjectives (there are not enough stars from the sky - about an ordinary, unremarkable person) verbs (become a dead end - find yourself in a difficult situation); adverbial (tirelessly - diligently, tirelessly), interjection (know ours! - about praising yourself). Many phraseological units correspond in meaning to one word (put on both shoulder blades - win). Set phrases are close to words in terms of their syntactic function, since they play the role of a separate member of a sentence. For example: She turned her head to more than one Adam's grandson (M. Lermontov);
5. The separate design of phraseological units is that it includes at least two verbal components, each of which is grammatically designed as an independent unit, i.e. has its own accent and its own ending. This is the main difference between phraseology and words.
6. The imagery of a phraseological unit is that many stable phrases not only name phenomena, signs, objects, actions, but also contain a certain image. This applies primarily to those phraseological units, the meanings of which were formed on the basis of a linguistic metaphor, as a result of the similarity and comparison of two phenomena, of which one becomes the basis of comparison, and the other is compared with it. For example, the phraseological unit grated kalach, denoting an experienced person who has seen a lot in life, correlates with grated kalach (the name of one of the varieties of kalach), which, before baking, is rubbed and crumpled for a long time. This creates the figurativeness of phraseology. Some phraseological units of the Russian language are devoid of figurativeness. These include various kinds of semantically indivisible combinations, which are compound names and terms (such as coal, agenda, safety pin, eyeball), as well as phraseological units such as have a meaning, win.
7. The emotionally expressive coloring of phraseological units is manifested in the fact that most phraseological units of the Russian language, in addition to the nominative function, also perform a characterological function: they not only name some objects, phenomena, actions that exist in objective reality, but at the same time evaluate the named objects, phenomena, actions. Emotionally expressive the significance of phraseological units of the Russian language is different. Some of them have minimal expression (expressiveness), for example: to stand in the ears - "to be constantly heard." Others have a pronounced expression and serve as a means of emphasizing the assessment of what is being said. These are, for example: to beat with a key - "to flow violently, to manifest itself." The presence of emotionally expressive coloring in phraseological units can be traced on synonymous phraseological units, which, with a common meaning, can differ in their coloring. For example, about a person who knows how to do everything, they say a jack of all trades (positive assessment), from boredom of all trades (jokingly ironic assessment), and a shvets, and a reaper, and a playful player (jokingly ironic assessment).
8. Phraseology, non-free meaning of one of the components is a characteristic feature of most stable combinations. For some phraseological units, it manifests itself in the fact that its component has a phraseologically related meaning in the language, the main features of which are the lack of semantic independence and dependence in the choice of lexical environment. For example, the phraseological meaning of the word “sworn” is manifested in the fact that it has its own meaning only in a certain lexical environment, in combination with the word “enemy”: sworn enemy - “irreconcilable enemy” - and outside of this stable combination it is not used in Russian. The phraseological meaning of one of the components of a stable combination of another type is manifested in the fact that this component acquires a special phraseologically related meaning, only within the framework of this phraseological unit, and outside it it can have an independent meaning and be used in many free combinations. For example, the word “white” is used in a language with its own independent meaning in free combinations (white paper, white snow), but only within the framework of a stable combination of a white crow does it acquire its special, phraseologically related meaning - “dissimilar to those around it, distinguished by something ".
9. The idiomatic nature of a phraseological unit is manifested in the fact that its semantically inseparable meaning is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components, taken separately, and does not coincide with them. Hence the impossibility of an accurate translation of phraseological unit into other languages arises; this can be explained by the presence of specific laws inherent in this particular language. If free phrases are built mainly according to the general laws of linguistic reflection of extralinguistic reality, then the use of words in the composition of phraseological units is determined by the specific laws of the system of a given language.
* The issues of the semantics of phraseological units have recently attracted more and more attention of researchers of phraseology, who, noting the specifics of their semantics, use a variety of names: a generalizing metaphorical meaning (S. A. Abakumov), semantic solidity (P. P. Kalinin), a single holistic meaning (V. V. Vinogradov), semantic idiomaticity (A. I. Smirnitsky), etc. Such an abundance of names to denote the semantic specificity of phraseological units reflects the undoubted complexity of this phenomenon, associated with insufficient knowledge of the issue itself.
The main feature of phraseological units is their completely or partially rethought meaning. Only a part of phraseological units is identified by individual lexemes, while most of them can be defined only with the help of a phrase or a detailed description. The semantic originality of the phraseological unit lies in the specificity of the combination of components, thus, they act not only as parts of the main semantic components of the phraseological unit, but also as links between them. These components are the minimum semantic units of phraseological units and perform meaning-defining or meaning-forming functions.
