Methodology for conducting sociological research

Sociologists have in their arsenal and use all the variety of methods of scientific research. Let's consider the main ones:

1. Method of observation.

Observation is the direct recording of facts by an eyewitness. Unlike ordinary scientific observation, it has the following features:

subordinated to research goals and objectives;

has a plan, a procedure for collecting information;

observation data are recorded in diaries or protocols according to a certain system. Depending on the position of the observer, there are:

included (participatory) supervision;

simple observation, when social facts are recorded by an observer who is not a direct participant in the events.

2. Study of documentary sources.

Documentary in sociology is any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, film, photographic film, computer diskette or any other medium. Documentary sources can be classified in several ways.

in relation to the state:

official, i.e., created and approved by officially existing (registered, accredited, licensed by state bodies for a certain type of activity) organizations and individuals, as well as by state bodies themselves. Materials, resolutions, statements, minutes and transcripts of meetings, state statistics, archives of parties and organizations, financial papers, etc. can serve as official documents;

unofficial documentary sources are documents compiled by persons and organizations not authorized by the state for this type of activity;

in relation to personality:

personal, that is, directly related to a particular individual (for example, individual record cards, characteristics, questionnaires certified by a signature, diaries, letters);

impersonal, not directly related to a specific person (statistical materials, press reports);

in relation to participation in registered events of the person who compiled this document:

primary, i.e., compiled by a participant in the events or the first researcher of this phenomenon;

secondary documentary sources (obtained on the basis of primary ones).

It should be said about the problem of the reliability of documentary sources, which can be deliberately or unintentionally distorted. The reliability or unreliability of documentary sources is determined by:

the setting in which the document was created;

the purpose of the document.

The study of documentary sources is carried out using various techniques. One of the most common and quite simple of them is content analysis. Its essence lies in the translation of textual information into quantitative indicators, while semantic, qualitative and quantitative units are used. The content analysis technique was created by the American sociologist Harold Lasswell during World War II to objectively analyze newspaper and magazine articles for their fascist orientation. Based on content analysis in the United States, the pro-fascist position of the True American newspaper was proved, which, despite its patriotic name, conducted fascist propaganda. An illustration of the study of documentary sources using content analysis is the table below. The purpose of the study is to choose from several applicants who could fill a vacant position (Table 16).

Similar tables can be compiled on the basis of documentary sources of all applicants. The applicant with the most points is declared the winner. Of course, before making a final decision, the personnel manager must use other methods of studying applicants.

The reliability of the information obtained through the use of content analysis is provided by:

control with the help of experts;

control by an independent criterion (observation of the control group);

re-encoding text by different encoders. 3. Method of polls.

Polls are an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, about public opinion. The survey method, unlike the previous ones, allows one to more or less objectively model the behavior of people. If we compare it with the two previous methods we have considered, it can be noted that it eliminates such shortcomings as the length of time for collecting data by observation, the difficulty of identifying motives and, in general, internal personal attitudes by analyzing documents. However, there are certain difficulties when using the survey method. Using the survey method, you can ask the question: “How will you behave in this or that situation?”, But it should be borne in mind that when answering such questions, people are always trying to present themselves in the most favorable light, and not at all give you an objective information about your behavior.

Sociologists use various types of surveys in their research activities.

Types and technique of surveys

1. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (respondent).

The equivalent of such a conversation is the so-called free interview - usually a long conversation not according to a strict plan, but according to an exemplary program (interview guide).

According to the depth of insight into the essence of the problems, clinical (deep) and focused interviews are distinguished. The purpose of the first is to obtain information about the internal motives, inclinations of the respondent, the second is to find out the reaction to a given impact. According to the nature of the organization, interviews are divided into:

group, which are rarely used (for example, a group conversation with a discussion);

individual, which, in turn, are divided into personal and telephone.

2. The second type of survey is a questionnaire survey, which involves a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of the answer. A questionnaire survey can be conducted either by a direct survey, which is conducted in the presence of a questionnaire, or in the form of an absentee survey.

To conduct any questionnaire survey, a questionnaire is required. What types of questions might it include?

Open question. The answer is given in free form.

Closed question. Respondents answer it either “yes” or “no”, i.e., the answer options are provided in advance.

Semi-closed question (combines the previous two).

There is also such a kind of questionnaire survey as a lightning survey (poll-vote, probing of public opinion). It is used in public opinion surveys and usually contains only 3-4 questions related to the main (of interest) information, plus several questions related to the demographic and social characteristics of the respondents.

Questionnaires are used to study a variety of problems. Therefore, they are very diverse in their subject matter and content, for example:

event profiles;

aimed at clarifying value orientations;

statistical questionnaires;

timing of time budgets, etc.

It should be noted that the depth and completeness of the information reflected in the questionnaire significantly depend on the general culture and outlook of the respondent.

The reliability of information can be determined using so-called trap questions. For example, in one of the regions of Russia, during a questionnaire survey of readers, the following trap question was asked: “Did you like the book by science fiction writer N. Yakovlev “The Long Twilight of Mars”?” And although such a book and writer does not exist, nevertheless, 10% of respondents "read" this book and most of them "did not like" it.

The English sociologist Eysenck uses the so-called "lie scale" - a series of questions that help expose insincere respondents. He imperceptibly intersperses these questions in the questionnaire. Among them are such as:

Are you completely free from all prejudices?

Do you like to brag sometimes?

Do you always answer emails?

Have you ever told a lie?

Individuals who fall into the "trap" are suspected of insincerity, and their profiles are not taken into account when processing the collected data.

Concluding the consideration of survey methods, let us dwell at least briefly on the technique of conducting them.

An ideal interview resembles a lively and relaxed conversation between two people who are equally interested in it, however, according to the English sociologist W. Good, this is a pseudo-conversation, since the interviewer acts as a professional researcher imitating the role of an equal interlocutor. His task is to collect information about his "interlocutor". To do this, he uses certain techniques.

Psychological contact with the respondent provides many advantages. Obtaining inaccessible information through a questionnaire does not provide the depth and completeness that is achieved through personal communication during an interview. On the other hand, the reliability of the data is higher in the case of a questionnaire survey.

During the interview, there is a danger of the interviewer's influence on the respondent, since the first one drives the second one to a certain type of personality and, voluntarily or involuntarily, begins to ask appropriate questions. It is necessary to strive to overcome stereotyping by playing different hypotheses of the respondent's perception.

When conducting an interview, the following simple rules should be observed:

it is best to start a conversation with a neutral topic that does not relate to the problems that will be raised in the interview;

act relaxed and natural;

do not put pressure on the respondent;

the rate of speech "adjust" to the pace of the respondent's speech;

remember that the best result is obtained when the interviewer and the respondent are about the same age and of the opposite sex;

try to create an atmosphere of psychological comfort (conversation while sitting, indoors, in the absence of strangers);

it is better when the conversation is led by one, and the notes by the other; the presence of a notebook, recording equipment constrains both the respondent and the interviewer.

In its most general form, the interview algorithm may look like this:

establishing contact (introducing yourself, getting to know each other);

consolidation of contact (show the importance of the information received, interest in it; respect for the respondent);

move on to the main interview questions.

In addition to sociological research methods proper, sociology also uses other methods borrowed, for example, from psychology, such as psychological tests and sociometry. Thus, to collect the necessary information, sociology uses both sociological methods (observation, study of documents, surveys), and methods of psychology and other sciences.

With these methods sociologists collect social facts. However, sociological research does not end with the collection of information. Its next stage (phase) is the analysis of empirical data.

Analysis of empirical data

At this stage, special methods of analysis are used. These methods of analysis are:

grouping and typology of information;

search for relationships between variables;

social experiment.

Let's take a closer look at these methods.

