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Depending on the stage of sociological research in sociology, methods for formulating problems and hypotheses, collecting and processing information and analyzing data are distinguished.

Methods for formulating problems and hypotheses. A problem or a problem situation is the starting point of any sociological research. In its most general form, a problem is understood as a situation in which the researcher knows the goals, the actions of individuals aimed at achieving any needs, but does not have information about the methods, methods for implementing these actions to meet the needs and achieve goals.

When wording Problems sociological research is necessary:

• 1) clearly distinguish between the unknown and the known in the area under study;
• 2) to separate from each other the essential and non-essential in relation to the general problem;
• 3) divide the general problem into elements (particular problems) and arrange them in order of priority.

A sociologist must be able to translate problem situation to the formulation of the problem to be investigated. To do this, he must perform the following theoretical actions:

1) state the real existence of this problem, for which he needs to find out whether there are

indicators that quantitatively or qualitatively characterize this problem;

statistical evidence demonstrating the significance and dynamics of these indicators;

reliable information about these indicators.

• 2) identify significant elements of this problem and make sure that they are included in the subject area of ​​sociology, and not economics, management, etc.;
• 3) select known (from own experience, literary sources) elements of the problem situation and ways to successfully resolve them, in order to consider them as an information base for studying the remaining elements;
• 4) determine the main and secondary elements of the problem situation to determine the main direction of the research search;
• 5) to analyze the existing solutions to similar problems, referring to the literature, the results of expert surveys of specialist scientists or experienced practitioners.

Methods of collection of sociological information. These methods will be discussed in detail in Section 3, but here we restrict ourselves to a brief enumeration.

In sociology, there are three main classes of methods for collecting primary empirical information: observation, document analysis, and a group of survey methods. Some of the modifications have already acquired the status of independent methods (for example, interviews or questionnaires).

V.A. Yadov notes that special place among the methods of collecting primary data are experimental methods and psychological tests. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that they involve both the registration of facts and strictly fixed methods of their processing.

Information processing methods. IN AND. Dobrenkov and A.I. Kravchenko notes that useful work, preceding data processing, can be considered the compilation of the so-called dictionary of variables. The dictionary of variables is a table that summarizes the variables of this study, indicating all the possible values ​​that each of them can take, with the corresponding codes, as well as the numbers of those positions that this variable occupies in the database matrix. In table. 1 you can see an example of such a dictionary of variables.

Actually, the processing of sociological information is called the mathematical-statistical transformation of data, which

Table 1

Dictionary of Variables for Exploring Ideas of Wealth

variable	Variable	Options values
	Identification of yourself and your family with the category of rich people	0 - no answer, definitely yes, in principle yes, perhaps no, definitely no, find it difficult to answer
	Set to achieve wealth as a goal	0 - no answer, definitely, probably, yes, if it works out, then don't mind, they don't need it, they don't know, they didn't think
	Parties that offer a reliable path to prosperity	0 - no answer, Agrarian Party of Russia, Communist Party of the Russian Federation, LDPR, Our Home Russia, New Force, Fatherland, Right Cause, Young Russia, Union of Justice and Labor, Labor Russia, Honor and Motherland, Yabloko, others, none
		0 - no answer, male, female

makes them compact, suitable for analysis and interpretation. With sociological data, you can perform the following operations:

• 1) prepare them for processing; encrypt, encode, etc.;
• 2) process (manually or using a computer); tabulate, calculate multidimensional distributions of features, classify, etc.;
• 3) analyze;
• 4) interpret.

The processing of large amounts of information is mainly carried out with the help of special software packages, such as SAS (package for statistical analysis of systems) and SPSS (statistical package for social research). The first is most often used in the field of professional statistics, the second - in the field of the humanities.

The development of the first version of SPSS began in the USA in the 1960s, and since then it has been constantly modified. The package has a modular structure, in which each module is designed to implement some function or a specific data transformation method.

The basic package includes modules that allow obtaining linear distributions and contingency tables, statistical coupling coefficients and other statistical characteristics of series and distribution tables.

SPSS also includes all methods of multivariate statistics - log-linear, correlation, factor and cluster analysis.

Together with the SAS package, SPSS is part of the standard computer software for modern sociological practitioners.

Methods of data analysis. Data are the facts collected in the course of empirical research. These are the answers of the respondents, the assessments of experts, the results of observation, etc. Empirical data appear only at a certain stage - after the field survey, they are contained in the completed questionnaires, observation protocols, questionnaires, interview forms.

IN AND. Dobrenkov and A.I. Kravchenko describe several different meanings of the concept of "data analysis" in sociology:

• 1) a set of actions performed in the process of studying the obtained empirical data in order to form an idea of ​​the characteristics of the phenomenon under study;
• 2) the process of studying statistical data using certain techniques, mathematical methods and models in order to present them more conveniently and visually, which makes it possible to most reasonably interpret the phenomenon under study;
• 3) a concept identical to applied statistics;
• 4) such procedures for "folding" information that do not allow a formal algorithmic approach.
• 1. Analysis of one-dimensional (linear) distributions.

When measuring a single variable, the so-called descriptive statistics. The tables corresponding to such an analysis are called linear, or one-dimensional distributions.

Usually, for a generalized description of the most characteristic features of the observed phenomena, two main types of analysis are used:

• 1) measurement central trend(i.e. identifying which of the values ​​of the variables occur most often in linear distributions, and therefore determine the general or central pattern);
• 2) spread measurement or dispersion(it shows how densely or poorly distributed all the fixed values ​​of a given variable around the most common, average or central value).

When processing empirical data and analyzing the results obtained, it is important to take into account shkayau, with the help of which the measurement of a goi or another variable was made. In sociology, one usually uses the following types scales: nominal, rank, interval, proportional. All these scales were developed and introduced into scientific circulation by the American researcher S. Stevens. The scales will be discussed in more detail in section 2.

2. Analysis of two-dimensional distributions.

One of the important tasks of any data analysis is to test the hypotheses formulated in the research program. A hypothesis usually assumes that there is a relationship between two or more variables. To identify the presence (or absence) of such links, it is necessary to answer five basic questions:

• 1. Does it exist the relationship between the independent and dependent variables indicated in the hypothesis?
• 2. What is direction this connection?
• 3. How much strong connection?
• 4. Is the relationship statistically significant?
• 5. Is the connection casual?

Suppose we have formulated a hypothesis: "the older the voters, the more likely they are to take part in the elections." When surveying, we ask a direct question with the proposed answers: "Did you take part in the last election of the head of the city self-government"?

• 1 - yes;
• 2 - no;
• 3 - I don't remember.

When processing survey data to test a hypothesis, it is necessary to compare the values ​​of the independent variable (age) with the corresponding values ​​of the dependent variable (participation or non-participation in elections). For the purpose of such a comparison, after appropriate data processing (manually or using the SPSS computer package), we compile a table (Table 2).

Such a table is called "crossstab", and the process of its creation is called "crosstabulation". This is one of the main analysis methods used to see how variables are related to each other.

