The ultimate object of study of geography. Physical and geographical science. Examples of physical geography

geographical geocomplex science territorial

Much has been written about the subject area of ​​geography, which is not very clear and contradictory. In philosophy, the subject of research is understood as a category denoting a certain integrity (aspect) isolated from the world of objects in the process of human activity and cognition.

V.A. Anuchin believes that "a common subject of study, or a common object of study, for all geographical sciences is the geographic or landscape sphere of the Earth, which is a union of all near-surface geospheres ("second-order spheres") in a single interacting system."

MM. Golubchik and his co-authors consider the subject of geography to be "the study of spatio-temporal features of the process of emergence, functioning, dynamics and development of spatio-temporal natural-social geosystems (geographic shell, geographic environment)". At the same time, the provision is not specified that the geographical shell is historically considered an object of physical geography, and the environment (apparently natural) is one of its properties that arise in subject-object relations.

A.G. Isachenko and K.K. Markov's subject of study is the study of spatio-temporal relations of interaction between society and nature. A.N. Lastochkin proposes a morphological approach to the knowledge of geographical objects, which will unite the subjects of study of particular geographical sciences. It is more simple and understandable for E.B. Alaev. He proposes to consider that in the aggregate the object, aspect, method and goal constitute the subject of research of a scientific discipline, a kind of "passport" certifying its function and right to exist (Fig. 1).

The object of study is what this branch of science studies (an objective material phenomenon, or categories of a spiritual order).

Aspect of the study - which side, and from what angle this object is considered. The geographical disciplines are characterized by a geospatial aspect (synonyms: territorial, zonal, regional). For general disciplines - components, spheres, relationships between spheres (components), for regional ones - geosystems, incl. landscapes, TPK, etc., territorial differentiation (zoning, district formation) horizontal flows of matter, energy and information.

The research method is research approaches, i.e. methodology, as well as special techniques and methods of research.

The purpose of the study - the expected result scientific process and its relation either to social practice or to the development of science itself.

The subject of study of general geography is geographical reality in the form of a geographical picture of the world, which is represented by a set of categorical concepts and theories about the interaction of society and nature in a special geospace of the Earth - the geoversum.

The object in such a formulation of the subject of general geography can be the geoverseum as an integral phenomenon in the special geospace of the Earth with its structure and patterns of functioning according to the principle of two subsystems - nature and society. The research aspect of such a folded object is the components (abiotic, biotic, social), geospheres and local geosystems of the Earth's surface - natural, social, integral, etc.

The geographic approach also led to the use of new research methods - system analysis (modelling), remote methods for collecting information (especially aerospace) and computer technologies in creating GIS. The explanatory part of the subject is the global-regional patterns of territorial organization and optimization of the quality of the human environment, based on the principles of systemology and synergetics.

The question of what to include in the object of science and what is its subject belongs to the category of so-called eternal problems. Geographical research is aimed at a geographical object - a natural or man-made integral and relatively stable formation, characterized by a certain position on the Earth's surface, participation in the formation and change of geosystems, displayed on geographical maps. The content of these concepts is constantly changing in the process of cognition, depending on the tasks facing science at a particular stage, reflecting the various stages of the development of science. The concepts of the object and subject of science are closely related to its structure, which is based on classifications according to a number of features - forms of the movement of matter, research methods, etc., as well as the problem of the place and role of this science in the system of sciences, with the basics of the process of cognition inherent in it. and other fundamental general scientific provisions.

Object, subject and content of geographical science

Great and amazing is the area of ​​geography.

N.V. Gogol

Object and subject of geography

The methodology of science is understood as a system of basic provisions that reveal the principles of construction, forms and methods of the cognitive activity of science. Methodology determines the essence of theoretical work, the role of methods

and practical orientation of science. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that knowledge is the basis for the formation of any science, in this case we are talking about geography.

Knowledge is an objective reflection of reality, and science, in addition to knowledge, also includes the organization of the extraction of this knowledge and its practical use. The transformation of knowledge into science occurs when a certain level of its development is reached and four basic requirements are met:

• independence of the subject of study;
• relative originality of the main research method;
• the presence of a specific conceptual apparatus inherent in this science, i.e. the presence of a theoretical basis;
• performance of specific socio-political, economic, cultural and educational functions.

About such a multifunctional phenomenon as science, they say that it is, firstly, a branch of culture; secondly, a way of knowing the world; thirdly, a special institute: educational institutions, scientific societies, academies, laboratories, journals, etc. The most detailed definitions of the concept of science are given in philosophical works. Science is a sphere of human activity, the purpose of which is the study of objects and processes of nature, society and thinking, their properties, relationships and patterns. At the same time, science is one of the forms of social consciousness. Thus, at present there is a dual understanding of the term science. In one sense, this is a sphere of research activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge, and in another - a system of ideas and knowledge used by mankind. It follows from this that any science can be considered as a relatively independent discipline with its own object and subject of study. As a system of ideas and knowledge, this science can be used in other branches of knowledge as a method to achieve their own goals. For example, paleogeography, on the one hand, is a scientific discipline, and on the other hand, one of the historical approaches (methods) in the Earth sciences.

The long process of gradual formation and development of geography was literally permeated with "cross-cutting" themes. They continue to be discussed to this day. These topics include:

• ideas about the object and subject of geographical science;
• ideas about the main methods of scientific geographical knowledge;
• provisions on the content and structure of geographical science, the processes of differentiation and integration, analysis and synthesis taking place in it;
• ideas of geographical determinism and indeterminism, etc.

When studying any science, paramount attention is paid to the definition of this science, which includes the concept of its object and subject.

Geography- the science of the laws of development of space-time systems (geosystems) formed on the earth's surface in the process of interaction between nature and society (on a scale that allows them to be represented on general geographical and thematic maps), on methods for predicting these systems and managing them; the science of the origin, structure, functioning, dynamics and development of spatio-temporal natural-social geosystems; system of natural and social sciences about natural, territorial-industrial and socio-territorial complexes of the Earth and their components.

The object of geographical research is any material formation or phenomenon (state, relationship, process) on the earth's surface that meets the three most important methodological principles of geography - spatiality, complexity, specificity, is mapped (i.e., meets the main methodological feature), affects the development or the state of the limiting object of geography - the geographical shell (geographical environment); its study presupposes the acquisition of new knowledge (fats, theories) about this shell.

Geographical envelope - 1) natural geosystem, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, near-surface strata of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere are in contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact; 2) the ultimate object of study geography, a complex, multi-layered shell, consisting of three main "spheres" - the lithosphere (the earth's crust), the hydrosphere (water shell), the atmosphere (air shell). The biosphere is singled out as a special sphere. It is in this space that intelligent life develops - man, human society. This fifth layer is called the sociosphere.

Object of geographical observation - an object of geographical research, available for quantitative measurement in the corresponding units of geographical observation; as which various measures can appear - units of distance, area, number of any phenomena, signs, allowing to measure the objects of observation in space and time.

Such an understanding of the essence of geography, its object, is supported by many Russian geographers. For example,

SOUTH. Saushkin wrote more than a quarter of a century ago: "Geography is the science of the laws of development of spatial (territorial) systems that form on the earth's surface in the process of interaction between nature and society, and the management of these systems."

When deciding the question of the object and subject of science, one should constantly refer to the history of science. The concepts of the object and subject of science are closely related to its structure.

Based on these provisions, we will find out what the object of geography represents, based on the paradigm of its integrity as a single geography, which is understood as a system of geographical sciences. Many authors agree that the object of geography is the surface of the Earth, which is an arena of complex interaction and interweaving of the most diverse processes of animate and inanimate nature, human society, in connection with which the object of geography differs from the objects of other sciences in its complexity, complexity, diverse system organization, spatial distribution.

In accordance with tradition, own experience, knowledge, available opportunities, set goals and a guiding idea, the geographer singles out the subject of interest to him, selecting the phenomena he needs and leaving aside everything else. Nowadays, even within the framework of historically established separate, often very narrow, isolated geographical disciplines (branches of science), it is more and more difficult to solve the problem of isolating "one's own", monodisciplinary subject of research. It becomes necessary to establish close relationships between subjects of different disciplines.

Since ancient times, the development of geography has been associated with the knowledge of the surrounding reality, with the study of the relationship between nature and mankind. General geographical views date back to the works of B. Varenius, A. Humboldt, K. Ritter, E. Reclus and others. P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, V.V. Dokuchaev, D.N. Anuchin, F. Richthofen, A.I. Voeikov, K.K. Markov and others. The integral direction, combining natural-historical and socio-economic approaches to the study of the geographical aspects of the interaction between nature and society, was developed by I.P. Gerasimov, Yu.G. Saushkin, V.A. Anuchin, V.S. Preobrazhensky, S.B. Lavrov and others.

AT modern era, as the technogenic impact of civilization on the natural environment increases, the global ecological crisis expands and deepens, interest in general geographical problems increases. Therefore, the search for an integrating kernel is of fundamental importance general geography, designed to serve as a theoretical and methodological core of the natural and social branches of geographical science.

It is believed that the theoretical core of general geography includes: metageography, history of geography, general physical geography, including geography, landscape science, evolutionary geography (paleogeography), as well as social geography, consisting of economic and social geography.

Development of the theory and methodology of general geography in the last decades of the XX century. it was proposed to base on ideas: about the geographical environment (V.A. Anuchin, N.K. Mukitanov); geoversum (E.B. Alaev, V.A. Shalnev); geographical world (U.I. Mereste, S.Ya. Nymmik); spatial relations and connections between society and the geographical environment (A.Yu. Reteyum, L.R. Serebryanny); landscape sphere (Yu.K. Efremov); morphological, dynamic and substantial content of the natural and anthropogenic components of a single common geocomplex (A.N. Lastochkin); geographical mechanisms of interaction between humanity and the natural environment (A.G. Isachenko); geographical shell (V.M. Kotlyakov).

Different views on the common object of geography and foreign scientists. For example, the object of study of a holistic geographical science is understood as the spatial organization of human society and its relationship with the environment (P. Haggett), the zone of mutual penetration of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere (P. James, J. Martin). It is no coincidence that the need for a “search for a focus” that binds the meaningful core of geography (R.J. Johnston) is noted.

The subject of geography is the study of spatio-temporal features of the process of emergence, functioning, dynamics and development of spatio-temporal natural-social geosystems (geographic shell, geographic environment).

Assessing the role of geography in the knowledge of the spatio-temporal features of the process of emergence, functioning, dynamics and development of the "society - nature" system, we proceed from paradigms of integrity of geography. A paradigm is understood as an initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems, solving them, and methods of studying that prevail during a particular historical period in the scientific community.

In the development of ideas about a unified geography, three main stages can be traced, the tasks of each subsequent of which are superimposed on the previous ones and each of which corresponds to a certain paradigm (Scheme 1), which together constitute the paradigm of the integrity (unity) of geography.

At the first stage, within the framework of the chorological paradigm, the problem of spatial analysis of geosystems was solved on the basis of a comparative descriptive method. Geography had to answer the questions: where, what, how much. From the middle of the XIX century. starts new stage development of geography, when within the framework of the chronological paradigm, the problem of temporal analysis of geosystems by the natural-historical method is solved, their explanation. Geography began to try to answer more questions: it depends and why. Together, these two paradigms form in the first half of the 20th century. a single paradigm - space-time. And, finally, within the framework of the anthropoecological paradigm, since the middle of the 20th century. the task of analyzing the interaction between society and nature at different historical stages and its forecast is being solved. To all the previous questions, more questions were added: where will be, what will be etc. In addition, at the intersection of the three named areas, a number of geographical disciplines are being formed, and geography itself, in particular, the spatio-temporal analysis of geosystems, the study of their structure, functioning and dynamics, the economic development of the natural environment, the development of natural and socio-economic geosystems.