1. Method of grouping and typology of information.

Grouping is the classification or ordering of data according to one attribute. The linking of facts into the system is carried out in accordance with the scientific hypothesis and the tasks to be solved.

For example, if you have to find out how the level of knowledge and experience affects the ability of people to manage, then the collected information can be grouped according to the criteria for the quality of education and term of work.

Typologization is the search for stable combinations of properties of social objects considered in several dimensions at the same time.

2. Search for relationships between variables.

We will illustrate this method of analysis with a specific example. Suppose, during the rationalization work in the company, certain data were collected. If you summarize them in a table, you can see a certain relationship between the percentage of participation in rationalization work (first variable) and educational level, qualifications (second variable) (Table 17).

3. Sociological experiment.

A sociological experiment is most often seen as a method of testing a scientific hypothesis. For example, the famous Hawthorne experiment, when the dependence of the illumination of the workplace and labor productivity was tested (for more details, see pp. 144-145). Despite the fact that the hypothesis was not confirmed, the experiment revealed completely new effect- the human factor of production. This is an example of the so-called natural experiment. However, it is not always possible to conduct a natural experiment. For example, no one will dare to use such a method, investigating the social relations of operators during the liquidation nuclear accident. In such difficult situations, sociologists conduct a thought experiment - they operate with information about past events and predict their possible consequences.

These are the main methods of sociological research and the ways in which they are applied.

Questions for self-control

Name the phases of scientific research.

What requirements must a scientific hypothesis satisfy?

What does the study plan include?

What are the objective difficulties of collecting data in sociological research?

What are the requirements for scientific classification?

What scientific explanation and check sociological research?

What are social facts?

List the main methods of sociological research.

What is scientific observation?

Describe the study of documentary sources as a method of sociological research.

What is content analysis?

What types of polls do you know?

What is open and closed question?

How is the accuracy of information verified in surveys?

List the main methods of conducting a survey.

What is grouping and typology of information?

Name the types of sociological experiments.

Literature

Batygin G. S. Lectures on the methodology of sociological research. M., 1995.

Voronov Yu. P. Methods of collecting information in sociological research. M., 1974.

Zdravomyslov A.G. Methodology and procedure of sociological research. M., 1969.

Ivanov V. N. Actual problems of sociological research on present stage. M., 1974.

How to conduct a sociological study / Ed. M. K. Gorshkova, F. E. Sheregi. M., 1990.

Markovich D. General sociology. Rostov, 1993. Ch. 2.

Yadov V. A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. M., 1988.

PLAN

1. Essence, typology and stages of sociological research.

2. Program of sociological research.

3. Basic methods of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological information.

The history of the emergence and development of sociology is inextricably linked with empirical (applied) research - sources of new knowledge necessary both for the development of theories and for the regulation of social processes. Immediate Recognition sociological research(this is how empirical sociology is simply called) were obtained at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, they replaced individual methods of accumulating sociological knowledge and relied on the practice of socio-statistical observations and social surveys.

The idea of ​​the study was borrowed by sociology from natural science, economics, ethnography, jurisprudence, where the forms of empirical and experimental studies approved earlier. The twentieth century was a time of rapid development of empirical sociology, and the center of its formation was the University of Chicago (Chicago "school of life"). Here in the 20-30s. deployed multipurpose applied research which marked the bright flowering of empirical sociology. This direction focused on detailed studies of private local areas: understanding the living process of people's vital activity in specific situations.

The adaptation of the most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the tasks being solved, finds expression in the methodology of sociological research. The methodology of sociological research is a set of operations, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, methods of organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, building scales, etc.) is called its technique.

Sociological research is a tool for studying social phenomena in their specific state using methods that allow quantitative and qualitative collections, measurements, generalizations, and analysis of sociological information.

Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable information about the phenomena and processes that are being studied, about the trends and contradictions in their development, so that these data can be used in social practice. .

Sociological research is a multifaceted scientific process the development of new knowledge, which combines the theoretical, methodological and empirical levels of social cognition, which accordingly ensures its integrity and gives a concrete idea of ​​any side of social reality, of various types of social activities of people. Sociological research is driven by the social need for social knowledge, for social orientation.

It reflects the interests of certain class, social group and other forces aimed at establishing or changing the relationship of the individual, social groups and society. In this respect, sociological research is an integral part of the scientific and social process, reflects the worldview of the sociologist and is conditioned by his social position. Sociological research is a kind professional activity people with special training. The term "sociological research" was established not earlier than the end of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s.

Depending on the level of scientific knowledge, sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. A study focused on the collection and analysis of data using the methods, techniques and techniques of sociological research is called empirical. Empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its purpose is to build a theory, then it belongs to the fundamental, if the development of practical recommendations, then to applied research.

In sociology, there are not only theoretical and applied research, but also mixed or complex, in which not only scientific, but also practical problems are solved. Regardless of whether the research is carried out at one or two (theoretical and empirical) levels of sociological knowledge, or whether it is only scientific or applied, it, as a rule, also contains the solution of methodological issues.

Depending on the complexity and scale of tasks to be solved There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (aerobatic, probing), descriptive and analytical.

intelligence research- a preliminary study conducted in order to verify, clarify all the elements and tools of the main study, and make the necessary adjustments to them. It covers small populations of people and, as a rule, precedes a deeper and larger-scale study.

Descriptive research aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which makes it possible to form a relatively holistic view of it. It covers fairly large populations of people, heterogeneous in their characteristics, helps to better understand the situation, more deeply substantiate and rationally determine the methods, forms and methods of managing social processes.

Analytical study consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it. So, if in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in the course of analytical research it turns out whether the previously identified relationship is causal. This is the most profound and large-scale type of research, differing from others not only in the complexity and content of its preparatory stage and the stage of collecting primary sociological information, but also in a more thorough approach to the analysis, generalization and explanation of the results obtained.

A kind of analytical research can be considered experiment. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing in one way or another the usual conditions for the functioning of a social object.

Social phenomena or processes can be studied both in statics and in dynamics. In the first case, we are dealing with one-time (point) research, in the second repeated. Spot Study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, a momentary slice of the object, but does not answer the question about the trends in its change in time space.

repeated called studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals, based on a single program and a single toolkit. They represent a method of comparative sociological analysis aimed at identifying the dynamics of the development of a social object. A special kind of re-examination is panel study: statistically substantiated and carried out at certain intervals on the same population of people (for example, an annual, quarterly study of the budget of certain families). Panel research allows you to establish trends, the nature of changes in moods, orientations of public opinion, etc., giving a dynamic picture of the studied social phenomena.

Research is carried out both in the laboratory and in natural conditions. For example, the study of the socio-psychological climate in a work team is carried out in its usual conditions of life. Such a study is called field. Allocate also cohort study, suggesting research cohorts(from lat. cohorts - set, subdivision) - groupings, which include individuals selected on the basis that they experience the same events, processes in the same periods of time (for example, a cohort of persons born in a certain period of time) . If a sociological study covers all units (social objects) of the general population without exception, it is called solid. If only a certain part of social objects is examined, the study is called selective.

The choice of the type of research is influenced by two factors:

1) purpose, practical and scientific feasibility of the study;

2) the essence and features of the social object to be studied.

Each study begins with a preliminary organizational work with the customer (“client”), where the topic is determined, the general contours of the work are outlined and issues of financial and logistical support are resolved. Then the actual research begins.

There are three main stages in the conduct of sociological research:

1) preparatory;

2) main (field);

3) final.

At the preparatory stage, a program of sociological research is developed - a document containing methodological, methodological, organizational and technical substantiation of sociological research. At the second, field stage, the collection of sociological data is carried out, at the third - their analysis, processing, generalization, preparation of practical recommendations.