Participation in elections of voters of different ages

Age, Mr.
	no answer			don't remember
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage
Line Percentage
Column percentage

According to V.A. Yadov, there are two classes of data analysis procedures:

• 1) descriptive procedures (grouping, classification, typology);
• 2) analytical and experimental procedures (their goal is to search for relationships between variables, their determination).

Simple grouping is the ordering of data according to one attribute. The facts are systematized in accordance with the descriptive hypothesis of the study, taking into account the leading feature of the grouping. Depending on the hypotheses, the sample can be grouped by sex, age, occupation, education, etc.

V. I. Dobrenkov and A. I. Kravchenko clarify that the method groupings“consists in the fact that the surveyed population is divided into homogeneous groups (i.e., individual units that have a common feature for all). Groupings according to quantitative or qualitative characteristics have their own specific features. When grouping according to quantitative characteristics (age, length of service, income), the entire range of change in the variable is divided into certain intervals, followed by counting the number of units included in each of them. When grouping according to qualitative characteristics, it should be possible to assign each unit of analysis to one of the selected gradations. Moreover, this must be done in an unambiguous manner so that the total number of units of analysis assigned to all gradations would be exactly equal to the total number of the studied population (therefore, along with the answer options “I don’t know”, “I find it difficult to answer”, the dictionary of variables always provides "no answer" option, usually encoded by zero)" .

All subsequent analysis is based on the study of grouped data.

The number of members of the group is called the frequency, or size of the group, and the ratio of this number to total number cases - relative frequency.

cross grouping- this is the linking of facts, previously ordered according to two criteria, in order to 1) discover their interdependence; 2) to carry out mutual control of indicators (for example, answers to the main and control questions).

The tasks of cross-grouping include 1) the search for stable relationships that affect the structural properties of the phenomenon or process under study; 2) search for trends, dynamics of the process.

There are theoretical and empirical typology: the first leads to an explanation of the studied facts, phenomena or processes, and the second allows only a description of the data obtained and their interpretation.

Typology is also understood as“generalization of signs of social phenomena based on an ideal theoretical model and according to theoretically substantiated criteria. As an example of typologization, we could cite... a study devoted to identifying the substantive aspect of the political stratification of Russian society in the 1990s. In this study, we singled out such types of political orientation as “democrats”, “Westerners”, “pragmatists”, “communists”, “national patriots” and “totalitarians” [ibid.].

Finding relationships between variables. Cross grouping by two or more features is a method for detecting possible interaction relationships between variables.

The main problem in analyzing data from bivariate distributions is the following: should we take row or column data as 100%? It depends on the nature of the sample (whether it is representative or not) and the logic of the analysis (“from causes to effects” and “from effects to causes”).

So, for example, we have the initial two-dimensional distribution of respondents according to the content of their work and the degree of participation in the rationalization of production (Table 3) .

This table presents data that a thousand people working at the plant were distributed depending on the fact of participation or non-participation in rationalization activities.

Initial cross-grouping of data: content of the pile and participation in rationalization (N = 1000)

Let's analyze according to the logic "from cause to effect". In this case, the content of labor can act as a prerequisite for participation in rationalization, while rationalization cannot be the cause of one or another type of labor. With this approach, we take the data for the line as 100% (Table 4).

Table 4

Participation in rationalization as a consequence of the content of the work of employees

Based on the data of this two-dimensional distribution, it can be concluded that the most active innovators are engineering and technical workers, and the least active are employees. The nature of the work of engineering and technical workers contributes to participation in rationalization work to a greater extent than the nature of the work of workers or employees of a given enterprise.

Now we will analyze according to the logic “from the effect to the causes” and take the data for the column as 100% (Table 5).

The contribution of workers of different content of labor to rationalization

The data given in this table allow us to draw a conclusion about the contribution of each category of workers to the rationalization movement, and not a conclusion about their correlative rationalization activity. Therefore, from Table. 5 we see that the contribution of workers to rationalization is the greatest, for the simple reason that they predominate among the employees of a given enterprise. On the basis of these data, we cannot judge the relative activity of workers in comparison with other groups.

So, from these examples it is clear that reading the data “by row” or “by column” implies conclusions that are different in content.

The method of factor analysis is also used to search for relationships between variables. With its help, structural relationships of many variables are revealed. First, pairwise correlations of all variables are established, and then among them are distinguished those that are most closely interconnected within their group and weakly related to other groups (the so-called "nodes" of links or factors).

Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research- this is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational and technical procedures, connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data on the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (probe, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

intelligence research- this is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, there is a test of tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The surveyed populations are small - from 20 to 100 people.

Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are specified.

Descriptive research is more complex view sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied, which gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. Object of analysis- a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.

In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the totality of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical studies, as a rule, complete exploratory and descriptive studies, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary idea of ​​certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.

In a sociological study, three main stages can be distinguished:

1) development of the program and methods of research;

2) conducting an empirical study;

3) processing and analysis of data, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us dwell in more detail on the stage of compiling a report on a sociological study.

The results of the analysis of the information obtained in the course of an empirical study are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of the operationalization of the main concepts, but the sociologist, preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report is given on the main hypothesis.

As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief rationale for the relevance of the social problem under study, a description of the parameters of the study (sample, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section characterizes the object of study according to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status and etc.). Subsequent sections include a search for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.

Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the amount of material, goals and objectives of the study.

The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological documents research: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report are most often placed in the appendix. This can be used in future research programs.

2. Program of sociological research

The program of sociological research is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be viewed as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a particular empirical object or phenomenon, which is the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures for all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues under study, formulate the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the study, establish the relationship of this study to previously performed or parallel studies on this issue.

The methodological function of the program makes it possible to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team, and allows for the effective dynamics of the research process.

The program of sociological research as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence, phasing of sociological research. Each step is relative. independent part cognitive process - is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is connected with the general purpose of the study. All components of the program are logically connected, subordinate common sense search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. AT ideal the program contains the following sections: problem statement, research goals and objectives, object and subject of research, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, some property is distinguished, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby designating the subject of research. The subject means the boundaries in which a particular object is studied in this case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

Target focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - to give a description or explanation of the social program. Realization of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

Tasks- separate parts, research steps that contribute to the achievement of the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve the goal. Tasks formulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic and private. The main ones are a means of solving the main research questions. Private - to test side hypotheses, solve some methodological issues.

In order to use a single conceptual apparatus in the program of sociological research, the main concepts are defined, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the main concept are detected according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the subjects of research.

The whole process of logical analysis is reduced to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools are compiled for collecting empirical data.

Preliminary system analysis object is the modeling of the problem under study, dividing it into elements, detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research.

An important place in the development of the research program is the formulation of hypotheses, which concretizes its main methodological tool.

Hypothesis- this is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of the phenomenon, the relationship between the studied social phenomena, the structure of the problem under study, possible approaches to solving social problems.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject or correct the hypothesis.