This concept is also supported by K.K. Markov', who writes that the geographical environment, or in an even broader sense, the geographical shell as a whole, is a common object of all geographical sciences, an object of general geography (territorial natural-socio-economic or natural-social system - TerPSES, according to V.P. Narezhny , 1991), its subject is the study of spatio-temporal features of the interaction between society and nature. Subsequently, the ideas of the unity of geography were developed in a number of works by domestic and foreign scientists.

For the hope of successful solution there are all grounds for the integration problem of geography. The first one

Scheme 1

The idea of ​​the integrity of geography

lies in the generality of its approach to the study of a variety of objects and processes. About her Yu.G. Saushkin said that both natural and socio-economic phenomena are studied equally "geographically". According to A.N. Lastochkin, this sameness, specificity refers to the morphological knowledge of the geography of its objects, which is aimed at geotopology, structural geography and the general theory of geosystems. The morphological approach is the initial one, uniting the subjects of study of particular geographical sciences.

The phenomenon of modern geography lies in the fact that it combines sciences that study both natural (physical geography) and social (socio-economic and political geography) patterns, focusing on the territorial (spatial) aspects- max. Physical geography, in turn, is divided into sciences that study natural components and their properties (relief, water, climate, atmosphere, etc.) and natural complexes (geographical envelope, landscapes). No less voluminous are the branches of social geography: economic geography, political geography, population geography, etc.

Life has formulated a social order for scientists: explore as fully as possible the mechanism of interaction between nature and society, objectively and comprehensively assess the ecological situation in the world, outline ways to improve the use of natural resources, the reserves of which have become catastrophically depleted. To solve this problem in the second half of the XX century. a common (single) geography is formed (Scheme 2). The processes of humanization, sociologization, ecologization, economization of geography and globalization of thinking are noted.

humanization is associated with a turn to a person as the main object, to all spheres and cycles of his life activity with consideration, first of all, of people's lives. sociologization is closely related to humanization and consists in increasing attention to the social aspects of development, to the geographical aspects public life. Greening involves consideration of a person in an inseparable connection with the environment of his habitat and the conditions for the reproduction of life. Economization means a wider introduction into the practice of geographical research of approaches and methods of economic sciences, specific calculations, economic assessments. Globalization thinking is due to the fact that the conflicts between the needs of people and their economic activities, on the one hand, and the state

The system of geographical knowledge (according to N.K. Mukitanov)

Scheme 2

natural complexes - on the other hand, have acquired a global scale, and humanity is also a global system.

The main task of geography For a long time, it has become not a simple land description, but the study of spatio-temporal relationships, natural and anthropogenic factors and features of the development of various territorial systems. It is in this capacity that geographers are actively involved in solving many problems of a political, economic, social and environmental nature that arise at different levels - from global to local. Therefore, geography occupies a unique place in the system of sciences, playing the role of a kind of link between the natural and social sciences.

All this makes it possible to attribute geography to the number of those classical subjects that bear a special responsibility not only for the formation of a humanistic worldview, the education of patriotism and love for the Motherland, but also the skills and abilities of orientation and socially responsible behavior in the world around.

General geography is a set of disciplines that have already been formed, are being created and will be formed in the future, representing, firstly, knowledge about general, integrative, objects - geoshells and geocomplexes and, Secondly, about common objects or aspects of the most different in their essence private objects - geocomponents and geospheres.

General geography is aimed at accumulating in itself the integrating components of geographical science:

• common knowledge about integrative objects;
• subject knowledge about the same aspects of geographic objects that differ from each other.

General geography includes branches that each study not some particular object as a whole, but the same general aspects of the most diverse geographical objects: space, dynamics, development and substance.

General geography is designed to solve a package of interrelated problems: about the common object of geographical research; about the general subject of geographical research; about a single practical (environmental) goal; about a unified methodological apparatus and a universal language that allow one to analyze the original empirical material in the same way and obtain a general solution to similar problems (discretization, elementarization, systematics, formalization, mapping, structural analysis, etc.) in different branches of science; about general principles dynamic interpretation (use) of this morphological or geometric material in solving problems of the functioning and interaction of elements and specific geosystems consisting of them.

In an attempt to determine the general aspect of geographical science integrating its diverse objects, I.P. Gerasimov (1976) named five "principles" that, in his opinion, ensure the preservation of the unity of geography: historicism, regionalism, ecologism, sociologism and anthropogenism. Later U.I. Merest and S.Ya. Nymmik added to them the "principles" of economism, demographism and technologism. However, according to A.N. Lastochkin, the proclamation of all of them does not contribute to the integration and unity of geographical science. On the contrary, pointing to its various and numerous facets, they more reflect the disunity of its constituent industries. Numerous principles show the variety of possible research approaches depending on the aspects of natural and anthropogenic objects chosen from this set and the practical tasks set.

We can assert, following A.N. Lastochkin that only interconnected principles can be binding here:

• The principle of regionalism, since it is related to all objects and reflects the general phenomenon of natural and anthropogenic divisibility of geographical space into its components.
• The principle of environmentalism, reflecting the relationship of these natural and anthropogenic parts, the common goal and applied significance of the geographical sciences that explore this space, and including all the other "principles" mentioned above. Without their implementation, many sectoral, primarily physical-geographical, studies usually do or can do without. However, none of the branches and any type of modern geographical research succeeds or will no longer be able to bypass the implementation of the principles of regionalism and ecologism. However, so far they are realized in various sciences not as “universal and identical phenomena” (according to Gettner), but autonomously, based on their own empirical experience of each discipline and on the need to solve particular environmental problems, the reduction of which into a general direction requires the creation of a missing until now pores of general geography.

General geography faces a difficult task: to reduce all knowledge about a person and his environment into a single scientific branch, which should be an integral cognitive system with its own object and subject, a single conceptual, terminological and methodological apparatus.

In the 60s of the XX century. the problem of the formation of a single or general geography was actively discussed, and the expediency of combining its two main parts (physical or socio-economic) was discussed in order to develop, first of all, its theoretical foundations. At present, due to the sharp aggravation of the ecological relations of man with the environment, this problem has acquired an acute and, first of all, practical sound, with the realization of the need to solve it as soon as possible.

Considering that modern technogenic civilization has a tremendous impact on the environment, L.L. Rozanov (2003) proposes to denote by the term "geographical technospace" or "geotechnospace" a holistic natural-artificial material formation, represented by a substance in solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma states, under the influence of natural and man-made factors. Such an interpretation of the term can be called spatial-substrate, general geographical. In essence, it coincides with the currently accepted interpretation of the geographical shell (or geographical) environment as the ultimate object of general geography, developing and supplementing these concepts with phenomena and processes of technogenesis.

For example, the lower boundary of the geographical "technospace" is determined by the limits of the influence of technogenic human activity, which extends to the near-surface part of the lithosphere from a few meters to several kilometers, as well as to the developed seabed. It is known that the maximum depth of quarries has already reached 1 km, mines - 4 km, wells - 12 km The widespread extraction of groundwater is carried out to a depth of 2 km, the injection of industrial waste - to a depth of 3 km It is believed that the impact of the city on the lithosphere can extend to a depth of 1.5-2 km Based on this, it is permissible to assume that the lower limit of the geographic technospace in the lithosphere is located on average at a depth of 2 km. space station and numerous satellites (including those with nuclear power plants), as well as fragments formed as a result of explosions of the second stages of rockets and satellites located at altitudes of 400-800 km above the Earth's surface. Now about 70-150 thousand artificial bodies 1-10 cm in size and more than 10 thousand bodies larger than 10 cm each fly around the Earth, a significant part of which is listed in official catalogs.

The concept of geographic technospace is interconnected with the concept of geographic space, but differs in content from the concepts of geospace and geographic envelope. The concept of geotechnospace does not replace the geographical shell (object of physical geography according to LL Rozanov), the natural environment - the fundamental objects of the study of geography.

As an integrating core of general geography, L.L. Rozanov proposes to consider the real geotechnospace- a material object consisting of different-quality (natural, natural-technogenic, technogenic) material formations, bodies, interconnected processes and phenomena in space-time. The relevance of studying geotechnospace is determined by the fact that modern technogenic civilization, inadvertently worsening the sphere of human life, can bring the environment into a state unsuitable for human habitation.

The purpose of modern geography is to study the laws of development of natural-social spatio-temporal geosystems that are formed on the earth's surface in the process of interaction between society and nature, the development of methods for predicting these systems and managing them. Geography is called upon as a whole to solve the problem of the spatial organization of the life of society.

The basis of these approaches has always been the study of the classical triad: nature, population and economy, and the essence of geography is reduced to the spatio-temporal analysis of processes, situations and structures (both natural and socio-economic).

Consider the logical structure trinity of geography(scheme 3). The logic of the trinity was shown by Academician E.V. Rauschenbakh (1990), however, for quite different purposes, but the line of reasoning is quite applicable to our problem. The logical structure of the trinity is reduced to a combination of trinity, consubstantiality, non-confluence and inseparability. A mathematical object with the same set of properties is a Cartesian coordinate system built in three-dimensional space with an arbitrary final vector at its beginning - geography. Three components located on the axes correspond to this vector: physical geography, which studies the spatio-temporal features of the nature of the earth's surface; social geography, which studies the spatial and temporal characteristics of the population; economic geography, investigating spatio-temporal features of the economy. Consideration of the properties of such an object shows the evidence of its trinity. The sum of the listed vector properties is

Scheme 3

The logical structure of the trinity of a single geography

necessary, that is, without any of them, its very existence in its former form becomes impossible. On three planes, we can identify the most important interdisciplinary intra-geographic areas: socio-economic geography - analysis of the interaction between the population and the economy; geography of natural conditions and resources - analysis of the interaction between the economy and the natural environment; geoecology - analysis of the interaction between the population and the natural environment. This is a formal-logical model that reflects only the general features of the object and subject of geography.

A distinctive feature of the geographical approach to the phenomena under study is the analysis of the mutual influence and interdependence of the natural environment and social life, their development

in space and time, knowledge of the laws of the spatial organization of human society. Therefore, we can conclude that geography includes studies that are somehow related to territorial, or spatial, objects.

The concept of geographic research is quite thoroughly considered by V.P. Narezhny (1991). In his opinion, the essence of geographical research is determined by the presence of a set of features necessary for the knowledge of the surrounding reality, such as territoriality (water area) of the processes under study; their development; material-energy and organizational-functional (systemic) character; full complexity of territorial formations; description of objects (analysis in natural and basic cost indicators). The listed signs, taken separately, are not only geographical, but only together form the geographical nature of the subject of research.

All of the above is true, but this is only part of geographical research. For further analysis of this issue, consider the division of scientific knowledge into varieties. There are different approaches to its division into types. There are intuitive (pre-empirical) and discursive (inferential) knowledge, as well as, according to other features, meaningful and active, mediated and non-mediated, subject and methodological, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied. The first option is the most logically justified (Scheme 4). End divisions:

• intuitive (preempirical) knowledge;
• empirical knowledge (facts);
• theoretical (postempirical) knowledge;
• methodological knowledge.