Thus, sociological research is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge in order to solve specific theoretical and social problems. characteristic feature sociological research is that the study of social processes is carried out through the analysis of human activity or its results, through the identification of the needs and interests of people.

Conducting any sociological research necessarily begins with the development of its program, which is called a strategic document of scientific research, containing a comprehensive theoretical substantiation of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying the phenomenon under study. The processes of developing a sociological theory and accumulating factual material constitute an organic unity.

A sociological research program must answer two basic questions. First, how to move from the initial theoretical propositions of sociology to research, how to "translate" them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material. Secondly, how to rise again from the facts obtained, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the study not only gives practical advice, but also served as the basis for the further development of the theory itself.

The adaptation of the most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the tasks being solved, finds expression in the methodology of sociological research.

Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, methods of organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, building scales, etc.) is called its technique.

The program is a presentation of the general concept of research, which includes step-by-step programming and rules of procedure for scientific and practical research activities.

Program functions:

1. Theoretical and methodological , which allows you to determine scientific problem and prepare the basis for its solution.

2. Methodical, which allows you to outline ways to collect data and describe the expected results.

3. Organizational, which allows you to plan the activities of the researcher at all stages of work.

Basic requirements for the program:

1) necessity;

2) explicitness (clarity, clarity);

3) flexibility;

4) the logical sequence of the structure.

The structure of the program includes three sections - methodological, procedural (or methodical) and organizational.

The program of sociological research consists of three sections: methodological, methodical (or procedural) and organizational.

The methodological section of the sociological research program contains the following elements:

1. Formulation of the research problem.

Problem- this is a form of interrogative statements expressing uncertainty, which is subject to a scientific and practical solution. Its formulation is the initial link in any sociological research, since the problem itself is a social task that needs an immediate solution. In turn, the problem posed subordinates to its solution all cognitive actions of the researcher and determines the composition of cognitive actions. In the process of posing a problem, two main procedures can be distinguished: comprehension of the problem situation and formulation (development) of the problem.

Problem situation- this is a contradiction that really exists in social reality, the methods (algorithm) of resolving which in this moment not yet known (not clear). Ignorance of the ways, means and methods of resolving the emerging contradiction forces one to turn to science for help (“social order”). The formulation of the research problem involves carrying out certain theoretical work, in particular, identifying which aspects of the problem can be solved by sociology, which elements of the problem are the main and which are secondary, and most importantly, which aspects of the problem have already been solved by other studies, and which are to be solved in this study(scientific problem).

The problem is formulated in the form of clear questions or attitudes, for example:

Question: What are the causes of such and such phenomena?

Installation: Find ways to solve this and that. Build a model that explains this range of factors.

The research problem should be formulated in terms of science, that is, based on the developed systems of theoretical knowledge in this area, and adequately reflecting the content of the issue (attitude). The problem becomes visible when it is caught in some kind of social phenomenon, i.e. by highlighting the object and subject of research.

Object of study - a phenomenon or sphere of social reality that act as direct carriers of the problem situation to which cognitive activity is directed .

Subject of study - these are the sides, properties, characteristics of the object that are subject to direct study in this study.

No study is able to cover all the variety of interactions that characterize a given object. Therefore, in the subject of research, spatial boundaries are indicated within which the object is being studied, a temporal boundary (a certain period of time). The selection of the object and subject of the study allows you to proceed to the definition of the purpose and objectives of the study.

Under research goal refers to the final result that the researcher intends to obtain after the completion of the work. This result can be epistemological, applied, or both. As a rule, the purpose of the study is determined jointly with the customer.

AT research objectives contains the range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main target question of the study. For example, if the purpose of the study is to study the influence of family education on the formation of deviant (deviant) behavior of adolescents, then among the objectives of the study one can distinguish such as determining the role of father and mother in shaping the personality of a teenager, studying the family value system, etc. All these are links that help to see the integrity of the phenomenon and the processes to be studied.

The next step in the development of the research program is the interpretation and operationalization of the basic concepts that are presented in the conceptual model of the problem situation and subject area analysis.

Interpretation of concepts - theoretical clarification of the basic (initial) concepts is carried out in order for researchers to clearly and clearly imagine the content (meaning) of the concepts (terms) with which they work, use them in a uniform way, not allowing various interpretations the same concept. The empirical interpretation of concepts is directly a sociological task: it is a scientific procedure for the transition from the content of basic concepts through a hierarchy of mediating concretizing ones to potentially accessible fixation and measurement units of the required information (indicators).

Empirical indicator is a fact used for empirical measurement. Target operationalization of concepts- Establishing a connection between the conceptual apparatus of the study and its methodological tools. It combines the problems of concept formation, measurement techniques and the search for indicators into a single whole. For example, such a concept as “attitude towards work” cannot be expressed in indicators, i.e. in the characteristics of the object accessible for observation and measurement. This concept can be decomposed into three components, which are intermediate concepts: attitude to work as a value, attitude to one's profession, attitude to this work at a given enterprise.

The latter also need to be decomposed into a number of objective characteristics - attitude to work (labor discipline, labor productivity, etc.) and a number of subjective characteristics - attitude to work (degree of job satisfaction, etc.). Then, for each of these operational definitions of the concept, it is necessary to offer empirical indicators and a system of research tools for fixing them.

Operational definition of the concept - it is the operation of decomposing its theoretical content into empirical equivalents available for fixation and measurement. Operationalization allows you to determine what sociological data should be collected about. The meaning of these operations is the transition from the theoretical development of the program to empirical sociological research: the way is opened for the application of methods of sampling, collection and analysis of sociological information in the study.

The next step is the development of hypotheses. Hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - foundation, proposal) - a reasonable scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification. A hypothesis is a form of assumption or assumption in which the knowledge contained is probabilistic. This is a preliminary "project" for solving the problem, the truth of which is to be verified. According to the objectives of the study, hypotheses are basic and non-basic, according to the sequence of promotion - primary and secondary, according to content - descriptive (about the essential properties of the object), explanatory (assumptions about the significance of factors), predictive (about trends).

The proposed hypothesis must meet a number of requirements:

1) it should not contain concepts that do not have empirical indicators in the framework of this study;

2) must be available for verification (verification) during the study;

4) should be simple and not contain various kinds of conditions and reservations.

The proposed hypothesis must be sufficiently theoretically reliable, consistent with previous knowledge, it must not contradict the facts of science. Hypotheses that meet these requirements are called working (working in this study); this is a preliminary (presumptive) explanation of the phenomenon, sufficient for further empirical study of the research problem.

Proving the reliability of hypotheses becomes the main task of subsequent empirical research, since the goal of any research search is not to formulate them, but to obtain new scientific and practical knowledge (discoveries) that enrich science with knowledge of fundamentally new facts and develop ways and means of targeted impact on the problematic problem. situation and its resolution. Confirmed hypotheses become theory and law and are used for implementation in practice. Those that are not confirmed are either discarded or become the basis for putting forward new hypotheses and new directions in the study of the problem situation.

The methodological section of the sociological research program is organically interconnected with the procedural section. If the first lays the research methodology, then the second reveals its procedure, that is, the sequence of research operations.

Procedural (or methodical) section of the program sociological research consists of the following components:

Determination of the sample population that is being surveyed, that is, the rationale for the sampling system. The main idea of ​​the sample is to judge the general in parts, to judge the general (macromodel) through a small representation (micromodel). This essence was wittily expressed by J. Gallup: “If you mix the soup well, the cook will take one spoon for a sample and say what taste the whole pot has!”. The sampling system includes a population and a sample population .

Population- this is the whole set of survey units that is relevant to this problem, although it may be limited by territory, time, profession, functional framework. The survey of the entire general population (for example, all students of universities in Donetsk, or all residents of the city N) requires significant financial costs and time costs.