There are several types of hypotheses:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-basic;

3) primary and secondary;

4) descriptive (an assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the relationship between individual elements) and explanatory (an assumption about the degree of closeness of connections and cause-and-effect relationships in the studied social processes and phenomena).

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received an empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) should be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research opportunities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to comply with their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

The procedural part of the program of sociological research includes the methodology and technique of research, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing information from sociological research.

Empirical studies are carried out on a sample population.

The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses.

The main requirement for samples in an analytical study, i.e., representativeness: the ability of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population.

The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study, and the legitimacy of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e., the general population.

Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is carried out. The description of the methods of collecting information involves the justification of the chosen methods, the fixation of the main elements of the toolkit and the technical methods of working with them. The description of information processing methods implies an indication of how this will be done using application computer programs.

After drawing up the research program, the organization of the field research begins.

The program of sociological research is a document that organizes and directs research activities in a certain sequence, outlining the ways of its implementation. The preparation of a sociological research program requires high qualifications and time. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method- the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology- a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship. Procedure- the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.

The following can be singled out as the main methods used in social empirical research.

Observation- purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, in the process of which the researcher receives knowledge about outside parties, states and relations of objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of fixing observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and others. technical means. A feature of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze versatile impressions about the object under study.

There is the possibility of fixing the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, expression of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-included.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts uninvolved observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activity.

Experiment- a method, the purpose of which is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

The logic of its implementation is that by choosing a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), we can trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher.

There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting participants in the experiment, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

The planning and logic of the experiment includes the following procedures:

1) the choice of the object used as the experimental and control groups;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral features;

3) determining the conditions of the experiment and creating an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks;

5) the choice of indicators and a method for monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document Analysis one of the widely used and effective methods collection of primary information.

The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in the document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows you to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

An important feature of information is the aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of sources of information depends on the research program, and methods of specific or random selection may be used.

Distinguish:

1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that the text of the source testifies to, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports about.

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative and quantitative analysis (content analysis).

Interview- method of collecting sociological information - provides for:

1) oral or written address of the researcher to a certain set of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators;

2) registration and statistical processing of the received answers, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves addressing the participant directly and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. This method sociological research is the most popular and widespread.

The main types of survey, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which form an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or a questionnaire.

Interview- a purposeful conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonationally, flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, in which all the main questions and options for additional questions are recorded.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) according to the technique of conducting (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open-ended questions, when respondents speak in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answers are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

There are three main stages in the preparation and conduct of a sociological survey.

At the first stage, the theoretical prerequisites for the survey are determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified, the following is determined:

1) the general population (those strata and groups of the population to which the results of the survey are supposed to be extended);

2) rules for the search and selection of respondents at the last stage of the sample.

At the third stage, the questionnaire (questionnaire) is substantiated:

2) substantiation of the questionnaire regarding the possibilities of the surveyed population as a source of the required information;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with a respondent, registering answers;

4) provision of preliminary conditions for processing the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.

In specialized surveys main source information - competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge, life experience allow to make authoritative conclusions.

The participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

PLAN

1. Essence, typology and stages of sociological research.

2. Program of sociological research.

3. Basic methods of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological information.

The history of the emergence and development of sociology is inextricably linked with empirical (applied) research - sources of new knowledge necessary both for the development of theories and for the regulation of social processes. Immediate Recognition sociological research(as empirical sociology is called in a simplified way) were obtained at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, they replaced individual methods of accumulating sociological knowledge and relied on the practice of socio-statistical observations and social surveys.

The idea of ​​the study was borrowed by sociology from natural science, economics, ethnography, jurisprudence, where the forms of empirical and experimental studies approved earlier. The twentieth century was a time of rapid development of empirical sociology, and the center of its formation was the University of Chicago (Chicago "school of life"). Here in the 20-30s. multi-purpose applied research unfolded, marking the bright flowering of empirical sociology. This direction focused on detailed studies of private local areas: understanding the living process of people's vital activity in specific situations.

Adaptation of the most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge, to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the tasks being solved, finds expression in the methodology of sociological research. The methodology of sociological research is a set of operations, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, methods of organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, building scales, etc.) is called its technique.

Sociological research is a tool for studying social phenomena in their specific state using methods that allow quantitative and qualitative collections, measurements, generalizations, and analysis of sociological information.

Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable information about the phenomena and processes that are being studied, about the trends and contradictions in their development, so that these data can be used in social practice. .

Sociological research is a multifaceted scientific process the development of new knowledge, which combines the theoretical, methodological and empirical levels of social cognition, which accordingly ensures its integrity and gives a concrete idea of ​​any side of social reality, about various types public activities of people. Sociological research is driven by the social need for social knowledge, for social orientation.




It reflects the interests of certain class, social group and other forces aimed at establishing or changing the relationship of the individual, social groups and society. In this regard, sociological research is integral part scientific and social process, reflects the outlook of the sociologist and is conditioned by his social position. Sociological research is a type of professional activity of people who have received special training. The term "sociological research" was established not earlier than the end of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s.

Depending on the level of scientific knowledge, sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. A study focused on the collection and analysis of data using the methods, techniques and techniques of sociological research is called empirical. Empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its purpose is to build a theory, then it belongs to the fundamental, if the development of practical recommendations, then to applied research.

In sociology, there are not only theoretical and applied research, but also mixed or complex, in which not only scientific, but also practical problems are solved. Regardless of whether the research is carried out at one or two (theoretical and empirical) levels of sociological knowledge, or whether it is only scientific or applied, it, as a rule, also contains the solution of methodological issues.

Depending on the complexity and scale of tasks to be solved There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (aerobatic, probing), descriptive and analytical.

intelligence research- a preliminary study conducted in order to verify, clarify all the elements and tools of the main study, and make the necessary adjustments to them. It covers small populations of people and, as a rule, precedes a deeper and larger-scale study.

Descriptive research aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which makes it possible to form a relatively holistic view of it. It covers fairly large populations of people, heterogeneous in their characteristics, helps to better understand the situation, more deeply substantiate and rationally determine the methods, forms and methods of managing social processes.

Analytical study consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it. So, if in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in the course of an analytical study it turns out whether the previously identified relationship is causal. This is the most profound and large-scale type of research, differing from others not only in the complexity and content of its preparatory stage and the stage of collecting primary sociological information, but also in a more thorough approach to the analysis, generalization and explanation of the results obtained.

A kind of analytical research can be considered experiment. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing in one way or another the usual conditions for the functioning of a social object.

Social phenomena or processes can be studied both in statics and in dynamics. In the first case, we are dealing with one-time (point) research, in the second repeated. Spot Study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, a momentary slice of the object, but does not answer the question about the trends in its change in time space.

repeated called studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals, based on a single program and a single toolkit. They represent a method of comparative sociological analysis aimed at identifying the dynamics of the development of a social object. A special kind of re-examination is panel study: statistically substantiated and carried out at certain intervals on the same population of people (for example, an annual, quarterly study of the budget of certain families). Panel research allows you to establish trends, the nature of changes in moods, orientations of public opinion, etc., giving a dynamic picture of the studied social phenomena.