Pre-empirical knowledge includes three components: 1) the concept of the subject of research; 2) problem formulations; and 3) heuristic knowledge. Scientific facts together with documentation, systematization and description form empirical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge consists of hypotheses, theories, forecasts, retrognoses, laws and principles. Methodical knowledge includes an integral system of methods of practical and theoretical development of the world.

Everything that was said earlier about the object and subject of geography and the geography of research refers to the field of empirical knowledge. As for theoretical and methodological knowledge, here the standards will be different. Only empirical knowledge is characterized by those attributes of geography, and, above all, territoriality and historicity, which were mentioned earlier. Pre-empirical knowledge, theoretical and methodical knowledge have as their object the very

Scheme 4

Dismemberment of knowledge by variety (according to I.P. Sharapov, with additions and changes)

geography. Sometimes this part of geography is combined into metageography, which considers the history, theory and methodology of geography.

Metageography is a field of theoretical research that studies the place of geography in the system of sciences, its interaction with other sciences and activities, specific features of the development of geography as an integral system of scientific knowledge, the causes and factors that determine this integrity, the structure of geography. Metageography also studies the features of geographical thinking, the nature of geographical patterns and laws, hypotheses and theories, and other problems associated with the professional activities of a geographer.

• 1 Saushkin Yu.G. Geography in perspective (introductory lecture for 1st year student
• September 1973) // Vest. Moek, un-ta. Ser. 5. Geography. 1974. No. 2. S. 5.
• See: Markov K.K. Two essays on geography. M., 1978.

Geography is a way of knowing the world around us. Primitive man, in order to survive, had to be well oriented in the world around him: first of all, to know it well (for example, where hunting grounds are, where edible plants are, etc.) and be able to use this knowledge. Already in the Stone Age, the predecessors of modern maps were created - drawings on the walls of cave dwellings (see the article ""), schematically showing the territory surrounding a person's dwelling.

Geography as a science

In fact, geography as a science begins with “travel literature”: getting into other, unfamiliar places, a smart observer recorded everything unusual for himself: how the people of this country look, what they wear, what kind of political system they have, what plants and animals are in this country. country and much more. These were the beginnings of country studies, when the country as a whole is described, “from geology to ideology”, and exactly what distinguishes this country from all the others is mentioned.

The famous Russian geographer Nikolai Baransky formulated this feature of science as follows: “What is everywhere (as), in geography, should not be anywhere.” In other words, it is not necessary to write that in a given country there is air, soil, vegetation - it is everywhere; it is necessary to pay attention to how the air of this country (for example, its climate) is unique, how it differs from neighboring countries.

Starting with regional studies, geography developed further along the line of an in-depth study of individual components of nature, more precisely, earthly shells: (sciences such as climatology and meteorology began to study it), hydrospheres (land hydrology and oceanology), (geomorphology - the science of relief), biosphere ( biogeography), pedosphere (soil geography). But in general, the interaction of various components of nature in each particular area is studied by landscape science. Similarly, an in-depth study of certain aspects of the life of society went on: the economy as a whole was studied by economic geography, its individual branches - by the corresponding sciences: the geography of industry, agriculture, trade, and so on; people's lives - population geography; political life - political geography.

But this study of the territory "by sections" did not give a consolidated picture of each country or area. Regarding the situation when the territory is described only “by industry”, Baransky said: imagine that the writer decided to portray the characters of his novel in the following way: first he described what each of them was wearing, then what they were all wearing, then what physique, what hair color each one has, then character traits, and so on. As a result, everything seems to be described, but there is no holistic view of each person. Therefore, after the “component-by-component” characteristics of the territory, it is necessary to give the characteristics “by region”.

"Geography" - in literal translation - "description of the earth", which still remains its main task. But the natural course of development of each science is the following: description - explanation - prediction - control. The sciences that study inanimate nature passed through these stages most quickly. The open laws of mechanics, for example, make it possible to successfully control motion; knowledge of the laws of physics allows you to create new materials and so on. In dealing with more complex objects, the problems of controlling biological processes have only recently begun to be solved.

Object of study of geography

The object of study of geography - the earth's surface with all its natural and social content - is even more complex and, most importantly, heterogeneous: physical processes take place here (for example, the cycle in nature), chemical (migration of various in the earth's crust), biological (development of plant communities), economic (functioning National economy), demographic (), social (interaction of various social groups and others), political (struggle for power between different parties and movements), socio-psychological (formation of public opinion, different attitudes of people to the processes taking place in society) and many others (in including some that we don't know yet).

In any part of the territory - in every village, city, district - all these processes intertwine, interact (often in the most unexpected way) and together create their own unique picture"life of the territory" - more precisely, the life of society in the specific conditions of a given territory.

The task of geography

The task of geography is to reveal the specifics of the interaction of all these heterogeneous processes in each territory, to summarize the available materials and create a vivid, memorable image of the place - that is, to solve the problem of describing the territory first (and partially - explaining the processes taking place on it).

The task of geographical forecasting is much more difficult: what kind of future (or what options for the future) is possible for this territory. Often it is necessary to limit oneself to identifying restrictions for development: for example, in such and such an area it is impossible to build enterprises even with small emissions of harmful substances, since their dispersion in the atmosphere is extremely slow; or else: it is not worth creating a recreation zone here (from the Latin “recreatio” - literally “recovery” of human strength and health), since it is far from the place of residence of potential vacationers.

The task of managing geographic objects is even more difficult. Is it possible, for example, to contain the growth of large cities? Or - to populate the deserted rural areas? Society (including Russian society) very often exaggerated its ability to influence such processes. As it turned out later (after great efforts and funds had already been expended), there are internal patterns in the development of processes (however, they are still poorly understood), and it is by no means always possible to change anything by external efforts (and sometimes these efforts give the opposite result). expected). Some of these patterns will be discussed in this book.

So, geography, ideally, should help society to solve certain specific problems - that is, to perform applied tasks. But there are tasks of a different kind - related to the formation of the "image of the country" for all members of society, for the entire population.

Geography of Russia

Any person should have in his head a correct idea of ​​what country, region, city, village he lives in. Without this, true patriotism is impossible - love for one's Fatherland.

“I love and know. I know and love. And the more fully I love, the better I know, ”the geographer Yuri Konstantinovich Efremov used these words as an epigraph to his excellent book“ The Nature of My Country ”.

Knowledge of geography is of particular importance for Russia - a country whose history is inseparable from its geography. According to historian Vasily Klyuchevsky, "the history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized." Another side of the significance of geography in Russia was well shown by Pushkin in his play Boris Godunov. It contains a scene in which Tsar Boris visits his son Fyodor and finds him drawing a geographical map:

King: And you, my son, what are you doing? What's this?

Fedor: Drawing of the Moscow; our kingdom

From end to end. You see: here is Moscow,

Here is Novgorod, here is Astrakhan. Here is the sea

Here are the dense forests of Perm,

But Siberia.

King: What is this?

Is there a pattern here?

Fedor: This is the Volga.

King: How good! Here is the sweet fruit of learning!

How can you see from the clouds

The whole kingdom suddenly: borders, cities, rivers.

Learn my son: science cuts

We experience fast-flowing life -

Someday and soon maybe

All areas that you are now

Depicted so cunningly on paper

Everything will be at your fingertips.

Learn, my son, and easier and clearer

Sovereign labor you will comprehend.

Pushkin, through the mouth of Tsar Boris, here very accurately expressed how geography can help a statesman: “to survey the whole kingdom suddenly” (that is, simultaneously) in order to better understand it.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (who, among other things, was in charge of the Geographical Department of the Russian Academy of Sciences) seems to have said of geography that it "throws the whole universe into a single view of vastness."

Traditionally, it served the needs of the Russian state, which, starting at least from the 14th century, was continuously “colonized”, expanding its territory. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, some geographers even criticized the Russian Geographical Society for being fond of studying foreign territories (to the detriment of studying Russia proper - primarily those that Russia could “have views”, if not for the purpose of joining, then to increase their influence in them). Now, when the six-century era of the expansion of the territory of Russia is already behind us, the tasks of geography are also changing: we all need to know better the inner, “deep” Russia, on which the main efforts of the state will be directed and on which our future will eventually depend.

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1. The subject and tasks of geography

Geography (from the Greek words: geo - earth and graph - I write, depict) - means "description of the earth" or "image of the Earth." The object of study of geography is the laws and patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations at different levels.

Geography is a system of physical-geographical, economic-geographical socio-geographical disciplines that study the geographic envelope of the Earth, natural-territorial, territorial-production and socio-territorial complexes, their interconnection and their constituent components.

The task of geography is to comprehensively study nature, population and economy and to establish the nature of the interaction between human society and the geographical environment in order to substantiate the ways of rational territorial organization of society and nature management, to create the foundations of a strategy for the environmentally safe development of society. Geography as a science originally arose as a description of the nature and population of various localities. This is reminiscent of the very name of the science of geography - "earth description".

A huge contribution to the development of geographical thought was made by Plato (428-348 BC) and his student Aristotle (384-322 BC), the most famous philosophers of Ancient Greece. Plato, like Pythagoras (VI century BC), believed that the Earth is not flat, but has the shape of a ball. Plato proposed a deductive method of knowing the world.

2. Structure of geographical science

The complexity of the object of study and the breadth of the subject area led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized scientific disciplines that form the system of geographical sciences. In the system of geographical sciences, natural (physical and geographical) and social geographical sciences are distinguished, as well as complex applied disciplines: medical geography, military geography, recreational geography, tourism geography, etc.

Physical geography is a system of natural geographical sciences that comprehensively study the natural component of the geographic envelope of the Earth as a whole and its structural parts - natural territorial and water complexes of all ranks.

The main tasks of physical geography:

Comprehensive studies of the nature of individual regions and natural processes

Studying the problems of human impact on the natural environment and rational nature management.

The main sections of physical geography are geography and landscape science.

General geography deals with the study of the regularities of the geographic envelope as a whole, landscape science studies landscape complexes. Physical geography also includes paleogeography and boundary sciences: geomorphology, climatology, land hydrology, oceanology, glaciology, soil geography, and biogeography.

Socio-economic geography studies the territorial organization of society, is divided into four sectoral blocks (with its own sections: economic geography, social geography, political geography, cultural geography, historical geography.

3. Map and plan of the area

Geographic map is not a reduced copy of the terrain. A map is a drawing on which there is nothing superfluous, but only the necessary is shown. The mathematical basis of maps includes scale and cartographic projection, which determine the degree of reduction in the size of objects on the map, their correct geographical position, as well as the nature and degree of distortion inevitable in the image of the ball.

Plan- this is a drawing of a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe terrain on a large scale and in conventional signs, built without taking into account the curvature of the earth's surface. The difference between a plan and a map: the plan shows small areas of the earth's surface, while the maps show much larger areas and on a smaller scale. All objects and details of the area are plotted on the plan in a given scale. Objects are selected on maps depending on their content and purpose. When drawing plans, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account. The north-south direction is indicated by an arrow on the plans. On the maps, the north-south direction is determined by the meridians, and the west-east direction is determined by the parallels.

4. Map scales. ATides scalein. Anddistance measurements according to plansand maps

Scale- this is the degree of reduction in the length of lines on a plan or map compared to their actual length on the ground. The scale is indicated under the southern frame of the plan sheet or map. There are three types of scale: numerical, named, linear. The numerical scale is written as a fraction, the numerator of which is one, and the denominator is the number m. The named scale is an explanation indicating the ratio of the lengths of the lines on the map and on the ground. The named scale looks like this> in 1cm - 1km. The linear scale is used to measure the lengths of lines in reality on maps. It is a straight line divided into equal segments corresponding to the decimal numbers of distances on the ground. Segments, but are called the base of the scale. And the distance on the ground corresponding to the base is called the magnitude of the linear scale. To improve the accuracy of determining distances, the leftmost base is divided into smaller parts b, called the smallest divisions of the linear scale. When working with a plan and a map, you often have to translate the numerical scale into a named or linear one. To do this, it is necessary to translate the denominator of the numerical scale into more major measures- meters and kilometers.