Therefore, as a rule, a part of the elements of the general population is directly examined - a sample population,

Sample- this is the minimum representation of the composition of the surveyed units according to the selected parameters (criteria), which reproduces the distribution law of the trait in this population.

The procedure for selecting a part of the elements of the general population, which allows drawing conclusions about the entire set of elements, is called sample. In addition to saving money and reducing the study time, the sample implements the fundamental principle randomization(from English random - complicit, chosen at random), that is, random selection. Only equality of chances of getting into the sample for each unit of the survey, that is, selection "at random", guarantees against intentional or unintentional distortions.

The sampling procedure itself consists in the fact that at first the sampling unit is determined - an element of the general population, which acts as a reference unit for various sampling procedures (this can be an individual, a group, an act of behavior, etc.). Then compiled sampling frame- a list (list) of elements of the general population that meets the requirements of completeness, accuracy, adequacy, convenience of working with it, excluding duplication of units of observation. This may be, for example, a list of all members of the surveyed labor collective or residents of the city. And already from the sampling frame, the selection of units of observation is carried out.

The main types of sampling are:

1. Random sampling - a method in which the principle of equality of chances of getting into the sample for all units of the studied population is strictly observed on the basis of statistical randomness (here they use a table of "random numbers", selection by date of birth, by surnames starting with certain letters, etc.) . Sampling can be simple random or multi-stage, when the selection is carried out in several stages.

2. Quota sampling(non-random) is the selection of people with a specific set of characteristics in accordance with given proportions.

3. Systematic(pseudo-random) sampling - a method in which the ratio between the sample size and the population size is used to determine the interval (sampling step) in such a way that each sampling unit that is at a distance of this step is included in the sample (for example, every 10th or 20th on the list).

4. Serial (nested) a sample in which the selection units are statistical series, that is, sets of statistically different units, which can be a family, a team, a student group, a department staff at a university, etc.

5. stratified a sample in which the general population is initially divided into private, internally homogeneous populations, “strata” (classes, layers), and then sampling units are selected within each population.

The sample size as the total number of survey units that were included in the sample depends on the degree of homogeneity of the general population (if there are 100 apple trees of the same variety in the orchard, it is enough to try an apple from one tree to judge all the apples in the orchard), required level the accuracy of the results, the number of features of the sample. Sample size affects representation errors: the larger the sample size, the smaller the possible error. However, the intention to double the accuracy would require a quadrupling of the sample. The measurement accuracy (representativeness) of 95% is sufficient for the study.

During sampling, it is important to prevent sampling offset.

Sample bias- this is the deviation of the sample structure from the real structure of the general population. The reasons for this may be different, but most often it is the so-called "systematic errors". They are due to ignorance of the structure of the general population and the use of selection procedures that violate, for example, the proportionality necessary for the representativeness of the sample in the representation of various types of elements of the general population. Systematic errors can also be due to the conscious selection of the most "convenient" winning elements the general population.

The extent to which sampling bias can devalue the entire work of sociologists is a classic example from the history of sociological research in the United States. During the 1936 presidential election campaign, the Literary Digest magazine, based on a colossal study with a mail survey of several million readers, made an incorrect prediction, while George Gallup and Elmo Roper correctly predicted F. Roosevelt's victory based on only 4 thousand questionnaires . The staff of the journal, it would seem, minimized the probability of the so-called random error, which is due to the difference in the size of the general and sample population.

The smaller this difference, the lower the probability of a random error. However, they allowed systematic error. They took the addresses for mailing questionnaires from the phone book, and at that time in the United States only the wealthy segments of the population, mainly homeowners, owned telephones. In this regard, the opinion of the respondents was not the average, which could be extrapolated to the whole country. The bulk of the lower strata of the population remained uncovered in the survey, but it was this group that had a decisive influence on F. Roosevelt's victory.

There is an opinion that the sample size should be from 1.5% to 10% of the general population, but not exceed 2000-2500 respondents. However, experience shows that when conducting public opinion polls, it is enough to include 500-1200 people in the sample in order to obtain reliable results. The Gallup Institute and other American organizations distribute 1,500-2,000 questionnaires on the basis of careful sampling. Each time the number of questionnaires must be determined using mathematical theory sampling, given the precision needed, ensuring that all units in the population have the same chance of being selected for study.

The next component of the procedural section of the program is the definition methods of collecting primary sociological information.

When determining the methods for collecting information, keep in mind that:

1) the efficiency and economy of research should not be ensured at the expense of the quality of sociological information;

2) none of the methods of collecting sociological data is universal, that is, each of them has well-defined cognitive capabilities;

3) the reliability of a particular method is ensured not only by its validity and compliance with the goals and objectives of the study, but also by compliance with the rules and procedures for its practical application.

The choice of method depends primarily on the source of information. Documentary sources involve the use of the document analysis method, and if the external manifestations of social phenomena or acts of behavior serve as the source of information, then the observation method is used. The survey method is used when the source of information is a person, his opinions, views, interests, and the experimental method is used in cases where a specially created situation serves as a source of information.

After determining the method or methods of collecting information, you can proceed to the development of research tools, that is, a set of methodological and technical methods for conducting research, embodied in the relevant operations and procedures and presented in the form of various documents.

Toolkit - it is a set of specially designed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.

The toolkit includes a questionnaire, an interview plan (questionnaire), an observation card, a content analysis form, instructions for the questionnaire (interviewer), coder, etc., methods of processing and analyzing data, including justification and a list of relevant social indicators(indicators) and scales that serve as a tool for assessing social information. It should be noted that the research tools are being worked out in close connection with the operationalized concept-scheme: the choice of an indicator - empirical indicators - a source - the construction of tools.

Considering technological foundations development of the program, it is necessary to dwell on the problem of measurement, which should be provided for by the procedural (methodological) section of the program .

Measurement (quantification) is a procedure for attributing quantitative certainty to the studied qualitative features. The main measuring procedures are testing, rating, peer reviews, popularity ranking, polls. The facts used for sociological measurement are indicators, and finding them helps to understand how and in what form it is necessary to approach the collection of information.

All indicators are characterized by various characteristics, which in the toolkit act as options for answering questions. They are arranged in one or another sequence in positions and form the corresponding measurement scale. The form of the scale can be verbal, that is, have a verbal expression.

For example, an indicator of such a social property as “education” is the “level of education”, and its characteristics are:

Lower secondary;

Average total;

Specialized secondary;

Unfinished higher;

This is the verbal position of the measurement scale. Scales can also be numerical (position in points) and graphic.

Distinguish the following types scales:

1) nominal (unordered) - this is a scale of names, consisting of a list of qualitative objective characteristics (for example, age, gender, occupation or motives, opinions, etc.);

2) rank (ordinal) - this is a scale for ordering the manifestations of the studied properties in a strict order (from the most significant to the least or vice versa);

3) interval (metric) - this is a scale of differences (intervals) between the ordered manifestations of the studied social property, assigning points or numerical values ​​to these divisions.

The main requirement for scales is to ensure reliability, which is achieved:

a) validity, i.e. validity, which involves measuring on a scale exactly the property that the sociologist intended to study;

b) completeness, i.e. the fact that all indicator values ​​are taken into account in the response options to the question asked by the respondent;

c) sensitivity, i.e. the ability of the scale to differentiate the manifestations of the studied property and to express it by the number of positions on the scale (the more there are, the more sensitive the scale).

The methodological section of the program is completed by a logical scheme for processing primary sociological information, which primarily provides for the processing, analysis and interpretation of the data obtained, as well as the formulation of appropriate conclusions and the development of certain practical recommendations based on them.

Organizational section of the program includes strategic and operational plans for the study.