Research is carried out both in the laboratory and in natural conditions. For example, the study of the socio-psychological climate in a work team is carried out in its usual conditions of life. Such a study is called field. Allocate also cohort study, suggesting research cohorts(from lat. cohorts - set, subdivision) - groupings, which include individuals selected on the basis that they experience the same events, processes in the same periods of time (for example, a cohort of persons born in a certain period of time) . If a sociological study covers all units (social objects) of the general population without exception, it is called continuous. If only a certain part of social objects is examined, the study is called selective.

The choice of the type of research is influenced by two factors:

1) purpose, practical and scientific feasibility of the study;

2) the essence and features of the social object to be studied.

Each study begins with a preliminary organizational work with the customer (“client”), where the topic is determined, the general contours of the work are outlined and issues of financial and logistical support are resolved. Then the actual research begins.

There are three main stages in the conduct of sociological research:

1) preparatory;

2) main (field);

3) final.

On the preparatory stage a program of sociological research is being developed - a document containing methodological, methodical and organizational and technical substantiation of sociological research. At the second, field stage, the collection of sociological data is carried out, at the third - their analysis, processing, generalization, preparation of practical recommendations.

Thus, sociological research is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge in order to solve specific theoretical and social problems. characteristic feature sociological research is that the study of social processes is carried out through the analysis human activity or its results, through the identification of the needs and interests of people.

Conducting any sociological research necessarily begins with the development of its program, which is called a strategic document of scientific research, containing a comprehensive theoretical background methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying the phenomenon under study. The processes of developing a sociological theory and accumulating factual material constitute an organic unity.

A sociological research program must answer two basic questions. First, how to move from the initial theoretical propositions of sociology to research, how to "translate" them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material. Secondly, how to rise again from the facts obtained, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the study not only gives practical recommendations, but also serves as the basis for the further development of the theory itself.

Adaptation of the most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge, to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the tasks being solved, finds expression in the methodology of sociological research.

Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, methods of organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, building scales, etc.) is called its technique.

The program is a presentation of the general concept of research, which includes step-by-step programming and rules of procedure for scientific and practical research activities.

Program functions:

1. Theoretical and methodological , which allows you to determine scientific problem and prepare the basis for its solution.

2. Methodical, which allows you to outline ways to collect data and describe the expected results.

3. Organizational, which allows you to plan the activities of the researcher at all stages of work.

Basic requirements for the program:

1) necessity;

2) explicitness (clarity, clarity);

3) flexibility;

4) the logical sequence of the structure.

The structure of the program includes three sections - methodological, procedural (or methodical) and organizational.

The program of sociological research consists of three sections: methodological, methodical (or procedural) and organizational.

The methodological section of the sociological research program contains the following elements:

1. Formulation of the research problem.

Problem- this is a form of interrogative statements expressing uncertainty, which is subject to a scientific and practical solution. Its formulation is the initial link in any sociological research, since the problem itself is a social task that needs an immediate solution. In turn, the problem posed subordinates to its solution all cognitive actions of the researcher and determines the composition of cognitive actions. In the process of posing a problem, two main procedures can be distinguished: comprehension of the problem situation and formulation (development) of the problem.

Problem situation- this is a contradiction that really exists in social reality, the methods (algorithm) for resolving which are not yet known (not clear) at the moment. Ignorance of the ways, means and methods of resolving the emerging contradiction forces one to turn to science for help (“social order”). The formulation of the research problem involves carrying out certain theoretical work, in particular, identifying which aspects of the problem can be solved by sociology, which elements of the problem are the main and which are secondary, and most importantly, which aspects of the problem have already been solved by other studies, and which are to be solved in this study(scientific problem).

The problem is formulated in the form of clear questions or attitudes, for example:

Question: What are the causes of such and such phenomena?

Installation: Find ways to solve this and that. Build a model that explains this range of factors.

The research problem should be formulated in terms of science, that is, based on the developed systems of theoretical knowledge in this area, and adequately reflecting the content of the issue (attitude). The problem becomes visible when it is caught in some kind of social phenomenon, i.e. by highlighting the object and subject of research.

Object of study - a phenomenon or sphere of social reality that act as direct carriers of the problem situation to which cognitive activity is directed .

Subject of study - these are the sides, properties, characteristics of the object that are subject to direct study in this study.

No study is able to cover all the variety of interactions that characterize a given object. Therefore, in the subject of research, spatial boundaries are indicated within which the object is being studied, a temporal boundary (a certain period of time). The selection of the object and subject of the study allows you to proceed to the definition of the purpose and objectives of the study.

Under research goal refers to the final result that the researcher intends to obtain after the completion of the work. This result can be epistemological, applied, or both. As a rule, the purpose of the study is determined jointly with the customer.

AT research objectives contains the range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main target question of the study. For example, if the purpose of the study is to study the influence of family education on the formation of deviant (deviant) behavior of adolescents, then among the objectives of the study one can distinguish such as determining the role of father and mother in shaping the personality of a teenager, studying the family value system, etc. All these are links that help to see the integrity of the phenomenon and the processes to be studied.

The next step in the development of the research program is the interpretation and operationalization of the basic concepts that are presented in the conceptual model of the problem situation and the subject area of ​​analysis.

Interpretation of concepts - theoretical clarification of the basic (initial) concepts is carried out in order for researchers to clearly and clearly imagine the content (meaning) of the concepts (terms) with which they work, use them in a uniform way, not allowing various interpretations the same concept. The empirical interpretation of concepts is directly a sociological task: it is a scientific procedure for the transition from the content of basic concepts through a hierarchy of mediating concretizing ones to potentially accessible fixation and measurement units of the required information (indicators).

Empirical indicator is a fact used for empirical measurement. Target operationalization of concepts- Establishing a connection between the conceptual apparatus of the study and its methodological tools. It combines the problems of concept formation, measurement techniques and the search for indicators into a single whole. For example, such a concept as “attitude towards work” cannot be expressed in indicators, i.e. in the characteristics of the object accessible for observation and measurement. This concept can be decomposed into three components, which are intermediate concepts: attitude to work as a value, attitude to one's profession, attitude to this work at a given enterprise.

The latter also need to be decomposed into a number of objective characteristics - attitude to work (labor discipline, labor productivity, etc.) and a number of subjective characteristics - attitude to work (degree of job satisfaction, etc.). Then, for each of these operational definitions of the concept, it is necessary to offer empirical indicators and a system of research tools for fixing them.

Operational definition of the concept - it is the operation of decomposing its theoretical content into empirical equivalents available for fixation and measurement. Operationalization allows you to determine what sociological data should be collected about. The meaning of these operations is the transition from the theoretical development of the program to empirical sociological research: the way is opened for the application of methods of sampling, collection and analysis of sociological information in the study.