To measure distances according to plans and maps, one must be able to use the scale.

5. Types of cards.Conventional signs

Geographic map- a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

* By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the ratio between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring tools (rulers, curvimeters) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

* According to the content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physical-geographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

* According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of the continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

* By purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigational, etc.

Conventional signs are used to depict the situation (rivers, lakes, roads, vegetation, settlements, etc.) on maps and plans. They are divided into three groups: 1) contour, 2) non-scale and 3) explanatory conventional signs.

Contour conventional signs depict local objects on maps and plans, expressed on a map scale, for example, arable land, meadows, forests, vegetable gardens, seas, lakes, etc. The outlines (contours) of such objects are depicted on a large-scale map and on a plan by similar figures. The boundaries of these figures are drawn with a dotted line if they do not coincide with lines that are somehow marked on the ground (roads, hedges, ditches).

The areas inside the contours on the map or plan are filled with established monotonous icons, which are contour symbols.

In non-scale conventional signs are used to depict local objects or points on a map or plan that cannot be expressed on a map scale. These conventional signs are called off-scale because they depict objects without maintaining scale. Off-scale conventional signs depict such objects on a map or plan as roads, bridges, kilometer posts, road signs, wells, geodetic points, etc.

These conventional signs indicate the exact position of the objects they designate, which makes it possible to measure the distances between the latter on the map.

The third group of conventional signs are explanatory conventional signs. These include symbols on the map that give additional characteristics of local items. Explanatory signs are always used in combination with contour and off-scale symbols.

An explanatory symbol is, for example, the inscription 0.3/PK at the ford. It means that the depth of the river at the ford is 0.3 m and that the bottom is sandy and rocky.

The symbols used on Soviet topographic maps are almost the same for all scales, differing only in size.

6 . Usagekartintourism

In tourism, tourist maps and maps are most often used.

On sightseeing trips, they usually use small-scale maps that give an idea of ​​large territories and individual regions.

On hikes and travels - large-scale maps and diagrams, scale 1: 200,000 or 1: 100,000 (two hundred and one hundred),

As well as special tourist and sports maps.

The geography of tourism is a geographical discipline that studies:

Territorial organization of tourism;

Placement of tourist resources, material base of tourism and tourist infrastructure.

7. BeltNew time and time zones of the Earth

standard time- this is the average solar time, determined for 24 main geographic meridians, separated by 15 ° in longitude.

The Earth's surface is divided into 24 time zones (numbered 0 to 23), within each of which standard time

standard time in adjacent belts it differs by 1 hour. The belts are counted from west to east. The main meridian of the zero zone is the Greenwich meridian. The difference (in hours) between the zone time of any zone and universal time is equal to the zone number.

standard time some belts have their own name; for example, the standard time of the zero zone is called Western European (worldwide), the first zone is called Central European, the second zone is called Eastern European.

Time zones divide the Earth's surface into 24 zones numbered from 0 to 23, within each of which standard time coincides with the time of the main meridian passing through them.

Adjacent time zones differ by 1 hour.

There are zones with a 30-minute shift, they are highlighted on the map with a red border.

8. Landscape, main componentslandscape elements and their relationship

Landscape is one of the fundamental concepts of modern geography, which is based on the idea of ​​the interconnection and interdependence of all natural phenomena on the earth's surface. Landforms, rocks, climates, surface and ground waters, soils and communities of organisms are interconnected both in their spatial changes and in historical development.

Objects of landscape art are formed on the basis of the interaction of already known components in order to create a comfortable and aesthetically complete environment and - as the highest achievement - the creation of a work of art. The attitude to individual components is connected both with the need to adapt to them and with the possibility of their transformation. The ratio of these components in the formation of objects of landscape art should be subject to their natural relationships and, first of all, the ecological requirements of plants. At the same time, the solution of aesthetic problems should take into account not just beautiful or unusual combinations components or decorative features of plants, but the ecologically established logic of their relationship.

Components and interconnections of natural landscapes are the ecological foundation for the aesthetic formation of objects of landscape art. However, in landscape art, the term "component" is used in another sense. It is associated with the compositional structure of landscapes, in which various types of park plantings (tape plants, groups, and others), together with landforms and types of reservoirs, are components of park compositions. The placement of these components (composition) is the basis for the creative construction of park facilities.

9. Landscape differentiation: latitudinal zonetonality and altitudinal zonality

Latitudinal zonality is a regular change in physical and geographical processes, components and complexes of geosystems from the equator to the poles.

Altitudinal (vertical) zonality is a regular change of natural landscapes with height in the mountains caused by a change in natural and climatic conditions.

10. Basic landformsLands, mountain systems, plains

Relief- the shape of the physical surface of the Earth, considered in relation to its level surface.

Continents and oceans are the main landforms of the Earth. Their formation is due to tectonic, cosmic and planetary processes.

This is the largest massif of the earth's crust, which has a three-layer structure. Most of its surface protrudes above the level of the oceans. In the modern geological era, there are 6 continents: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, Australia, Antarctica.

The continuous water shell of the Earth, surrounding the continents and having a common salt composition. The world ocean is divided by continents into 4 oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic.

The surface of the Earth is 510 million km 2. Only 29% of the Earth's area falls on the share of land. Everything else is the World Ocean, that is, 71%.

Mountains and plains, as well as continents and oceans, are the main landforms of the Earth. Mountains are formed as a result of tectonic uplifts, and plains - as a result of the destruction of mountains.

Plains- large areas with a relatively flat surface. They vary in height. An example lowlands (from 0 to 200 m above sea level) can serve as the Amazonian lowland - the largest on Earth, as well as the Indo-Gangetic lowland. It happens that the lowlands are located below sea level - this is hollows. The Caspian lowland is located 28 m below sea level. An example of a plain proper is the largest East European Plain. The sizes of landforms reflect the features of their origin. So, the largest landforms - tectonic - formed as a result of the prevailing influence of the internal forces of the Earth. Forms of medium and small scales were formed with the predominant participation of external forces (erosive forms).

11. Endogenous and exogenous factors(processes) of formation of relief. Endogenous landforms

The relief is formed as a result of the interaction of internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) forces. Endogenous and exogenous processes of relief formation operate constantly. At the same time, endogenous processes mainly create the main features of the relief, while exogenous ones try to level the relief.

The main sources of energy in relief formation are:

1. Internal energy of the Earth;

2. Solar energy;

3. Gravity;

4. Influence of space.

Energy source endogenous processes is thermal energy Earth associated with the processes occurring in the mantle (radioactive decay). Due to endogenous forces, the earth's crust was separated from the mantle with the formation of its two types: continental and oceanic.

Endogenous forces cause: movements of the lithosphere, the formation of folds and faults, earthquakes and volcanism. All these movements are reflected in the relief and lead to the formation of mountains and troughs of the earth's crust.

Faults in the earth's crust distinguished by: size, shape and time of formation. Deep faults form large blocks of the earth's crust, which experience vertical and horizontal offsets. Such faults often define the outlines of continents.

Exogenous processes associated with the arrival of solar energy on the earth. But they flow with the participation of gravity. When this happens:

1. Weathering of rocks;

2. Movement of material under the action of gravity (landslides, landslides, screes on slopes);

3. Material transport by water and wind.

weathering called the totality of processes of mechanical destruction and chemical change of rocks.

The total impact of all processes of destruction and transport of rocks is called denudation. Denudation leads to leveling of the surface of the lithosphere. If there were no endogenous processes on the Earth, then it would have had a completely flat surface long ago. This surface is called the main level of denudation.

In reality, there are many temporal levels of denudation at which equalization processes may fade for some time.

The manifestation of denudation processes depends on: the composition of rocks, geological structure and climate.

Endogenous landforms subdivided into planetary, tectonic and volcanic forms, very closely related to each other.

Planetary and tectonic landforms in their origin and development are due to the processes of formation of the earth's crust and tectonic movements. The largest greatest forms the relief of the planet are mainland ledges and oceanic depressions. They arise as a result of global processes of tectogenesis and reflect fundamental differences not only in the structure of the earth's crust, but also in the upper mantle. The continents are vast uplands with an average height of about +0.8 km above sea level, the oceans are even more grandiose depressions with an average depth of 4.2. The second category of endogenous forms, which has a lot in common with the previous one, is largest forms relief of the planet - mega-relief, complicating the structure of both continental and oceanic spaces. A number of researchers consider most of these forms as planetary and refer to the previous category. However, the development of the largest landforms is more closely related to the actual tectonic processes. In places, these forms pass from the oceanic to the continental region, as if superimposed on them. These include continental platform plains, major systems of high mountains and deep depressions, systems of island arcs and deep trenches, mid-ocean ridges, and abyssal oceanic plains. These landforms are associated with the development of second-order tectonic structures - mobile belts and stable platforms.

12. exogenous processes.Landforms createdactivity of flowing and groundwater

Surface running water- one of critical factors transformation of the earth's relief. The main landforms of Russia - plains, mountains and highlands - owe their origin to the internal forces of the Earth. But many essential details of their modern relief were created by external forces. Almost everywhere the formation of the modern relief took place and is taking place under the influence of flowing waters. As a result, erosional landforms were formed - river valleys, beams and ravines. The ravine-gully network is especially dense on such uplands as the Central Russian, Volga, and in the foothills. Many coastal sea plains have a flat, level topography that has been shaped by processes associated with the advance and retreat of the sea. Therefore, on vast expanses of modern land, marine sediments lie horizontally. Such are the plains of the Caspian, Black Sea, Azov, Pechora and northern parts of the West Siberian lowlands.

13. Relief formsa, ccreated by glaciers and snow

A characteristic feature of areas of continuous glaciation is the zonal arrangement of landscape features and landforms in them. These areas include:

Zone of predominant glacial denudation,

The zone of predominant glacial accumulation,

periglacial zone.

Landforms associated with glacial exaration: rounded, smoothed and polished by the glacier hills - "ram's foreheads", forming rocky ridges - selgas.

Accumulative formations associated with the activity of the glacier - lakes, kams - hills within the moraine accumulative plain, composed of fluvioglacial deposits - layered sands, sandy loams with undisturbed bedding

Under conditions of preservation of a continuous cover of a moraine, a hilly-depression relief was formed.

The periglacial zone is located outside the distribution of glacial landforms. These are outwash plains, meltwater runoff hollows, ancient continental dunes.

In front of the edge of the glacier, there are fields of sandy near-glacial fluvioglacial deposits, outwash plains - (Danish sandur sand) - gently undulating plains located in front of the outer edge of the glacier, fixed in the relief by finite moraine ridges.

Runoff troughs are wide flat depressions in the relief, along which meltwater flows to the south, or parallel to the edge of the glacier. Now part of these hollows are used by rivers.

The winds blowing from the glacier formed continental dunes - swell-like forms transverse to the wind with an internal gentle slope - 2-120 and an external steep slope.