The strategic plan for sociological research, depending on its type, has four options:

1) reconnaissance, when little is known about the object and there are no conditions for formulating hypotheses;

2) descriptive, when there is enough data about the object for descriptive hypotheses;

3) analytical-experimental, when there is complete knowledge about the object and conditions for explanatory foresight and functional analysis;

4) repeated-comparative, when it is possible to identify trends in the processes under study.

The work plan of the study is a list, a scheme of actions of sociologists in this study with the distribution of time, material and technical costs and a network schedule. It records all types of organizational and methodological work, from the approval of the program to the formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations for the customer of a sociological study. In addition, in the organizational section of the program, instructions are drawn up for organizing a field study, instructions for the questionnaire, work rules and ethical standards.

Thus, the first stage of sociological research is associated with the development of a program that is a strategic document of scientific research, a theoretical and methodological basis for the entire set of research procedures. The results of sociological research depend on the quality of the development of the program.

Differentiation of sociological methods allows us to consider each of them separately, emphasizing its specificity. The main methods of collecting primary sociological information are document analysis, questioning, observation and experiment.

document in sociology is called a specially created object designed to transmit and store information.

Document analysis method- this is a method of data collection, which involves the receipt and use of information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other information media. Depending on the method of recording information, documents are classified into textual, statistical and iconographic (film and photographic documents, works of fine art). According to the reliability of documents, originals and copies are distinguished, according to status - official and unofficial, according to the degree of personification - personal and impersonal, according to functions - informative and regulatory, according to content - historical, legal, economic.

Document analysis can be external and internal. External Analysis involves establishing the time and circumstances of the appearance of the document, its type, form, authorship, purpose of creation, its general characteristics, reliability and reliability.

Internal analysis of documents is the study of their content, the essence of the information contained in them, in the context of the objectives of the study. Methods of internal analysis - traditional and formalized, or content analysis.

Traditional (classic) is a method qualitative analysis, which refers to mental operations for the interpretation, understanding of the essence of the information contained in documentary materials. In addition to the traditional (classical, qualitative) analysis of documents, they also use content analysis (formalized, quantitative).

The first assumes the whole variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of the document, and the second defines meaningful units that can be unambiguously fixed and converted into quantitative indicators using certain counting units. It is important to emphasize that content analysis uses content units in accordance with the research concept, the leading idea of ​​the text of the document. Individual concepts, topics, events, names can be indicators of units. With the help of counting units, a quantitative assessment of the object is carried out, the frequency of manifestation of its features in the field of view of the researcher, which is fixed with mathematical accuracy.

It is a high degree of accuracy with a large amount of material that is the advantage of content analysis. Its advantage over traditional methods also lies in the fact that the impressions of the researcher-observer, which depend on his personal qualities, are replaced by more standardized and neutral procedures, which mostly involve measurements, that is, the use of quantitative analysis techniques. And the limitation of this method lies in the fact that not all the diversity of the content of the document can be measured using quantitative indicators. Traditional and formalized methods of document analysis are complementary, compensating for each other's shortcomings.

The most common method of collecting primary information is a survey. A survey is a question-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the source of information is the verbal message of people. It is based on a set of questions to the respondent, the answers to which provide the information necessary for the researcher. With the help of surveys, information is obtained both about events and facts, and about the opinions and assessments of the respondents. When studying the needs, interests, opinions, value orientations of people, a survey can be the only source of information. Sometimes the information obtained by this method is supplemented by other sources (document analysis, observation).

Different types of survey: written (questionnaire), oral (interviewing), expert survey (survey of competent persons) and sociometric survey (study of socio-psychological manifestations interpersonal relationships in a group).

According to the forms of contact, the following survey options are distinguished:

1) personal or indirect (handout, mail, press, telephone) survey;

2) individual or group;

3) free or formalized, focused (directed);

4) continuous or selective;

5) at the place of residence or work, in temporary target audiences (train passengers, meeting participants).

Questionnaire - one of the main types of sociological survey, the essence of which is that the respondents answer in writing the questions presented to them in the form of questionnaires. With the help of a written survey, it is possible to simultaneously cover a large number of respondents in a relatively short period of time. A feature of the questionnaire is that the researcher cannot personally influence the course of the survey. The disadvantage of the correspondence survey is that it does not guarantee the full return of all questionnaires.

The central problem of a questionnaire survey is the formulation of questions that the respondents will answer.

Questionnaire questions are classified according to the content:

Questions about facts, questions about knowledge, awareness, questions about behavior, questions about attitudes;

Depending on the formalization of the answer options: open (without pre-formulated answers);

Semi-closed (along with the answer options, there is space for free answers);

Closed (with pre-formulated answers);

Depending on the functions performed: content-functional, serving directly to collect information on the topic of the survey;

Filter questions that allow you to "screen out" from the next question those respondents for whom this question is not intended;

Control (trap questions) designed to control the sincerity of the respondent;

Functional-psychological, serving to establish socio-psychological contact with the respondent.

For the correct construction of questions, it is important to observe the following basic requirements:

The question must strictly correspond to the indicator or operational concept that it describes and measures;

Unambiguously interpreted by the respondent;

Correspond to the cultural and educational level of the respondent;

Be worded in a neutral way;

Should not include multiple questions;

Must obey the requirements of "random variable", i.e. the response options to it must be equivalent and constitute a complete group of events;

Formulated lexically and grammatically correctly;

The text of the question should not exceed 10-12 words.

The composition of the questionnaire should include a title page, an introductory part, a main (substantive) part, a socio-demographic part, and questions coding.

Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire. The interviewer acts as a researcher who not only asks questions, but guides the conversation in a subtle way.

There are several types of interviews: standardized (formalized), which uses a questionnaire with a clearly defined order and wording of questions in order to obtain the most comparable data collected by different interviewers; non-standardized (non-formalized) interview - a free dialogue on a specific topic, when questions (open) are formulated in the context of communication and the forms for fixing answers are not standardized. In a semi-formalized interview, during the dialogue, both pre-prepared questions and additional ones are asked. There are also interviews at the venue (at the workplace, in a relaxed atmosphere); according to the procedure (individual, group, one-act, multiple).

Method sociometry is used in the study of small groups and allows you to evaluate the relationship in the team, its informal structure, informal microgroups and the relationship between them. The essence of the method is the collection of information about the structure of interpersonal relations in a small group by studying the choice made by each member of the group according to one or another criterion.

The criteria for sociometric choices are formulated in the form of questions about the desire of a team member to participate with someone in a certain type of activity:

Jointly carry out a responsible task (reliability);

Troubleshoot in technical device(professionalism);

Spend a day off together (friendly disposition), etc.

Each respondent is given a list of the group, in which each member is assigned a specific number and is asked to make a choice from the proposed list according to a certain criterion. On the basis of the matrix, a sociogram is built (a graphic representation of the scheme of interpersonal relations), which allows you to see the structural elements of interpersonal relations in a team, team leaders, microgroups.

Such forms of collecting sociological information as questionnaires, interviews, mail surveys, etc., are intended primarily for mass surveys. However, in practice, situations may arise when, in order to assess a phenomenon, it is difficult or impossible at all to isolate the object - the carrier of the problem and, accordingly, use it as a source of information. Such situations are usually associated with an attempt to predict the change in a particular social process or phenomenon.

Objective information in this case can only come from competent persons - experts, having deep knowledge about the subject or object of research. The criteria for selecting experts are occupation, length of service, level and nature of education, experience in a particular field of activity, age, etc. The central criterion for selecting experts is their competence. To determine it with varying degrees of accuracy, there are two methods: self-assessment of experts and collective assessment of the authority of experts.