The next step is the development of hypotheses. Hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - foundation, proposal) - a reasonable scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification. A hypothesis is a form of assumption or assumption in which the knowledge contained is probabilistic. This is a preliminary "project" for solving the problem, the truth of which is to be verified. According to the objectives of the study, hypotheses are basic and non-basic, according to the sequence of promotion - primary and secondary, according to content - descriptive (about the essential properties of the object), explanatory (assumptions about the significance of factors), predictive (about trends).

The proposed hypothesis must meet a number of requirements:

1) it should not contain concepts that do not have empirical indicators in the framework of this study;

2) must be available for verification (verification) during the study;

4) should be simple and not contain various kinds of conditions and reservations.

The proposed hypothesis must be sufficiently theoretically reliable, consistent with previous knowledge, it must not contradict the facts of science. Hypotheses that meet these requirements are called working (working in this study); this is a preliminary (presumptive) explanation of the phenomenon, sufficient for further empirical study of the research problem.

Proving the validity of hypotheses becomes main task subsequent empirical research, since the goal of any research search is not their formulation, but the acquisition of new scientific and practical knowledge (discoveries), which enrich science with knowledge of fundamentally new facts and develop ways and means of targeted impact on the problem situation and its resolution. Confirmed hypotheses become theory and law and are used for implementation in practice. Those that are not confirmed are either discarded or become the basis for putting forward new hypotheses and new directions in the study of the problem situation.

The methodological section of the sociological research program is organically interconnected with the procedural section. If the first lays the research methodology, then the second reveals its procedure, that is, the sequence of research operations.

Procedural (or methodical) section of the program sociological research consists of the following components:

Determination of the sample population that is being surveyed, that is, the rationale for the sampling system. The main idea of ​​the sample is to judge the general in parts, to judge the general (macromodel) through a small representation (micromodel). This point was cleverly expressed J. Gallup: "If you mix the soup well, the cook will take one spoon for a sample and tell you what the whole pot tastes like!". The sampling system includes a population and a sample population .

Population- this is the whole set of survey units that is relevant to this problem, although it may be limited by territory, time, profession, functional framework. The survey of the entire general population (for example, all students of universities in Donetsk, or all residents of the city N) requires significant financial and time costs.

Therefore, as a rule, a part of the elements of the general population is directly examined - a sample population,

Sample- this is the minimum representation of the composition of the surveyed units according to the selected parameters (criteria), which reproduces the distribution law of the trait in this population.

The procedure for selecting a part of the elements of the general population, which allows drawing conclusions about the entire set of elements, is called sample. In addition to saving money and reducing the study time, the sample implements the fundamental principle randomization(from English random - complicit, chosen at random), that is, random selection. Only equality of chances of getting into the sample for each unit of the survey, that is, selection "at random", guarantees against intentional or unintentional distortions.

The sampling procedure itself consists in the fact that at first the sampling unit is determined - an element of the general population, which acts as a reference unit for various sampling procedures (this can be an individual, a group, an act of behavior, etc.). Then compiled sampling frame- a list (list) of elements of the general population that meets the requirements of completeness, accuracy, adequacy, convenience of working with it, excluding duplication of units of observation. This could be, for example, a list of all members of the subject labor collective or residents of the city. And already from the sampling frame, the selection of units of observation is carried out.

The main types of sampling are:

1. Random sampling - a method in which the principle of equality of chances of getting into the sample for all units of the studied population is strictly observed on the basis of statistical randomness (here they use a table of "random numbers", selection by date of birth, by surnames starting with certain letters, etc.) . Sampling can be simple random or multi-stage, when the selection is carried out in several stages.

2. Quota sampling(non-random) is the selection of people with a specific set of characteristics in accordance with given proportions.

3. Systematic(pseudo-random) sampling - a method in which the ratio between the sample size and the population size is used to determine the interval (sampling step) in such a way that each sampling unit that is at a distance of this step is included in the sample (for example, every 10th or 20th on the list).

4. Serial (nested) a sample in which the selection units are statistical series, that is, sets of statistically different units, which can be a family, a team, a student group, a department staff at a university, etc.

5. stratified a sample in which the general population is initially divided into private, internally homogeneous populations, “strata” (classes, layers), and then sampling units are selected within each population.

The sample size as the total number of survey units included in the sample depends on the degree of homogeneity of the general population (if there are 100 apple trees of the same variety in the orchard, it is enough to try an apple from one tree to judge all the apples in the orchard), the required level of accuracy of the results, the number of features in the sample. Sample size affects representation errors: the larger the sample size, the smaller possible error. However, the intention to double the accuracy would require a quadrupling of the sample. The measurement accuracy (representativeness) of 95% is sufficient for the study.

During sampling, it is important to prevent sampling offset.

Sample bias- this is the deviation of the sample structure from the real structure of the general population. The reasons for this may be different, but most often it is the so-called "systematic errors". They are due to ignorance of the structure of the general population and the use of selection procedures that violate, for example, the proportionality necessary for the representativeness of the sample in the representation of various types of elements of the general population. Systematic errors can also be due to the conscious selection of the most “convenient”, winning elements of the general population.

The extent to which sampling bias can devalue the entire work of sociologists is a classic example from the history of sociological research in the United States. During the 1936 presidential election campaign, the Literary Digest magazine, based on a colossal study with a mail survey of several million readers, made an incorrect prediction, while George Gallup and Elmo Roper correctly predicted F. Roosevelt's victory based on only 4 thousand questionnaires . The staff of the journal, it would seem, minimized the probability of the so-called random error, which is due to the difference in the size of the general and sample population.

The smaller this difference, the lower the probability of a random error. However, they allowed systematic error. They took the addresses for mailing questionnaires from the phone book, and at that time in the United States only the wealthy segments of the population, mainly homeowners, owned telephones. In this regard, the opinion of the respondents was not the average, which could be extrapolated to the whole country. The bulk of the lower strata of the population remained uncovered in the survey, but it was this group that had a decisive influence on F. Roosevelt's victory.

There is an opinion that the sample size should be from 1.5% to 10% of the general population, but not exceed 2000-2500 respondents. However, experience shows that when conducting public opinion polls, it is enough to include 500-1200 people in the sample in order to obtain reliable results. The Gallup Institute and other American organizations distribute 1,500-2,000 questionnaires on the basis of careful sampling. Each time, the number of questionnaires must be determined using the mathematical theory of sampling, taking into account what accuracy is needed, ensuring that all units of the population have the same chances of being selected for study.

The next component of the procedural section of the program is the definition methods of collecting primary sociological information.

When determining the methods for collecting information, keep in mind that:

1) the efficiency and economy of research should not be ensured at the expense of the quality of sociological information;

2) none of the methods of collecting sociological data is universal, that is, each of them has well-defined cognitive capabilities;

3) the reliability of a particular method is ensured not only by its validity and compliance with the goals and objectives of the study, but also by compliance with the rules and procedures for its practical application.

The choice of method depends primarily on the source of information. Documentary sources involve the use of the document analysis method, and if the external manifestations of social phenomena or acts of behavior serve as the source of information, then the observation method is used. The survey method is used when the source of information is a person, his opinions, views, interests, and the experimental method is used in cases where a specially created situation serves as a source of information.