14. landforms,created by biogenic processes

Biogenic relief is a set of forms of the earth's surface, formed as a result of the vital activity of organisms. Biota as an agent of relief formation is a combination of extremely diverse organisms - microbes, plants, fungi and animals, the impact of which on the earth's surface is diverse. In other words, biogenic relief formation is a complex of processes that transform the Earth's relief and create irregularities of various scales - from nano- to macro-forms. The biogenic factor of relief formation acts almost everywhere on the earth's surface and therefore plays a huge role in the formation of relief.

Biogenic landforms include those created by living organisms or formed as a result of the accumulation of metabolic products (metabolism) or necromass (dead mass). Phytogenic forms - landforms created due to the vital activity of plants; zoogenic - due to the activities of animals.

Biota affects the relief of the earth's surface both directly (biota is an agent of relief formation) and indirectly (indirect impact; biota is a condition for relief formation), changing the rates of abiogenic geomorphological processes (slope, fluvial, eolian, etc.), up to their blocking or, on the contrary, initiation. At the same time, in many cases, the indirect impact is the most significant for relief formation. Thus, often changes in the vegetation cover of the territory can lead to a change in the rates of processes by two or three orders of magnitude, or to a change in the spectrum of the main geomorphological processes.

The biogenic factor influenced the relief of the earth's surface directly or indirectly for at least 4 billion years, that is, almost throughout geological history Earth, while the role of the biogenic factor increased in the course of biota evolution.

Organogenic sedimentation has been the most important mechanism for the participation of organisms in the formation of the sedimentary layer of the lithosphere and its surface topography in geological history. It should be emphasized that organogenic sedimentation both in the ocean and on the continents is at the same time a transformation of the relief, since the absolute marks (depths) of the surface also change in the process of accumulation of organic rocks. At the same time, about 1.8 billion tons of organogenic material is deposited annually in the ocean alone (the second indicator after the solid runoff of rivers). In general, the evolution of the biota ensured the creation of colossal volumes of matter in the sedimentary layer. The total reserves of organogenic rocks are at least 15% of its mass, and taking into account photosynthetic oxygen and dispersed organogenic matter (mainly products of burial of microorganisms) - up to 70%. Organisms have created more than 40 types of minerals (biominerals).

15. Anthropogenic landforms

Anthropogenic relief - a set of relief forms created or significantly modified by human economic activity. We can talk about the actual anthropogenic landforms, i.e., newly created by man, and about landforms that arise as a result of a sharp increase or change natural processes under the influence of economic, both transformative (creative) and irrational (destructive) activities. In the second case, an anthropogenically determined relief arises.

All geological and relief-forming processes arising under the influence of human activity are called anthropogenic processes. Qualitative differences of anthropogenic geological processes and phenomena selectively consist in the fact that they:

are the result not of the elemental forces of nature, but of the conscious influence of man on nature;

in many cases can be prevented and regulated;

in their direction and nature, manifestations may not correspond to the natural conditions of the area, for example, local earthquakes caused by explosions in a non-seismic zone, the formation of landslides and screes in flat terrain during the construction of cuts and embankments, etc.;

are formed selectively, depending on the direction and nature of human activity.

Anthropogenic geological processes are determined by the peculiarities of the laws of their development.

according to the nature of distribution, they are divided into point, focal, local (local), linear, large-area, regional and global;

according to their location, they are divided into terrestrial, near-surface and deep ones;

according to the nature of interaction with soils, they are divided into two main groups - lithogenic ones - directly related to soils (subsidences, dips, landslides, etc.); non-lithogenic - not directly related to soils (bogging, flooding, accumulation of solid waste, etc.).

At present, a person annually moves about 3 thousand km 3 of soil in the process of agricultural work, extracts about 100 billion tons of ores and building materials from the earth's crust, moves hundreds of billions of tons of soil during the construction of various engineering structures, disperses about 300 million tons of mineral fertilizers, and also very significantly changes the relief in many areas of the earth's surface.

The forms of relief directly created by human hands include, for example:

Terraces on the slopes in the southern regions, built for the cultivation of rice and other crops that require constant excess moisture for their growth;

Quarries in the extraction of minerals in an open way;

Dumps of waste rock in the form of large artificial hills - waste heaps near mines where certain minerals are mined.

Human activity has a huge impact on most processes of exogenous relief formation. (e.g. gullying due to agriculture).

16. Weather(basicweather elements, claweather classification)

Weather - a set of values ​​of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a certain point in time at a particular point in space. The concept "Weather" refers to the current state of the atmosphere, as opposed to the concept "Climate", which refers to the average state of the atmosphere over a long period of time. If there are no clarifications, then the term "Weather" means the weather on Earth. Weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (lower part of the atmosphere) and in the hydrosphere.

Distinguish between periodic and non-periodic weather changes. Periodic weather changes depend on the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. Non-periodic due to the transfer of air masses. They disrupt the normal course of meteorological quantities (temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, etc.). Mismatches of the phase of periodic changes with the nature of non-periodic ones lead to the most dramatic changes in the weather.

There are two types of meteorological information:

Primary information about the current weather obtained as a result of meteorological observations.

Weather information in the form of various reports, synoptic maps, aerological charts, vertical sections, cloud maps, etc.

The success of developed weather forecasts largely depends on the quality of primary meteorological information.

17. Frontal weather.Warm and cold fronts

Atmospheric front (from other Greek bfmt - steam, utsb?sb - ball and lat. frontis - forehead, front side), tropospheric fronts - a transition zone in the troposphere between adjacent air masses with different physical properties. An atmospheric front occurs when cold and warm air masses approach and meet in the lower layers of the atmosphere or in the entire troposphere, covering a layer up to several kilometers thick, with the formation of an inclined interface between them.

There are: warm fronts, cold fronts, fronts of occlusion, stationary fronts.

The main atmospheric fronts are: arctic, polar, tropical.

If the air masses were stationary, the surface of the atmospheric front would be horizontal, with cold air below and warm air above it, but since both masses move, it is inclined to the earth's surface. In this case, on average, the angle of inclination is about 1 ° to the Earth's surface. A cold front is tilted in the same direction it is moving, while a warm front is tilted in the opposite direction. The slope of the front in the ideal model can be expressed through the Margulis formula.

The atmospheric front zone is very narrow compared to the air masses it separates, therefore, for the purposes of theoretical research, it is approximately considered as the interface between two air masses of different temperatures and is called the frontal surface. For this reason, on synoptic maps, fronts are depicted as a line (front line). At the intersection with the earth's surface, the frontal zone has a width of about tens of kilometers, while the horizontal dimensions of the air masses themselves are of the order of thousands of kilometers.

When air masses with different characteristics approach each other, a tangential gap is formed in the zone between them, that is, 1) Horizontal gradients of air temperature and humidity increase. 2) The pressure field has a trough or "hidden trough". 3) The wind speed tangent to the discontinuity line has a jump. On the contrary, when the air masses move away from each other, the gradients of meteorological quantities and wind speeds decrease. Transitional zones in the troposphere, in which the convergence of air masses with different characteristics occurs, are called frontal zones.

In the horizontal direction, the length of the fronts, as well as air masses, is thousands of kilometers, along the vertical - about 5 km, the width of the frontal zone near the Earth's surface is about a hundred kilometers, at altitudes - several hundred kilometers. Frontal zones are characterized by significant changes in air temperature and humidity, wind directions along the horizontal surface, both at ground level and above.

The section of the frontal surface of the Earth's surface is called an atmospheric front and is plotted on a surface synoptic map. High-altitude frontal zones (VFZ) are plotted on baric topography maps - sections of isobaric surfaces by the frontal surface.

A "frontal surface" is a surface or transition zone separating air masses with different properties, including different air densities. The pressure continuity imposes certain conditions on the spatial orientation of the frontal surface. In the absence of movement, any discontinuity in the density field (or zone of rapid transition from one air mass to another) must be horizontal. In the presence of motion, the transition surface becomes inclined, with denser (cold) air forming a wedge under less dense (warm) air, and warm air sliding upward along this wedge. A cold front is an atmospheric front (a surface separating warm and cold air masses) moving towards warm air. Cold air advances and pushes warm air: cold advection is observed, a cold air mass comes to the region behind the cold front. Atmospheric front moving towards colder air (heat advection is observed). A warm air mass moves into the region behind a warm front.

On the weather map, a cold front is marked in blue or as black triangles pointing in the direction of the front movement. When crossing the cold front line, the wind, as in the case warm front, turns to the right, but the turn is more significant and sharp - from the southwestern, southern (in front of the front) to the western, northwestern (behind the front). This increases the wind speed. Atmospheric pressure ahead of the front changes slowly. It can fall, but it can also grow. With the passage of a cold front, a rapid increase in pressure begins. Behind the cold front, the pressure increase can reach 3–5 hPa/3 h, and sometimes 6–8 hPa/3 h or even more. A change in the pressure trend (from falling to rising, from slow to stronger growth) indicates the passage of a surface front line.

A warm front is an atmospheric front moving towards colder air (heat advection is observed). A warm air mass moves into the region behind a warm front. On the weather map, a warm front is marked in red or as black semicircles pointing in the direction of the front movement. As the warm front line approaches, pressure begins to drop, clouds thicken, and heavy precipitation falls. In winter, when the front passes, low stratus clouds usually appear. The temperature and humidity of the air are slowly rising. When a front passes, temperature and humidity usually increase rapidly, and the wind increases. After the passage of the front, the direction of the wind changes (the wind turns clockwise), the pressure drop stops and its weak growth begins, the clouds dissipate, and precipitation stops. The baric tendencies field is presented as follows: in front of the warm front there is a closed area of ​​pressure drop, behind the front there is either an increase in pressure or a relative increase (a drop, but less than in front of the front). In the case of a warm front, warm air, moving towards the cold one, flows onto a wedge of cold air and performs an upward slide along this wedge and is dynamically cooled. At a certain altitude, determined by the initial state of the rising air, saturation is reached - this is the level of condensation.

18. Kleemat and climate-forming factors

Climate is the long-term regime of the weather in a particular area. Climate is the result of climate-forming processes that continuously occur in the atmosphere. K. is determined mainly by the flow of radiant energy from the sun to the underlying surface and into the atmosphere (more precisely, its income-expenditure balance), as well as differences due to the distribution of land and ocean. Many other geographic factors also influence the climate. Climate-forming factors are divided into leading and driven. The leading factors include radiation and circulation factors, and the driven ones are the orographic and the nature of the underlying surface.

Radiation factor - the amount of solar energy received by the territory. The radiation regime of the territory is characterized through the total solar radiation and the radiation balance. Climatic conditions are influenced by their annual values ​​and seasonal changes.

The amount of incoming solar radiation is determined primarily by geographic latitude. The spherical shape of our planet determines the latitudinal pattern of change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays from the equator to the poles. Towards the poles, the height of the Sun above the horizon decreases, the grazing rays are distributed over a larger area, and there is less solar energy per unit area. Therefore, from the equator to the poles, the annual value radiation balance decreases. The value of total solar radiation also varies latitudinally, but other factors also have a great influence on its value. And, above all, the underlying surface and, associated with it, the transparency of air masses for sunlight.

Due to the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, during the year there is a change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, which affects the amount of solar radiation and determines the selection of thermal seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer, autumn. Under the circulation factor understand the nature of the prevailing winds and the types of air masses (Wm) they carry. Wind is the horizontal movement of Vm in the lower layers of the troposphere from an area of ​​high pressure to an area of ​​low pressure.