Competent person surveys are called expert, and the poll results expert assessments. In the most general form, two main functions of the method of expert assessment in sociological research can be distinguished: assessment of the state (including causes) and forecasting of development trends of various phenomena and processes of social reality. One of the most simple forms expert forecast - an exchange of views, involving the simultaneous presence of all experts for " round table”, where the dominant position on the issue under discussion is revealed. More complex forms may also be used.

Observation in sociology, it is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and registration of events, the behavior of people and groups related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study. In scientific observation, its organization is planned in advance, a methodology for recording, processing and interpreting data is developed, which ensures the relative reliability of the information received. The main object of observation is the behavior of individuals and social groups, as well as the conditions of their activities. Using the method of observation, one can study real relationship in action, analyze real life people, the specific behavior of the subjects of activity. When conducting surveillance, they use various forms and registration techniques: a form or diary of observations, photo, film, video equipment, etc. In this case, the sociologist registers the number of manifestations of behavioral reactions.

Distinguish between included observation, in which the researcher receives information, being an actual member of the group under study in the process of a certain activity, and non-included, in which the researcher is outside the object under study. Observation is called field if it is carried out in a real life situation, and laboratory if it is carried out under artificially created and controlled conditions. According to the regularity of the observation, observation can be systematic (carried out at regular intervals) and random.

According to the degree of formalization, standardized (formalized) observation is distinguished, when the elements of observation are predetermined and they are the object of attention and fixation of the observer, and non-standardized (non-formalized), when the elements to be studied are not predetermined and the observer determines and fixes them in the course of observation. If the observation is carried out with the consent of the observed, then it is called open; if the group members do not know that their behavior and actions are being observed, then this is covert observation.

Observation is one of the main methods of data collection, which either leads to hypotheses and serves as a springboard for the use of more representative methods, or is used at the final stage of mass research to clarify and interpret the main conclusions. Observation can be carried out either relatively independently or in combination with other methods, such as experiment.

Social experiment - this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about cause-and-effect relationships between the indicators of functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality .

Conducting a social experiment requires a clearly formulated hypothesis about causal relationships, the possibility of quantitative and qualitative influence of factors that are introduced during the experiment and change the behavior of the object of study, control of changes in the state of the object and conditions during the experiment. The logic of a social experiment consists in, for example, choosing a particular group for the experiment, influencing it with the help of certain factors and monitoring the change in characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and are important for solving the main task.

Experiments are distinguished both by the nature of the experimental situation and by the logical sequence of proving the research hypothesis. . According to the first criterion, experiments are divided into field and laboratory . In the field experiment, the group is in the natural conditions of their normal functioning (for example, students at a seminar). At the same time, group members may or may not be informed about their participation in the experiment. In a laboratory experiment, the situation, and often the experimental groups themselves, are artificially formed. Therefore, group members are usually informed about the experiment.

In field and laboratory experiments, polling and observation can be used as additional methods of collecting information, the results of which correct the research activity.

According to the logical sequence of the proof of the hypothesis, there are linear and parallel experiments. Line experiment consists in the fact that the analysis is subjected to the same group, which is both control and experimental at the same time. This means that before the start of the experiment, all control, factor characteristics that the researcher himself introduces and changes, and neutral characteristics that seem to take no part in the experiment, are recorded. After that, the factor characteristics of the group and/or the conditions of its functioning are changed, and then, after a certain time, the state of the group is again assessed (measured) according to its control characteristics.

In a parallel experiment, two groups simultaneously participate - control and experimental. They must be identical in all control and neutral characteristics. The characteristics of the control group remain constant throughout the experiment, while the characteristics of the experimental group change. Based on the results of the experiment, the control characteristics of both groups are compared and conclusions are drawn about the causes and magnitude of the changes that have occurred.

The success of such experiments depends to a large extent on correct selection its members.

The final stage of empirical sociological research involves the processing, analysis and interpretation of data, obtaining empirically substantiated generalizations, conclusions and recommendations.

The data processing stage includes several sequential steps:

1. editing of information, the main purpose of which is verification, unification and formalization of the information that was obtained during the study. First, the entire array of methodological tools is checked for accuracy, completeness and quality of filling, poor-quality completed questionnaires are culled.

The quality of the primary sociological information, and, consequently, the reliability of the conclusions and the validity of practical recommendations, depends on the nature of filling out the questionnaires. If the questionnaire does not contain the respondent's answers to more than 20% of the questions, or to 2-3 in the socio-demographic block, then such questionnaires should be excluded from the main array as poor quality and capable of distorting sociological information.

2. Coding information, its formalization, assigning certain conditional numbers-codes to each answer option, creating a system of numbers in which the very order of codes (numbers) is of decisive importance.

Two types of procedures are used to encode information:

1) end-to-end numbering of all positions (serial coding system);

2) numbering of options only within one question (positional coding system).

3. After coding, they proceed directly to data processing (most often with the help of a personal computer), to their generalization and analysis, for which mathematical, primarily statistical methods are used.

But with all the relevance of the mathematical support of sociological analysis, in particular, generalization of data, the final result of the entire study depends, first of all, on how the researcher can correctly, deeply and comprehensively interpret the material received.

4. Interpretation procedure- this is the transformation of certain numerical values ​​into a logical form - indicators (indicators). These indicators are no longer just numerical values ​​(percentages, arithmetic average), but sociological data that have been evaluated by comparing them with the original intentions of the researcher (the purpose and objectives of the study), his knowledge and experience. Each indicator, carrying a certain semantic load, indicates the direction of subsequent conclusions and recommendations.

Next, the assessment of the data obtained is given, the leading trends in the results are indicated, and the reasons for the answers are explained. The data obtained are compared with the hypotheses and it is established which hypotheses were confirmed and which were not confirmed.

At the final stage, the results of the study are documented - in the form of reports, annexes to it and analytical information. The report includes a justification for the relevance of the study and its characteristics (goals, objectives, sampling, etc.), analysis of empirical material, theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations. Conclusions, proposals and recommendations should be specific, realistic, have the necessary justification in the research materials, be supported by documentary and statistical data.

Under reliability of sociological information understand the general characteristics of empirical data obtained during the conduct of sociological research. Reliable they name such information in which, firstly, there are no unaccounted errors, that is, those whose magnitude a sociologist-researcher is not able to estimate; secondly, the number of errors taken into account does not exceed a certain specified value. In this case, the error classification is great importance to characterize the reliability of sociological information.

So, the absence of theoretical errors is called the validity, or validity of sociological information, the absence of random errors - the accuracy of information, and the absence of systematic errors is called the correctness of sociological information. Thus, sociological information is considered reliable if it is substantiated (valid), accurate and correct. At the same time, sociological science, in order to ensure the reliability of sociological information, uses a whole arsenal of methods to improve it, that is, to take into account errors or control the reliability of sociological data.

In conclusion, we note that sociological research is one of the most precision instruments measurement, analysis of social phenomena, although for all the significance of the results they cannot be absolutized. Along with other methods of cognition, sociological research expands our possibilities for understanding society and increases the efficiency of practical activity.

LITERATURE

1. Jolls K.K. Sociology: Navch. helper. - K.: Libid, 2005. - 440 p.

2. Kapitonov E.A. Sociology of the twentieth century. History and technology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996. - 512 p.

3. Lukashevich M.P., Tulenkov M.V. Sociology. Basic course. - K.: Karavela, 2005. - 312 p.

4. Osipov G.V. Theory and practice of sociological research. - M., 1989. - 463 p.

5. Rudenko R.I. Workshop on sociology. - M., 1999.

6. Sociology: Terms, understanding, personalities. Heading dictionary-dovidnik / For Zag. Ed. V.M.Pich. - K., Lviv, 2002.