After determining the method or methods of collecting information, you can proceed to the development of research tools, that is, a set of methodological and technical methods for conducting research, embodied in the relevant operations and procedures and presented in the form of various documents.

Toolkit - it is a set of specially designed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.

The toolkit includes a questionnaire, a plan (questionnaire) of an interview, an observation card, a form content analysis, instructions for the questionnaire (interviewer), coder, etc., methods for processing and analyzing data, including the justification and list of relevant social indicators (indicators) and scales that serve as a tool for assessing social information. It should be noted that the research tools are being worked out in close connection with the operationalized concept-scheme: the choice of an indicator - empirical indicators - a source - the construction of tools.

Considering technological foundations development of the program, it is necessary to dwell on the problem of measurement, which should be provided for by the procedural (methodological) section of the program .

Measurement (quantification) is a procedure for attributing quantitative certainty to the studied qualitative features. The main measuring procedures are testing, rating, peer reviews, popularity ranking, polls. The facts used for sociological measurement are indicators, and finding them helps to understand how and in what form it is necessary to approach the collection of information.

All indicators are characterized by various characteristics, which in the toolkit act as options for answering questions. They are arranged in one or another sequence in positions and form the corresponding measurement scale. The form of the scale can be verbal, that is, have a verbal expression.

For example, an indicator of such a social property as “education” is the “level of education”, and its characteristics are:

Lower secondary;

Average total;

Specialized secondary;

Unfinished higher;

This is the verbal position of the measurement scale. Scales can also be numerical (position in points) and graphic.

There are the following types of scales:

1) nominal (unordered) - this is a scale of names, consisting of a list of qualitative objective characteristics (for example, age, gender, occupation or motives, opinions, etc.);

2) rank (ordinal) - this is a scale for ordering the manifestations of the studied properties in a strict order (from the most significant to the least or vice versa);

3) interval (metric) - this is a scale of differences (intervals) between the ordered manifestations of the studied social property, assigning points or numerical values ​​to these divisions.

The main requirement for scales is to ensure reliability, which is achieved:

a) validity, i.e. validity, which involves measuring on a scale exactly the property that the sociologist intended to study;

b) completeness, i.e. the fact that all indicator values ​​are taken into account in the response options to the question asked by the respondent;

c) sensitivity, i.e. the ability of the scale to differentiate the manifestations of the studied property and to express it by the number of positions on the scale (the more there are, the more sensitive the scale).

Completes methodical section The program is a logical scheme for processing primary sociological information, which primarily involves the processing, analysis and interpretation of the data obtained, as well as the formulation of appropriate conclusions and the development of certain practical recommendations based on them.

Organizational section of the program includes strategic and operational plans for the study.

The strategic plan for sociological research, depending on its type, has four options:

1) reconnaissance, when little is known about the object and there are no conditions for formulating hypotheses;

2) descriptive, when there is enough data about the object for descriptive hypotheses;

3) analytical-experimental, when there is complete knowledge about the object and conditions for explanatory foresight and functional analysis;

4) repeated-comparative, when it is possible to identify trends in the processes under study.

The work plan of the study is a list, a scheme of actions of sociologists in this study with the distribution of time, material and technical costs and a network schedule. It records all types of organizational and methodological work, from the approval of the program to the formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations for the customer of a sociological study. In addition, in the organizational section of the program, instructions are drawn up for organizing a field study, instructions for the questionnaire, work rules and ethical standards.

Thus, the first stage of sociological research is associated with the development of a program that is a strategic document of scientific research, a theoretical and methodological basis for the entire set of research procedures. The results of sociological research depend on the quality of the development of the program.

Differentiation of sociological methods allows us to consider each of them separately, emphasizing its specificity. The main methods of collecting primary sociological information are document analysis, questioning, observation and experiment.

document in sociology is called a specially created object designed to transmit and store information.

Document analysis method- this is a method of data collection, which involves the receipt and use of information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other information media. Depending on the method of recording information, documents are classified into textual, statistical and iconographic (film and photographic documents, works of fine art). According to the reliability of documents, originals and copies are distinguished, according to status - official and unofficial, according to the degree of personification - personal and impersonal, according to functions - informative and regulatory, according to content - historical, legal, economic.

Document analysis can be external and internal. External analysis involves establishing the time and circumstances of the appearance of the document, its type, form, authorship, purpose of creation, its general characteristics, reliability and reliability.

Internal analysis of documents is the study of their content, the essence of the information contained in them, in the context of the objectives of the study. Methods of internal analysis - traditional and formalized, or content analysis.

Traditional (classic)- this is a method of qualitative analysis, which refers to mental operations for interpreting, understanding the essence of the information contained in documentary materials. In addition to the traditional (classical, qualitative) analysis of documents, they also use content analysis (formalized, quantitative).

The first assumes the whole variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of the document, and the second defines meaningful units that can be unambiguously fixed and converted into quantitative indicators using certain counting units. It is important to emphasize that content analysis uses content units in accordance with the concept of research, the leading idea of ​​the text of the document. Individual concepts, topics, events, names can be indicators of units. With the help of counting units, a quantitative assessment of the object is carried out, the frequency of manifestation of its features in the field of view of the researcher, which is fixed with mathematical accuracy.

It is a high degree of accuracy with a large amount of material that is the advantage of content analysis. Its advantage over traditional methods also lies in the fact that the impressions of the researcher-observer, which depend on him personal qualities, have been replaced by more standardized and neutral procedures that mostly involve measurements, that is, the use of techniques quantitative analysis. And the limitation of this method lies in the fact that not all the diversity of the content of the document can be measured using quantitative indicators. Traditional and formalized methods of document analysis are complementary, compensating for each other's shortcomings.

The most common method of collecting primary information is a survey. A survey is a question-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the source of information is the verbal message of people. It is based on a set of questions to the respondent, the answers to which provide the information necessary for the researcher. With the help of surveys, information is obtained both about events and facts, and about the opinions and assessments of the respondents. When studying the needs, interests, opinions, value orientations of people, a survey can be the only source of information. Sometimes the information obtained by this method is supplemented by other sources (document analysis, observation).

Different types of survey: written (questionnaire), oral (interviewing), expert survey (survey of competent persons) and sociometric survey (study of socio-psychological manifestations interpersonal relationships in a group).

According to the forms of contact, the following survey options are distinguished:

1) personal or indirect (handout, mail, press, telephone) survey;

2) individual or group;

3) free or formalized, focused (directed);

4) continuous or selective;

5) at the place of residence or work, in temporary target audiences (train passengers, meeting participants).

Questionnaire - one of the main types of sociological survey, the essence of which is that the respondents answer in writing the questions presented to them in the form of questionnaires. With the help of a written survey, you can simultaneously cover a large number of respondents in a relatively short period of time. A feature of the questionnaire is that the researcher cannot personally influence the course of the survey. The disadvantage of the correspondence survey is that it does not guarantee the full return of all questionnaires.