In connection with the uneven heating of the surface of the globe, 7 zones are formed that differ in the magnitude of atmospheric pressure: the equatorial zone of low pressure; 2 zones of high pressure over the thirtieth latitudes (1 in each hemisphere); 2 low pressure zones in temperate latitudes (1 in each hemisphere); 2 zones of high pressure over the poles (north and south). A constant exchange of Vm develops between these regions, i.e. a system of constant winds is formed: trade wind circulation in tropical latitudes, westerly transport in temperate latitudes, northeast and southeast constant winds high latitudes in the polar regions.

19. Climate classification

The classification of climates was created, taking as a basis almost exclusively air masses and their role in a particular geographical area. In this classification, a generalized picture of the Earth's climates was built based on data on the frequency of air masses of each type passing over each region in different seasons of the year, using the results of daily observations at all weather stations located in this region. Areas are identified according to their vegetation cover, temperature and precipitation regimes.

This classification considers three groups of climates, corresponding to three major latitudinal zones and the air masses prevailing in each such zone.

Equatorial and tropical air masses prevail at low latitudes. High air temperature is observed here, the trade wind dominates, the subtropical high-pressure belt and the intratropical convergence zone are located.

Tropical climates of low latitudes are divided into arid, semi-arid, monsoonal, rainy and variable arid-humid climates.

Arctic and polar air masses dominate at high latitudes. The term arctic air is often used to describe the exceptionally cold air masses that form in the polar regions. Usually in these areas there is no summer or it is very short, and the winter is very long and very cold. Separate climates of these latitudes are the taiga climate (subarctic), the tundra climate and the polar climate. Tropical and polar air masses meet each other on the "battlefield", in temperate latitudes, when warm air moving north and cold moving south. These two completely different air masses begin to interact vigorously with each other, so intense cyclonic activity often develops here, atmospheric fronts form. Meteorological conditions vary greatly depending on what air mass is over the area. However, neither of these two masses becomes dominant for any length of time.

As a result of the interaction of these two air masses, the following types of climates are formed: humid continental (cold summers and warm winters), temperate latitudes (arid or semi-arid), subtropical (dry or humid) and marine.

20. Wind,its spatiale distribution

Wind is a flow of air. On Earth, wind is a stream of air that moves predominantly in a horizontal direction; on other planets it is a stream of atmospheric gases characteristic of these planets. The strongest winds in the solar system are observed on Neptune and Saturn. The solar wind is the flow of rarefied gases from the star, and the planetary wind is the flow of gases responsible for the degassing of the planetary atmosphere into outer space. Winds are usually classified according to their scale, speed, types of forces that cause them, places of distribution and impact on the environment. Winds are classified primarily by their strength, duration and direction. Thus, gusts are considered to be short-term (several seconds) and strong movements of air. Strong winds of medium duration (about 1 minute) are called squalls. The names of longer winds depend on the strength, for example, such names are breeze, storm, storm, hurricane, typhoon. The duration of the wind also varies greatly: some thunderstorms can last several minutes, breezes that depend on the difference in heating features of the relief throughout the day last several hours, global winds caused by seasonal temperature changes - monsoons - last several months, while global winds, caused by the difference in temperature at different latitudes and the Coriolis force, they blow constantly and are called trade winds. Monsoons and trade winds are the winds that make up the general and local circulation of the atmosphere.

The winds have always influenced human civilization, they inspired mythological stories, influenced historical action, expanded the range of trade, cultural development and warfare, supplied energy for a variety of mechanisms for energy production and recreation. Thanks to sailing ships that sailed due to the wind, for the first time it became possible to travel long distances across the seas and oceans. Hot air balloons, which also propelled themselves with the wind, made it possible for the first time to go on air travel, and modern aircraft use the wind to increase lift and save fuel. However, winds can also be unsafe, as wind gradients can cause loss of aircraft control, fast winds, and the resulting big waves, on large bodies of water often lead to the destruction of piece buildings, and in some cases, winds can increase the scale of the fire.

Winds can also influence the formation of landforms, causing eolian deposits that form various types of soils (for example, loess) or erosion. They can carry sand and dust from deserts over long distances. The winds disperse plant seeds and aid the movement of flying animals, which lead to the expansion of species into new territory. Wind-related phenomena affect wildlife in a variety of ways.

Wind arises as a result of an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure and is directed from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone. Due to the continuous change in pressure in time and space, the speed and direction of the wind is constantly changing. With height, the wind speed changes due to a decrease in the friction force. The Beaufort scale is used to visually estimate wind speed. The meteorological direction of the wind is indicated by the azimuth of the point from which the wind is blowing; while the aeronautical wind direction is which way it is blowing, so the values ​​differ by 180°. Long-term observations of the direction and strength of the wind are depicted in the form of a graph - a wind rose.

In some cases, it is not the wind direction itself that is important, but the position of the object relative to it. So, when hunting an animal with a sharp scent, they approach it from the leeward side - in order to avoid the spread of smell from the hunter towards the animal. The vertical movement of air is called ascending or downstream.

21. The oceans and its parts

Word " ocean"came to us from ancient times, in Greek it means" a boundless sea", "a great river flowing around the whole Earth." Already in those distant times, there was a generally correct idea of ​​the planetary distribution of ocean waters. Over time, as development navigation and geographical knowledge, the picture of the distribution of waters on earth developed and was refined.

On the the globe four oceans: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and North Arctic Ocean. Sometimes the body of water surrounding the continent of Antarctica is called the Antarctic Ocean. If you count it, then there are five oceans on Earth. Since all the oceans are interconnected, some believe that they can be considered as one giant world ocean, divided into four or five (if the Antarctic waters are considered as a separate body of water) parts. The Arctic Ocean covers an area of ​​approximately 14,103,626 km² (5,440,000 sq mi). The area of ​​the Antarctic Ocean is 32,253,886 km² (12,450,000 square miles). The area of ​​the Indian Ocean is 73,523,316 km² (28,380,000 square miles), while the Atlantic Ocean extends over 10,6217,610 km² (41,000,000 square miles). The largest of the oceans is the Pacific. Its area is 166,284,970 km² (64,186,000 square miles). It is also the deepest ocean, reaching a depth of 11,034 m (36,198 ft) in the Mariana Trench, which stretches from southeast Guam to the northwest of the Marianas. The highest seamount is also located in pacific ocean: Mauna Kea rises from the ocean floor and juts out of the water in Hawaii. Its height is 10,205 m (33,480 ft), i.e., it is even higher than the highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest (although the peak of Mauna Kea rises only 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level). The oceans contain 1347,000,000 km³ (322,280,000 cu mi) of salt water. If you have an aquarium, then you know how much water can weigh. One cubic kilometer sea ​​water weighs 1.02 billion tons.

It is now known that the Earth is the most water-rich planet in the solar system, and ocean waters are the main part of the Earth's hydrosphere, occupying 70.8% of the earth's surface.

22. sea ​​currents

sea ​​currents- constant or periodic flows in the thickness of the world's oceans and seas. There are constant, periodic and irregular currents; surface and underwater, warm and cold currents. Depending on the cause of the current, wind and density currents are distinguished. The flow rate is measured in Sverdrups.

Currents are classified according to various criteria: according to the forces that cause them (genetic classifications), according to stability, according to the depth of location in the water column, according to the nature of movement, according to physicochemical properties.

There are three groups of currents:

gradient currents, caused by horizontal hydrostatic pressure gradients that occur when isobaric surfaces are tilted relative to isopotential (level) surfaces

Density caused by a horizontal density gradient

Compensatory, caused by the tilt of the sea level under the influence of the wind

barogradient, caused by uneven atmospheric pressure over the sea surface

Seiche, resulting from seiche fluctuations in sea level

Sink or waste, resulting from the occurrence of excess water in any area of ​​the sea (as a result of the influx of continental waters, precipitation, ice melting)

wind driven currents

Drift, caused only by the entraining action of the wind

wind, caused by both the dragging action of the wind, and the slope of the sea level and the change in water density caused by the wind

tidal currents caused by tides.

・Reverse flow

Tidal currents are the strongest, especially near the coast, in shallow water, in straits and estuaries.

In oceans and seas, currents are usually driven by the combined action of several forces. Currents that continue to exist after the end of the action of the forces that caused them are called inertial.

By variability flows are divided into periodic and non-periodic.

periodic currents change over a certain period. These currents are called tidal currents.

Non-periodic flows associated with temporary causes (for example, occur under the influence of a cyclone).

Currents are distinguished, the speeds and directions of which change little over the season (monsoon) or over the year (trade winds).

Currents that do not change with time are called steady currents, and time-varying transient.

23. Land waters

scale landscape relief climate

Land waters are part of the Earth's water shell. These include groundwater, rivers, glaciers, lakes and swamps, comprising 3.5% of the total water supply. Of these, only 2.5% is fresh water.

Groundwater is located in the rock mass of the upper part of the earth's crust in liquid, solid and vapor states. Their main mass is formed due to seepage from the surface of rain, melt and river waters. Groundwater is constantly moving both horizontally and vertically. The depth of their occurrence, the direction and intensity of movement depends on the permeability of rocks. Permeable rocks include pebbles, sands, gravel. Clays, dense rocks without cracks, and frozen soils are classified as waterproof (waterproof), practically impervious to water.

According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater is divided into:

soil, located in the upper soil layer;

· soil, lying on the first from the surface of a permanent water-resistant layer;

interstratal located between two water-resistant layers.

The latter are most often pressure and are called artesian.

Groundwater containing a large number of salts, gases, are called mineral. They often have healing properties due to the content of useful trace elements (bromine, iodine, radon) in them.

Where a layer of water-resistant rocks with an aquifer above it comes to the surface, a source appears. Springs with a water temperature of up to 20°C are called cold, those with a temperature of 20 to 37°C are called warm, and over 37°C are called hot or thermal.

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Golubchik M. M., Evdokimov S. P.

G624 Geography in modern world: Textbook for the course "Introduction to Geography" / Research Institute of Regional Studies. - Saransk, 2000. - 56 p.

I8BN 588608-065-1

AT study guide geography is considered as a natural and social science, its unity, position and role in the modern world, object, subject, main tasks and problems.

For students and teachers of geographical faculties of universities and pedagogical institutes, high school geography teachers.

UDC 911.5/.9 (075.8) BBKD8.

18ВК 588608-065-1 © Golubchik M. M.,

Evdokimov S. P., 2000

© Research Institute of Regional Studies, 2000

Geography in the modern world

FOREWORD

With this course, you begin the study of geography at the university, getting to know its essence, cognitive and constructive functions. The history of geographical science spans several millennia. During this time, its subject, tasks and methods of research have changed radically. However, often in modern society geography is still treated as a purely descriptive science, the main function of which is reference and encyclopedic. Such a view fundamentally contradicts the essence of present-day geography. At present, integration tendencies have intensified in it, leading to the formation of ideas about the unity of geographical science and the increasing development of a common (single, complex, undivided) geography. This new geography is designed to explore the spatial and temporal patterns of interaction between nature and society at the global, regional and local levels.

Geography is a natural science and

Public

1. Changing ideas about geography. The student completing the study of geography must be prepared to understand its complexity and fascination. Its modern content differs significantly from the prevailing ideas about it as a science of travel and adventure. This does not mean at all that the Julvernian romance of geographical wanderings should be left behind the threshold. There are enough romantics in geography even now, but hundreds of times more knowledge is needed. Facts are the "air" of a scientist, and collecting them has become much more difficult than before.

Factual material must underlie any theory. For the geographer, they are served by a variety of data about countries and regions, their properties, including knowledge about the location of objects. However, the importance of the factual material should not be exaggerated. One should not think that "a good geographer is one who keeps in mind as many names of countries, mountains, rivers, cities as possible," wrote the famous German geographer Alfred Hettner, considering this the point of view of a postal official.