7. Surmin Yu.P., Tulenkov N.V. Methodology and methods of sociological research. - K.: MAUP, 2000.

8. Yadov V.A. Strategy of sociological research. - M.: Dobrosvet, 2000. - 596 p.

GLOSSARY

Sociological research - a system of logically consistent methodological, methodical and organizational procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain objective, reliable data about the phenomenon under study.

Intelligence research - a preliminary study conducted in order to obtain primary information about the phenomenon or process under study, verify and clarify all elements of the main study and make the necessary adjustments to them.

Descriptive research - aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which makes it possible to form a relatively holistic view of it.

Analytical research - The most profound and large-scale type of research consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it.

Sociological Research Program - a document containing methodological, methodical and organizational-technical substantiation of sociological research.

Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis .

Purpose of the study- the end result that the researcher intends to obtain after the completion of the work.

Research objectives- the range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main question of the study.

Interpretation of concepts- theoretical clarification of the basic (initial) concepts.

Concept operationalization- a set of operations with the help of which the initial concepts used in sociological research are decomposed into components (indicators) that together can describe their content.

Hypothesis- a reasonable scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification.

Population is the totality of survey units that are relevant to a given problem.

Sample population- part of the elements of the general population , selected using special methods and reflecting the characteristics of the general population based on its representation (representation).

Representativeness- the property of the sample to reflect the characteristics of the general population under study.

Sample bias- this is the deviation of the sample structure from the real structure of the general population.

Tools- this is a set of specially developed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.

Document analysis method- this is a method of data collection, which involves the receipt and use of information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other information media.

Interview- a question-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the verbal message of people acts as a source of information.

Questionnaire- written communication to respondents questionnaire(questionnaire) containing in a certain way an ordered set of questions.

Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire.

Sociometry- a method proposed by J. Moreno to describe the system of interpersonal relations in small groups.

Observation- this is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and registration of events, the behavior of people and groups related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study.

social experiment- this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about the cause-and-effect relationships between the indicators of functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality.

Reliability of sociological information - this is a general characteristic of empirical data obtained during the conduct of sociological research. Information is considered reliable if it is reasonable (valid), accurate and correct.

TESTS

1. Applied sociology is:

A. Macrosociological theory of society, revealing the universal patterns and principles of this field of knowledge.

B. The totality of theoretical models, methodological principles, research methods and procedures, as well as social technologies, specific programs and recommendations.

B. Social engineering.

2. Arrange the types of sociological research known to you in order in accordance with the parameters of the scale and complexity of the tasks being solved:

1. ____________________________________

2. ____________________________________

3. ____________________________________

The left column lists the main stages of sociological research, the right - the content of these stages (in no particular order). It is necessary to determine the correct content for each stage of the study.

4. Indicate (underline) the most common method of sociological research:

A. Document analysis.

Method in sociology- this is a way of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, or, in other words, a consistent plan for conducting research. To a large extent, the method depends on the social problem under study, on the theory within which the research hypotheses are substantiated, and on the general methodological orientation. So, in particular, methodological approaches differ significantly. If the former receive empirical data using "hard" survey methods, build tables and formulate conclusions, then the latter study how people construct their world using "soft" methods - observation, conversations. The main methods of empirical sociological research are experiment, survey, observation anddocument analysis

Experiment - a method designed to establish causal relationships under strictly controlled conditions. At the same time, according to the preliminary hypothesis, there are dependent variable - consequence and independent variable - possible reason. During the experiment, the dependent variable is exposed to the independent variable and the result is measured. If it shows a change in the direction predicted by the hypothesis, then it is correct. Pros: the ability to control and repeat the experiment. Cons: many aspects are not amenable to experimentation.

Survey (quantitative method) – collection of primary verbal information based on indirect (questionnaire) or direct (interview) interaction between the interviewee (respondent) and the researcher. The advantage of the survey is its universality, since it is possible to register unobservable phenomena - motives, attitudes, opinions of a large number of respondents and, at the same time, the results of their activities or behavior. Pros: a large amount of data on a large number of individuals, allows you to achieve accurate statistical results. Cons: Risk of superficial results.

Observation (qualitative method) - a method of collecting primary sociological information through direct perception and direct registration of the characteristics of the observed object that are significant for the purposes of the study. Allocate included and external (field) observation. In the first case, observation is carried out by a participant in the observed process, in the second case, by an outside observer. Pros: allows you to collect rich material, inaccessible to other methods. Cons: only possible in small groups.

Analysis (research) of documents as a specific method can be used at all stages of sociological research, from putting forward a primary hypothesis to substantiating the formulation of conclusions. The subject of analysis can be written documents (press, letters, personal documents, biographies, etc.), iconographic, film and photo documents, electronic texts, etc. It is indispensable in the study of historical phenomena. Cons: Difficulty in interpretation.

3 The evolution of the institution of the family

Social institutions arise as a consequence of functional and structural needs and are unintended.

social institution(according to G. Spencer):

"A relatively stable set of norms and values, positions and roles, groups and organizations that provides a structure for behavior in any area of ​​social life."

"A system of norms, values, attitudes, and activities that emerge around the basic purpose of society."

home (family);

ritual (ceremonial);

religious (church);

political;

professional;

economic (industrial).

G. Spencer's consideration of the evolution of family relations from the simplest forms in primitive societies to the forms they have reached in civilized societies allows us to better understand what is happening with the institution of the family in our time.

Types of family relationships between the sexes:

endogamy; (a rule prescribing marriage within a certain social or ethnic group)

exogamy; (ban marital relations between members of a related or local (for example, community) collective,)

promiscuity; (19th century, disorderly, limited by nothing and no one sexual intercourse with many partners. 2 meanings: to describe sexual relations in primitive human society before the formation of families and to describe the promiscuous sexual life of an individual.)

polyandry; (rare form polygamy, in which a woman is in several marriages with different men. Originated in the 19th century in the Marquesas Islands, now preserved by some ethnic groups in South India)

polygyny; (polygamy - form polygamous marriage, in which a man is simultaneously in several marriage unions)

monogamy. (monogamy, historical form marriage and families, in which two representatives of opposite sexes are in a marriage union. Opposed polygamy in which a member of the same sex is married to more than one member of the opposite sex.)

Before monogamy became the main form of the family in a civilized society, it went a long way in accordance with the various stages of the evolution of society. Before the emergence of the patriarchal family in many primitive societies, the clan was conducted through the maternal line. The transition to a patriarchal type of family occurred simultaneously with the transition from hunting to pastoral societies. At the same time, a division of labor in the family and a regulatory family structure arose.

patriarchal family characterized by:

unlimited power of the eldest man in the family (Father);

a male-line inheritance system and related property laws;

reverence for a common ancestor;

the idea of ​​the responsibility of the group for the misdeeds of the individual;

blood feud and revenge;

complete subjugation of women and children.

A family- (according to Anthony Giddensau) a group of people connected by direct family relations, whose adult members assume the responsibility for caring for children. Kinship relations are considered to be relations arising from the conclusion of marriage (that is, the sexual union of two adults recognized and approved by society) or resulting from a blood relationship between persons.

Marriage- regulated by society and, in most states, registered in relevant state bodies family connection between two people who have reached marriage age giving rise to their rights and obligations in relation to each other.

The concept of method in sociology

The next component of the methodological part of the program is the substantiation of the main methods sociological research that they will be used in the process of sociological analysis of a particular social problem. To choose a method of collecting sociological information, emphasizes S. Vovkanych, means to choose one or another way of obtaining new social information to complete the task. The word "method" comes from the Greek. - "the way to something." AT method of sociology - this is a way to obtain reliable sociological knowledge, a set of applied techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge social reality.

At the level of everyday ideas of ordinary people, sociology is associated primarily with the conduct of questioning. In fact, however, a sociologist may use such diverse research procedures as experiment, observation, document analysis, expert assessments, sociometry, interviews etc.