The central problem of a questionnaire survey is the formulation of questions that the respondents will answer.

Questionnaire questions are classified according to the content:

Questions about facts, questions about knowledge, awareness, questions about behavior, questions about attitudes;

Depending on the formalization of the answer options: open (without pre-formulated answers);

Semi-closed (along with the answer options, there is space for free answers);

Closed (with pre-formulated answers);

Depending on the functions performed: content-functional, serving directly to collect information on the topic of the survey;

Filter questions that allow you to "screen out" from the next question those respondents for whom this question is not intended;

Control (trap questions) designed to control the sincerity of the respondent;

Functional-psychological, serving to establish socio-psychological contact with the respondent.

For the correct construction of questions, it is important to observe the following basic requirements:

The question must strictly correspond to that indicator or operational concept which he describes and measures;

Unambiguously interpreted by the respondent;

Correspond to the cultural and educational level of the respondent;

Be worded in a neutral way;

Should not include multiple questions;

Must obey the requirements of "random variable", i.e. the response options to it must be equivalent and constitute a complete group of events;

Formulated lexically and grammatically correctly;

The text of the question should not exceed 10-12 words.

The composition of the questionnaire should include a title page, an introductory part, a main part (content part), a socio-demographic part, and questions coding.

Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire. The interviewer acts as a researcher who not only asks questions, but guides the conversation in a subtle way.

There are several types of interviews: standardized (formalized), which uses a questionnaire with a clearly defined order and wording of questions in order to obtain the most comparable data collected by different interviewers; non-standardized (non-formalized) interview - a free dialogue on a specific topic, when (open) questions are formulated in the context of communication and the forms for fixing answers are not standardized. In a semi-formalized interview, during the dialogue, both pre-prepared questions and additional ones are asked. There are also interviews at the venue (at the workplace, in a relaxed atmosphere); according to the procedure (individual, group, one-act, multiple).

Methodsociometry used in the study of small groups and allows you to evaluate the relationship in the team, its informal structure, informal microgroups and the relationship between them. The essence of the method is the collection of information about the structure of interpersonal relations in a small group by studying the choice made by each member of the group according to one or another criterion.

The criteria for sociometric choices are formulated in the form of questions about the desire of a member of the team to participate with someone in certain form activities:

Jointly carry out a responsible task (reliability);

Troubleshoot in technical device(professionalism);

Spend a day off together (friendly disposition), etc.

Each respondent is given a list of the group, in which each member is assigned a specific number and is asked to make a choice from the proposed list according to a certain criterion. Based on the matrix, a sociogram is built ( graphic image scheme of interpersonal relations), which allows you to see the structural elements of interpersonal relations in the team, team leaders, microgroups.

Such forms of collecting sociological information as questionnaires, interviews, mail surveys, etc., are intended primarily for mass surveys. However, in practice, situations may arise when, in order to assess a phenomenon, it is difficult or impossible at all to isolate the object - the carrier of the problem and, accordingly, use it as a source of information. Such situations are usually associated with an attempt to predict the change in a particular social process or phenomenon.

Objective information in this case can only come from competent persons - experts, having deep knowledge about the subject or object of research. The criteria for selecting experts are occupation, length of service, level and nature of education, experience in a particular field of activity, age, etc. The central criterion for selecting experts is their competence. To determine it with varying degrees of accuracy, there are two methods: self-assessment of experts and collective assessment of the authority of experts.

Competent person surveys are called expert, and the poll results expert assessments. In the most general form, two main functions of the method of expert assessment in sociological research can be distinguished: assessment of the state (including causes) and forecasting of development trends of various phenomena and processes of social reality. One of the simplest forms of expert forecasting is the exchange of opinions, which implies the simultaneous presence of all experts at the round table, where the dominant position on the issue under discussion is revealed. More complex forms may also be used.

Observation in sociology, it is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and registration of events, the behavior of people and groups related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study. In scientific observation, its organization is planned in advance, a methodology for recording, processing and interpreting data is developed, which ensures the relative reliability of the information received. The main object of observation is the behavior of individuals and social groups, as well as the conditions of their activities. Using the method of observation, one can study real relationship in action, to analyze the real life of people, the specific behavior of the subjects of activity. When conducting surveillance, they use various forms and registration techniques: a form or a diary of observations, photo, film, video equipment, etc. In this case, the sociologist registers the number of manifestations of behavioral reactions.

Distinguish included observation, in which the researcher receives information, being an actual member of the group under study in the process certain activities, and not included, in which the researcher is outside the object under study. Observation is called field if it is carried out in a real life situation, and laboratory if it is carried out under artificially created and controlled conditions. According to the regularity of the observation, observation can be systematic (carried out at regular intervals) and random.

According to the degree of formalization, standardized (formalized) observation is distinguished, when the elements of observation are predetermined and they are the object of attention and fixation of the observer, and non-standardized (non-formalized), when the elements to be studied are not predetermined and the observer determines and fixes them in the course of observation. If the observation is carried out with the consent of the observed, then it is called open; if the group members do not know that their behavior and actions are being observed, then this is covert observation.

Observation is one of the main methods of data collection, which either leads to hypotheses and serves as a springboard for the use of more representative methods, or is used at the final stage of mass research to clarify and interpret the main conclusions. Observation can be carried out either relatively independently or in combination with other methods, such as experiment.

Social experiment - this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about cause-and-effect relationships between the indicators of functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality .

Conducting a social experiment requires a clearly formulated hypothesis about causal relationships, the possibility of quantitative and qualitative influence of factors that are introduced during the experiment and change the behavior of the object of study, control of changes in the state of the object and conditions during the experiment. The logic of a social experiment consists in, for example, choosing a particular group for the experiment, influencing it with the help of certain factors and monitoring the change in characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and are important for solving the main task.

Experiments are distinguished both by the nature of the experimental situation and by the logical sequence of proving the research hypothesis. . According to the first criterion, experiments are divided into field and laboratory . In the field experiment, the group is in the natural conditions of their normal functioning (for example, students at a seminar). At the same time, group members may or may not be informed about their participation in the experiment. In a laboratory experiment, the situation, and often the experimental groups themselves, are artificially formed. Therefore, group members are usually informed about the experiment.

In field and laboratory experiments, polling and observation can be used as additional methods of collecting information, the results of which correct the research activity.

According to the logical sequence of the proof of the hypothesis, there are linear and parallel experiments. Line experiment consists in the fact that the same group is subjected to analysis, which is both control and experimental at the same time. This means that before the start of the experiment, all control, factor characteristics that the researcher himself introduces and changes, and neutral characteristics that seem to take no part in the experiment, are recorded. After that, the factor characteristics of the group and/or the conditions of its functioning are changed, and then, after a certain time, the state of the group is again assessed (measured) according to its control characteristics.