At the same time, there are certainly people today who believe that geographers now have nothing to do. The continents have long been described, all the islands have been discovered, the rivers and seas have been measured, everything has been put on maps, and there are no “white spots”! Everything is sorted into shelves. There are no more adventures and surprises. The stormy youth of science gave way to a powerless old age. A depressing picture... But don't worry! The field of activity of geography has not only not been reduced, but, on the contrary, has become even more extensive.

Recently, one has also often heard bewilderment, and even indignation, of representatives of some sciences about the fact that geography and geographers are not doing their job when it comes to such problems as environmental, demographic, economic, social, and others. Is it so? We want to assure you right away that there will be plenty of work for everyone here.

What is the science of geography, what are its problems, new tasks, what is its place in the modern world? let's consider the role of geography in creating a scientific geographical picture of the world and its constructive contribution to solving the most important problems of our time. Naturally, we will be able to draw only a general picture.

If earlier geography worked to expand the living space, then at present it faces the opposite task: to substantiate and disseminate the idea of ​​the need for cooperation with nature within the limited Oikoumene, which has a certain capacity. Beyond this capacity, humanity is in for an ecological catastrophe. Therefore, today there is an intensive greening of all areas of geography.

The sphere of social geography is expanding (human geography, social geography, geourban studies). A significant rise in interest in political geography is noticeable. A sharp increase in attention to the space and time of the earthly world is characteristic. Traditionally, geography is viewed as a science that studies predominantly spatial patterns. But if earlier they studied what was visible, figuratively speaking, with the naked eye, now geographers are investigating the spatial relationships of geosystems formed on the surface of the Earth in the process of long development.

Studying the trends in the development of geosystems, the intensity of their change under the influence of man, the energy of restoration processes - all this allows us to get closer to compiling an accurate ecological and geographical forecast. Forecasting is the pinnacle of geographical research.

Modern geography is also characterized by the development of a systematic approach based on an accurate analysis of the relationships between the individual components of natural, social and natural-social systems. The idea of ​​the integrity of geographical objects allows you to penetrate deeper into their essence, to study the details. With the help of modeling, it is possible to establish the mechanism of relationships in nature and characterize it quantitatively. Field experiments are carried out at geographical stations.

Gradually, geography turned from a descriptive science into a science constructive. The constructive task of geography is the design of territorial systems, and the pinnacle of such design is the optimization of the territorial organization of society.

As a result, geography remains as the main thing - the study of spatial differentiation of territories (subject of study) and their optimal organization(the main constructive task). At the same time, geographers do not forget their social functions related to the control of the environment, geographical information and education.

2. Integrative role of geography.The phenomenon of modern geography is that it combines sciences that study both natural (physical geography) and social (socio-economic and political geography) patterns, focusing on territorial (spatial) aspects. Physical geography, in turn, is divided into sciences that study natural components and their properties (relief, water, climate, atmosphere, etc.) and natural complexes (geographical envelope, landscapes). No less voluminous are the branches of social geography: economic geography, political geography, population geography, etc.

It would seem that these powerful branches of modern geography - natural physical and humanitarian (social) economic, political and social geography - stretch in different directions, and the word "geography" that unites them is nothing more than a formal flimsy bridge. And so it was for many years: the wall between the social and natural sciences was not immediately destroyed.

She ruined her life by formulating a social order for scientists: explore as fully as possible the mechanism of interaction between nature and society, objectively and comprehensively assess the ecological situation in the world, outline ways to improve the use of natural resources, the reserves of which have become catastrophically depleted. To solve this problem, in the second half of the twentieth century, a common (single) geography (Figure 1). The processes of humanization, sociologization, ecologization, economization of geography and globalization of thinking are noted.

humanization means a turn to a person as the main object, to all spheres and cycles of his life, considering, first of all, the life of people.

sociologization is closely related to humanization and consists in increasing attention to the social aspects of development, to the geographical aspects of public life.

Greening involves consideration of a person in an inseparable connection with the environment of his habitat and the conditions for the reproduction of life.

Economization means a wider introduction into the practice of geographical research of approaches and methods of economic sciences, specific calculations, economic assessments.

Globalization thinking is due to the fact that the conflicts between the needs of people and their economic activities, on the one hand, and the state of natural complexes, on the other, have acquired a global scale, and humanity is also a global system.

Rice. 1. System of geographical sciences

The main task of geography For a long time, it has become not a simple land description, but the study of spatio-temporal relationships, natural and anthropogenic factors and features of the development of various territorial systems. It is in this capacity that geographers are actively involved in solving many problems of a political, economic, social and environmental nature that arise at different levels - from global to local. Therefore, geography occupies a unique place in the system of sciences, playing the role of a kind of link between the natural and social sciences.

An outstanding domestic geographer N.N. Kolosovsky wrote that geography cannot help striving for such a development in which the dialectical integrity of the whole picture of the life of nature and people would be achieved, similar to the classical geography of the ancients, but at an incomparably higher level of modern scientific achievements and accumulated huge factual material. At the present stage of development, geography can achieve this through the establishment of relationships between individual geographical disciplines and the development of new disciplines - "bridges of transition" - at the junctions of existing ones, if necessary.

The unique position of geography is also determined by the fact that it is the only subject that belongs simultaneously to the natural and humanitarian cycles of academic disciplines. Thus, school geography covers the entire system "natural environment - society - man", which allows it to: comprehensively consider the habitat (living space) of mankind, acquainting students with how people live and manage in different geographical conditions; to form the perception of the world not in the form of a set of individual natural or social components, but in the form of a clear hierarchy of territorial natural and social systems that are formed and developed according to certain laws.

Consequently, geography is a subject of an ideological nature that forms a complex, systemic and socially oriented idea of ​​the Earth as a planet of people. It is also the only subject that introduces a person to the territorial (regional) approach as a special method. scientific knowledge and an important tool for influencing socio-economic processes through regional policy.

All this makes it possible to attribute geography to the number of those classical subjects that bear a special responsibility not only for the formation of a humanistic worldview among the younger generations, the education of patriotism and love for the Motherland, but also the skills and abilities of orientation and socially responsible behavior in the world around.

2. Geography and major issues

modernity

1. The concept of a scientific problem. Not the whole area of ​​the unknown, not any object that we want to know about, is put forward as a problem, but only such an object about which we know that, with the available opportunities, we can really know something. These opportunities are predetermined by two factors that simultaneously act as the root causes of the problem statement.

First, problems arise in the presence of social needs. The history of geography is a clear example of this: a) the expansion of commodity production required geography to expand markets and sources of raw materials in the form of discoveries of new lands and routes; b) limitation of sales markets and development of industrial production - a deep study of long-discovered lands; c) the awareness of the exhaustibility of resources and the capacity of the environment in general currently poses before geography the problems of rational nature management in general and the optimal spatial organization of the territory, in particular.

Secondly, problems arise as a result of the development of the internal laws of science itself. This refers to the development of the theoretical basis, the industrial equipment of methods, the improvement of the means of description. All this, of course, is also connected with social development, but the connection here is indirect. The history of geography also provides a good example of this. Until the end of the XIX century. she dealt mainly with the description of individual countries and regions, mostly newly discovered, exotic, poorly studied. From the end of the 19th century the problems of studying the connections between the components of nature are remotely posed. And only in recent decades, geography has internally matured in order to pose and solve, for example, the problems of functional relationships between landscape components and the exchange of matter and energy between neighboring and distant geosystems, understanding by the latter all sorts of systems belonging to the geographic shell of the Earth.

As a result, we can say that the formulation of the problem requires the presence of a social need and a sufficient amount of knowledge to solve it. Therefore, we can agree with the definition of the concept scientific problem as a form of mobilization and organization of previously accumulated knowledge to obtain new knowledge.

A characteristic property of problems is that the problem situation has an "explosive" character, constantly overtaking the growth of opportunities to solve the problem. This circumstance is well illustrated by the legend of Zeno of Kition, who lived in Athens in the 3rd-4th centuries. BC. Legend has it that Zeno, when an idle passer-by asked him why he doubted everything, drew two circles of different sizes and explained: the big circle is what I know, and the small circle is what you know. Everything that is outside the circles is the area of ​​ignorance. It is quite obvious that the length of contact between my circle and the unknown is much greater than yours, and, naturally, I doubt more than you.

Currently, geography faces a number of major problems that are global in nature and of universal significance, and to the solution of which it makes a significant contribution.

Problems associated with the still unknown content of objects are a characteristic element of any science. Therefore, the problem is not only something unknown, but also some knowledge about ignorance. In research practice, the formulation of a problem is always preceded by either a new fact that is not interpreted in previous theories, or a scientific hypothesis that has arisen on the basis of theories, or a task put forward by the practical activity of people, which is based on certain scientific and technical knowledge. Therefore, the mentioned aphoristic formulation of the problem, as knowledge about ignorance, can be accepted. Eastern wisdom says: "Not everyone knows how much you need to know in order to know how little we know." Here the essence of the problem as knowledge about ignorance is reflected quite accurately - not everyone can pose the problem, but the one who knows what he does not know about.

2. Problems environment and natural resources. These problems are often called environmental and they are so large-scale that specialists of various profiles take part in their development: philosophers, economists, lawyers, biologists, chemists, physicians, agronomists, engineers, etc. Geographers did not remain indifferent. But for this they had to reconsider some of their positions. More attention has been paid to the development of complex interdisciplinary areas of scientific research. Thus, in physical geography, doctrines and sections on the development of anthropogenically modified formations arose - landscapes, landforms, soils, etc. Physical geographers began to more actively investigate the problems of the stability of natural complexes to human influences, their self-regulation, functioning, etc. economic geography resources have been developed. Ecological and economic zoning and planning work has begun. And in modern geography, as a whole, a group of natural and social sciences has formed: geoecology, medical geography, land reclamation geography, recreational geography, the study of geotechnical systems, and some others.

Example. Increasing attention to the person, to the "non-economic" aspects of his life, combined with an integrated geographical approach, led to the formation of recreational geography (or geography of recreation), which studies the territorial organization of the "leisure industry", including the geography of tourism - domestic and international. An important task of this science is the study of recreational resources, which include natural complexes and their components, cultural and historical monuments, cities and other settlements, unique structures.

We are well aware of the rapid pace and extremely complex interrelations of the unity of nature and man, of how inextricably linked the history of the earth's fauna and flora, the entire landscape shell, with the history of human society.

More than 260 years ago, V.N. Tatishchev was asked to compile a geographical description of Russia. He tackled the job with passion and dedication. Started to collect the necessary books and documents. But he soon became convinced that it was impossible to make an intelligent land description without a good knowledge of the history of the country. For this reason, he began to study the history of Russia. And I came to the conclusion that for success in this enterprise, it is necessary to constantly use geographical information. Tatishchev expressed his idea about the relationship between the history of nature and the history of human society in this way: “Where, in what position or distance, what happened, what natural obstacles to the ability to take those actions were, and where what kind of people lived before and now lives, how the ancient cities are now called and where they are transferred, this is explained to us by geography and composed land maps; and so history or descriptive stories and chronicles without land description (geography) cannot give us perfect pleasure in knowledge. Many years have passed since then, but Tatishchev's idea has not become outdated. Moreover, now we know what close and complex interrelations the unity of nature and man is carried out, how the history of the nature of the earth's surface is inextricably linked with the history of human society.