In a parallel experiment, two groups simultaneously participate - control and experimental. They must be identical in all control and neutral characteristics. The characteristics of the control group remain constant throughout the experiment, while the characteristics of the experimental group change. Based on the results of the experiment, the control characteristics of both groups are compared and conclusions are drawn about the causes and magnitude of the changes that have occurred.

The success of such experiments depends to a large extent on the correct selection of its participants.

The final stage of empirical sociological research involves the processing, analysis and interpretation of data, obtaining empirically substantiated generalizations, conclusions and recommendations.

The data processing stage includes several sequential steps:

1. editing of information, the main purpose of which is verification, unification and formalization of the information that was obtained during the study. First, the entire array of methodological tools is checked for accuracy, completeness and quality of filling, poor-quality completed questionnaires are culled.

The quality of primary sociological information, and, consequently, the reliability of the conclusions and the validity of practical recommendations, depends on the nature of the filling of the questionnaires. If the questionnaire does not contain the respondent's answers to more than 20% of the questions, or to 2-3 in the socio-demographic block, then such questionnaires should be excluded from the main array as poor quality and capable of distorting sociological information.

2. Encoding information, its formalization, assigning certain conditional numbers-codes to each answer option, creating a system of numbers in which the very order of codes (numbers) is of decisive importance.

Two types of procedures are used to encode information:

1) end-to-end numbering of all positions (serial coding system);

2) numbering of options only within one question (positional coding system).

3. After coding, they proceed directly to data processing (most often with the help of a personal computer), to their generalization and analysis, for which mathematical, primarily statistical methods are used.

But with all the relevance of the mathematical support of sociological analysis, in particular, generalization of data, the final result of the entire study depends, first of all, on how the researcher can correctly, deeply and comprehensively interpret the material received.

4. Interpretation procedure- this is the transformation of certain numerical values ​​into a logical form - indicators (indicators). These indicators are no longer just numerical values ​​(percentages, arithmetic average), but sociological data that have been evaluated by comparing them with the original intentions of the researcher (the purpose and objectives of the study), his knowledge and experience. Each indicator, carrying a certain semantic load, indicates the direction of subsequent conclusions and recommendations.

Next, the assessment of the data obtained is given, the leading trends in the results are indicated, and the reasons for the answers are explained. The data obtained are compared with the hypotheses and it is established which hypotheses were confirmed and which were not confirmed.

At the final stage, the results of the study are documented - in the form of reports, annexes to it and analytical reference. The report includes a rationale for the relevance of the study and its characteristics (goals, objectives, sampling, etc.), analysis of empirical material, theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations. Conclusions, proposals and recommendations should be specific, realistic, have the necessary justification in the research materials, be supported by documentary and statistical data.

Under reliability of sociological information understand the general characteristics of empirical data obtained during the conduct of sociological research. Reliable they name such information in which, firstly, there are no unaccounted for errors, that is, those whose magnitude a sociologist-researcher is not able to estimate; secondly, the number of errors taken into account does not exceed a certain predetermined value. In this case, the error classification is great importance to characterize the reliability of sociological information.

So, the absence of theoretical errors is called the validity, or validity of sociological information, the absence of random errors - the accuracy of information, and the absence of systematic errors is called the correctness of sociological information. Thus, sociological information is considered reliable if it is substantiated (valid), accurate and correct. At the same time, to ensure the reliability of sociological information, sociological science uses a whole arsenal of methods to improve it, that is, to take into account errors or control the reliability of sociological data.

In conclusion, we note that sociological research is one of the most accurate tools for measuring and analyzing social phenomena, although, for all the significance of the results, they cannot be absolutized. Along with other methods of cognition, sociological research expands our possibilities for understanding society and increases the efficiency of practical activity.

LITERATURE

1. Jolls K.K. Sociology: Navch. helper. - K.: Libid, 2005. - 440 p.

2. Kapitonov E.A. Sociology of the twentieth century. History and technology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996. - 512 p.

3. Lukashevich M.P., Tulenkov M.V. Sociology. Basic course. - K.: Karavela, 2005. - 312 p.

4. Osipov G.V. Theory and practice of sociological research. - M., 1989. - 463 p.

5. Rudenko R.I. Workshop on sociology. - M., 1999.

6. Sociology: Terms, understanding, personalities. Heading dictionary-dovidnik / For Zag. Ed. V.M.Pich. - K., Lviv, 2002.

7. Surmin Yu.P., Tulenkov N.V. Methodology and methods of sociological research. - K.: MAUP, 2000.

8. Yadov V.A. Strategy of sociological research. - M.: Dobrosvet, 2000. - 596 p.

GLOSSARY

Sociological research - a system of logically consistent methodological, methodical and organizational procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain objective, reliable data about the phenomenon under study.

Intelligence research - a preliminary study conducted in order to obtain primary information about the phenomenon or process under study, verify and clarify all elements of the main study and make the necessary adjustments to them.

Descriptive research - aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which makes it possible to form a relatively holistic view of it.

Analytical research - the most profound and large-scale type of research consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it.

Sociological Research Program - a document containing methodological, methodical and organizational-technical substantiation of sociological research.

Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis .

Purpose of the study- the end result that the researcher intends to obtain after the completion of the work.

Research objectives- the range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main question of the study.

Interpretation of concepts- theoretical clarification of the basic (initial) concepts.

Concept operationalization- a set of operations with the help of which the initial concepts used in sociological research are decomposed into components (indicators) that together can describe their content.

Hypothesis- a reasonable scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification.

Population is the totality of survey units that are relevant to a given problem.

Sample population- part of the elements of the general population , selected using special methods and reflecting the characteristics of the general population based on its representation (representation).

Representativeness- the property of the sample to reflect the characteristics of the general population under study.

Sample bias- this is the deviation of the sample structure from the real structure of the general population.

Tools- this is a set of specially developed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.

Document analysis method- this is a method of data collection, which involves the receipt and use of information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other information media.

Interview- a question-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the verbal message of people acts as a source of information.

Questionnaire- a written appeal to respondents with a questionnaire containing a set of questions ordered in a certain way.

Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire.

Sociometry- a method proposed by J. Moreno to describe the system of interpersonal relations in small groups.

Observation- this is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and registration of events, the behavior of people and groups related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study.

social experiment- this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about the cause-and-effect relationships between the indicators of functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality.

Reliability of sociological information - this is a general characteristic of empirical data obtained during the conduct of sociological research. Information is considered reliable if it is reasonable (valid), accurate and correct.

TESTS

1. Applied sociology is:

A. Macrosociological theory of society, revealing the universal patterns and principles of this field of knowledge.

B. The totality of theoretical models, methodological principles, research methods and procedures, as well as social technologies, specific programs and recommendations.

B. Social engineering.

2. Arrange the types of sociological research known to you in order in accordance with the parameters of the scale and complexity of the tasks being solved:

1. ____________________________________

2. ____________________________________

3. ____________________________________

The left column lists the main stages of sociological research, the right - the content of these stages (in no particular order). It is necessary to determine the correct content for each stage of the study.

4. Indicate (underline) the most common method of sociological research:

A. Document analysis.