Example. Since the early agricultural period (about 12 thousand years ago), human hands have fundamentally changed the face of the Earth: in the northern hemisphere, forests disappeared over large areas and arable land or low vegetation appeared in their place. In some countries, agricultural activity led to powerful soil erosion: for example, in Eastern Fiji, where man appeared about 3 thousand years ago, for some 150 years at the beginning of our era, erosion destroyed at least half a meter of soil.

Since the second half of the twentieth century, the problem of the relationship between nature and society has become extremely relevant both in theoretical and, especially, in practical aspects. The geographical approach to the problem of studying changes and rearrangements of the planet's landscapes (and even some geospheres) as a result of human activity is gaining more and more importance. This approach consists in the spatio-temporal analysis of the origin, structure, functioning, dynamics and development of natural and socio-economic (public) geosystems. At the same time, the subject area of ​​geography intersects with the subject areas of other sciences involved in the study of related issues.

An analysis of the concepts used in biological ecology and geography indicates their substantive similarity. But it cannot be concluded from what has been said that the ecology developed by biologists is analogous to the ecology studied by geographers. It is difficult to assess the importance of human ecology, which, based on the general laws of the relationship between the biosphere and humanity, studies the influence of the natural and social environment, both on individuals and on communities. Human ecology is a bridge between the geographical and biological aspects of a single major problem - the state of the environment (both natural and social) that affects a person.

At present, the concept of ecology has expanded significantly, all problems related to changes in nature, human living conditions in specific regions, the preservation of the environment, rational use its natural resources.

At the same time, the specialization of scientists in the fields of science continues. But half a century ago, V.I. Vernadsky argued that such an approach is erroneous, especially when it comes to the synthesis of knowledge related to real objects. Here, in his opinion, specialization in problems, and not in the sciences, is necessary. Unfortunately, this has not yet been observed.

Example. The following case tells how important the complex solution of such problems and cooperation, mutual understanding of different specialists are. There is a meeting on ecology and nature protection. Representatives of different sciences participate in it. The physical geographer makes an interesting report, showing excellent maps of natural complexes, on the basis of which a system of measures for the use of natural resources and nature protection should be built. In the debate on the report, among others, a lawyer speaks and declares: "And why do we, in fact, need to know nature: it is enough to know and comply with the laws on nature protection!" One can imagine what kind of “benefit” such a “specialist” will bring to nature conservation ...

Acute environmental problems are increasingly interpreted as purely technical: waste disposal, resource conservation, water purification, closed cycles, etc. There are no words, the impact on the nature of the modern technological revolution can hardly be overestimated. But at the same time, another, no less important side of the matter is often relegated to the background. Where and how to apply this wonderful technology so that it gives maximum benefit.

We take it for granted that practically all of nature has now been transformed by human activity. It became “secondary”, and according to the law established by V.I. Vernadsky, her condition increasingly depends on the actions of society. If these actions are not reasonably regulated, sooner or later the environment will irreversibly degrade, and humanity will perish along with it. Consequently, the alternative is as follows: either the “secondary” nature in which we live will acquire more and more signs of a reasonable organization (turn into the noosphere, the “sphere of reason” by V.I. Vernadsky), or an ecological catastrophe awaits us.

Example. Today, the world's population doubles every 30-40 years (in the early agricultural and early urban periods, this happened once every 1500 years). On a global scale, the amount of energy used for the needs of society is doubling 2 times faster than the population. In many parts of the world, natural cycles are disrupted.

Now it remains to find out what should be considered reasonable organization. From the point of view of geography, this is, first of all, the correct use of spatial resources, which are now more important than natural resources that are familiar to us. These latter can be somehow replaced or compensated for their loss, and the territory is an exhaustible, non-renewable and irreplaceable resource. The fact that we, in Russia, have more of it than anyone else in the world should not be misleading, if only because its quality often leaves much to be desired.

The issues of rational nature management, optimal location of industrial production, agriculture, population, and in connection with this, analysis and forecasting of the development of natural and technical geosystems come to the fore. It is this range of problems that belongs to modern geographical science, which explores such a familiar and at the same time mysterious property of our earthly world as its spatial organization.

The problem of natural resources closely related to the previous one. One of the directions of studying the interaction of nature and society and its reflection on the territorial organization of the life of society is geography of natural (natural) resources (geographic resource science) - a social geographical science, a part of socio-economic geography that studies the location and structure certain types and territorial combinations of natural resources, the problems of their economic evaluation and rational economic use.

The central concept of this science is natural (natural) resources. The only source of all substances and energy required for social production, the condition for the existence and economic activity of people is the geographic envelope of the Earth. It "provides" the natural benefits necessary for humanity, which are a combination of natural resources and natural conditions life of society that are currently in use or may be used in the foreseeable future.

Modern industry, especially such industries as chemical synthesis, light metal smelting, is characterized by an increased need for energy, water and raw materials. Almost all chemical elements that exist on Earth are involved in it. The question arose before mankind: for how long will the necessary natural resources be enough for it? (Figure 2).

3. Geography and demographic problems. Geographic sciences play an important role in the study of the demographic development of human society, since this development has large, sometimes very deep spatial differences and a wide variety of manifestations at the local (local), regional and global levels.

Demographic problems (often summarized in singular– “the demographic problem of humanity”) that the world is experiencing are numerous. But the main one is a large increase in the world population, accompanied by an aggravation of contradictions between the mass of the global population and limited natural resources, with the help of which it is possible to ensure the life of human society, improve its quality and eliminate mass poverty. This gap between population and resources is all the more dangerous because the majority of population growth is concentrated in low-income countries.

Rice. 2. Lots of globes, lots of little ones

planets earth

Here, if you wish, you can see the possibility of different states of our planet. And which of them will be realized depends on the efforts of mankind, on how clearly and deeply it realizes the measure of its responsibility for the fate of the biosphere. The globe can be made new. Another thing is the Earth. You can't repeat it, you can't make it again. She needs to be very protected.

income, backward economy, in regions that are in a disadvantaged position in terms of the state of the environment.

Example. As is known, in October 1999 the world population reached 6 billion people. This fact is remarkable not only in itself. It is considered one of the fundamental points in the history of the development of earthly civilization. The fact is that 6 billion is exactly half of the maximum number of Homo sapiens as species. 12 billion people is the maximum population potential of Homo sapiens. "Of all global problems, undoubtedly, the growth of the population of our planet seems to be the main one, - writes the famous Russian scientist S.P. Kapitsa in his book "How many people lived, lives and will live on Earth". Other issues - the state of the environment, global security, depletion of resources and energy production - arise in connection with the increase in the number of people on the planet."

Example. Over the past 30 years, the average annual growth rate of the world population has decreased - from 2.4 to 1.3 % , however, it is still increasing - by 78 million people a year. And in the vast majority - this is the increase in the population of developing countries. At the same time, of the 4.8 billion people living in these countries, almost three-fifths are not covered by basic sanitation services. Almost a third of the population does not have access to clean water. A quarter of the population does not have adequate housing, and one fifth does not have access to modern health services.

Thus, an urgent task is to identify the geographical features of demographic development in countries with different levels of socio-economic development, since only on a solid scientific basis can (and should!) develop a reasonable demographic policy in any given country.

Another important area of ​​research was the analysis of the movement of the population, its mechanical movement, migration flows - from rural areas to cities, between countries. Migration is a very significant factor in the development of international relations, changes in the composition of the population, especially in developed countries that receive numerous migrants from developing countries.

One of the rapidly developing branches of population geography is geourban studies, the geography of cities. She has to solve (together with representatives of a number of other sciences) such complex problems as limiting the growth of large cities, developing small towns and increasing their role in the development of rural areas, the ecological state of cities (this is already a new area of ​​research - urban ecology) and many others.

Example. The share of the global population living in cities increased from one-third in 1960 to 47% (2.8 billion people) in 1999. Nearly 5 billion people are expected in 2030” (61% of 8 1 billion of the world's population) will live in cities.

In Russian geography, the concept of a unified system of settlement has arisen and is developing as part of the problem of improving the territorial organization of society. This concept considers the urban and rural population in close relationship - with the aim of developing measures to regulate the system of production and resettlement, leveling the organization and working conditions, living standards and services to the population.

The importance of geographical studies of population problems is also evidenced by the fact that geographers took part in the development of the General Scheme of Settlement in the Territory. Russian Federation, which was approved by the Government of the Russian Federation in 1994. This document, which has important practical, state significance, gives an idea of ​​the specifics of the living space of Russia, of the features and stable trends in settlement that determine the quality of the population's living environment, and of the need for an integrated approach to the use of this environment.

4. Geography and problems of regional studies. Since all real objects and processes have spatial characteristics, almost all sciences, one way or another, consider the spatial aspect of their objects. In some sciences, deep research is being carried out on the essence of a specific space - physical, geological, biological. However, purely terrestrial spaces, which are often called regions, deal with a more limited circle of social and natural sciences. The practical sphere of human activity - planning, distribution, maintenance, etc. - often encounters regional problems. The regional approach is traditionally best developed in geographical science. This is where they developed comparative spatial method and zoning method variety of phenomena that take place on the earth's surface. Hence, apparently, the replacement of the concept of regional analysis by the concept of geographical analysis follows.

In our time, geographical science, serving the practical requirements of various branches of the economy and the cultural needs of mankind, has become an extensive system of sciences, the structure of which is constantly becoming more complex. But in geographical science from the very beginning of its inception, along with strong tendencies towards specialization and differentiation of scientific knowledge, there was also a great potential for maintaining unity (integrity). One of the basic principles on which geographical knowledge is based is the principle regionalism. It lies in the fact that the initial object of geographical study and description is a specific territory (region), which is characterized by a certain complex of natural phenomena, the population and the economy created by it.

Without touching now on the complex problem of genetic (causal) relationships between groups of natural, social and economic phenomena, it must be said that all of them were included in a complete geographical study and description. Taken together, they represented a certain regional (spatial) unity. It was this that, first of all, forced geographers to study them as a regional (territorial) system. Hence the paramount attention that has always been paid in geography to the problems of complex (i.e., holistic) geographical division (zoning) of the territory, methods of studying and characterizing the entire system of natural, economic and social phenomena characteristic of certain regions, for practical use such scientific material.

The peculiarity of geographical science lies in the fact that "space" acts both as a subject of its study and as one of the main methodological categories. With the help of the concept of "space" geography builds its subject and formulates the method of its study.

Regions and districts studies regional studies- a set of disciplines and directions, methodological approaches and methodological techniques, the object of study of which is a region or district. These include: 1) the theory of zoning, 2) rayon studies, as a set of identification methods (defining taxa, their nuclei), delimitation (outlining, drawing boundaries between adjacent taxa), building hierarchical grids of areas and their transformations, 3) regionalology (rayonology, regionalism) exploring the patterns of functioning and development of specific regions (districts), 4) regional studies as part of country studies, describing the regions of a particular country, 5) in sciences related to geography - regional economics, regional sociology, regional demography, etc.

Increasing attention to the regional aspects of economic and social development has led to the emergence of a special direction in domestic politics states, namely, regional policy, which contributed to the expansion of theoretical research in the field of production location and regional development.

Of greatest interest is the development regional development concepts. These concepts are necessary for the complex solution of a number of problems. Among them are such as optimizing the ratio between the pace of regional development and leveling the levels of development of individual regions, selective dispersion of production and population, the creation of new efficient production complexes, the solution of the issue of regional development at the expense of the region's own internal resources and reserves. At the same time, issues of environmental protection and regional forecasting arise.