Rules for defining methods

As Russian sociologists rightly point out, when determining the methods of sociological research of a social problem, a number of significant points should be taken into account:

Efficiency and economy of research should not be achieved at the expense of data quality;

None of the methods is universal and has its own clearly defined cognitive capabilities. Therefore, there are no "good" or "bad" methods at all; e methods that are adequate or inadequate (that is, suitable and inappropriate) for the goal and objectives;

The reliability of the method is ensured not only by its validity, but also by compliance with the rules for its application.

Submitting further a more detailed description of the main methods of obtaining sociological information, we chose from them those that most correspond to the disclosure of the causes of conflicts in the enterprise between workers and administration. It is these methods that should be included in the programs of sociological research; they should be used in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study. They should be the basis for testing the correctness or falsity of the hypotheses put forward.

Among the methods of collecting primary sociological information, there are also those that are not specifically sociological. it observation and experiment. they have their roots in the natural sciences, but at present they are successfully used in the socio-humanitarian sciences, including sociology.

Method of observation in sociology

Observation in sociology - this is a method of purposeful, systematic, fixed in a certain way the perception of the object that is being studied. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subjected to control and verification. Most often, the method of observation is used in the study of the behavior of individuals and groups and forms of communication, that is, with the visual coverage of a certain social action. It can be used in the study of conflict situations, because many of them manifest themselves precisely in actions and events that can be recorded and analyzed. positive traits of this method are:

Implementation of observation simultaneously with the deployment and development of phenomena, they are investigated;

The ability to directly perceive the behavior of people in specific conditions and in real time;

The possibility of a wide coverage of the event and a description of the interaction of all its participants;

Independence of the actions of the objects of observation from the sociologist-observer. To shortcomings of the observation method include:

The limited and partial nature of each situation that is observed. This means that the findings can only be generalized and extended to larger situations with great care;

Difficulty, and sometimes simply the impossibility of repeated observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be forced to repeat again for the needs of the sociologist;

The impact on the quality of primary sociological information of the subjective assessments of the observer, his attitudes, stereotypes, etc.

Observation types

Exists several types of observation in sociology. most popular among modern researchers - included surveillance, when the sociologist enters directly into the social process and social group, that they are studied, when he contacts and acts together with those whom he observes. This allows you to explore the phenomenon from the inside, to delve deeply into the essence of the problem (in our case, the conflict), to understand the reasons for its occurrence and aggravation. Field observation occurs in natural conditions: in workshops, services, construction, etc. Laboratory observation requires the creation of specially equipped premises. There are systematic and random observations, structural (that is, such that they are carried out according to a plan developed in advance) and non-structural (for which only the object of the survey is determined).

Method of experiment in sociology

Experiment as a method of research developed primarily in natural science. L. Zhmud believes that the first experiment recorded in the scientific literature belongs to the ancient philosopher and scientist Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC). He used a monochord - an instrument with one string stretched over a ruler with 12 marks - in order to find out the relationship between the pitch of a musical tone and the length of the string. Through this experiment, Pythagoras invented the mathematical description of harmonic musical intervals: the octave (12:v), fourth (12:9) and fifth (12:8). V. Grechikhin is of the opinion that the first scientist who put experiment on a scientific basis was Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), one of the founders of exact natural science. Based scientific experiments he came to the conclusion about the correctness of the teachings of M. Copernicus about the structure of the universe. Sentenced by the Inquisition, G. Galileo exclaimed: "And yet it rotates!", referring to the rotation of the Earth around the Sun and around its own axis.

The idea of ​​the possibility of using the experiment in the social sciences was put forward by the French scientist P.-S. Laplace (1749-1827) 1814 in the book "The Philosophical Experience of Probability". In the study of society, in his opinion, it is possible to apply such methods of the probabilistic approach as sampling, the creation of parallel control groups, etc. Consequently, it is possible to develop ways to quantitatively describe society and social problems and phenomena.

Discussion around the experimental method

However, V. Comte, E. Durkheim, M. Weber and others denied attempts to use the experimental method in the study of social problems. In their opinion, main difficulties The use of experiment in sociology are:

Complexity, multifactoriality and diversity of social processes;

Difficulties, and even impossibility of their formalization and quantitative description;

The integrity and consistency of dependencies, the difficulty of clearly elucidating the effect of any single factor on a social phenomenon;

The mediation of external influences through the human psyche;

The inability to provide an unambiguous interpretation of the behavior of a person or a social community, etc.

However, since the 1920s, the scope of experiment in the social sciences has gradually expanded. This is associated with the rapid growth of empirical research, the improvement of survey procedures, the development of mathematical logic, statistics and probability theory. Now the experiment rightly belongs to the recognized methods of sociological research.

scope, purpose and logic of the experiment

An experiment in sociology - this is a means of obtaining information about quantitative and qualitative changes in the performance and behavior of an object as a result of the impact on it of certain factors (variables) that can be controlled and controlled. As V. Grechikhin notes, the use of an experiment in sociology is expedient when it is necessary to perform tasks related to the response of one or another social group on internal and external factors that are introduced from the outside in artificially created and controlled conditions. The main purpose of its implementation is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice, to a variety of management decisions.

General the logic of the experiment consists in:

Selecting a specific experimental group;

Placed her in an unusual experimental situation, under the influence of a certain factor;

Tracking the direction, magnitude and constancy of variables, which are called control and occurred due to the action of the introduced factor.

Varieties of experiments

Among varieties of experiment can be called field (when the group is in the natural conditions of its functioning) and laboratory (when the experimental situation and groups are artificially formed). There are also experiments linear (when the same group is analyzed) and parallel (when two groups participate in the experiment: a control group with constant characteristics and an experimental group with changed characteristics). According to the nature of the object and the subject of research, sociological, economic, legal, socio-psychological, pedagogical and other experiments are distinguished. According to the specifics of the task, experiments are divided into scientific (they are aimed at increasing knowledge) and applied (they are aimed at obtaining a practical effect). By the nature of the experimental situation, there are controlled experiments and those where control is not exercised.

In our case, with a conflict situation in production, it is possible to carry out an applied field controlled experiment with the selection of two groups of workers according to the age criterion. This experiment will reveal the dependence of labor productivity on the age of workers. Its implementation will show whether the dismissal of young workers is justified due to insufficient production experience and lower performance indicators than middle-aged workers.

Document analysis method

Method document analysis in sociology is one of the mandatory ones, with which almost all research begins. Documents are divided into statistical (in numerical terms) and verbal (in text form); official (of an official nature) and informal (which do not have official confirmation of their correctness and effectiveness), public and personal etc.

In our case, we can use official statistical and verbal documents of public importance, which record data on the sex and age composition of workers, their level of education, training, marital status, etc., as well as on the results of production activities of various groups of workers. Comparison of these documents makes it possible to establish the dependence of the economic efficiency of workers on their socio-demographic, professional and other characteristics.

Surveys and its scope

The most widespread and frequent in sociology is the method interview. It covers the use of research procedures such as questionnaires, mail surveys, and interviews. A survey is a method of direct or indirect collection of primary verbal (i.e., transmitted in verbal form) information. There are correspondence and direct, standardized (according to a pre-developed plan) and non-standardized (free), one-time and multiple surveys, as well as expert surveys.

The polling method is used in such cases:

When the problem that it is being investigated is not sufficiently provided with documentary sources of information (for example, conflict situations at an enterprise are rarely recorded in a systematic form in official documentation);

When the subject of research or its individual characteristics cannot be observed in full and during the entire existence of this phenomenon (for example, it is possible to observe a conflict situation predominantly in the moment of its exacerbation, and not at the beginning of its occurrence);

When the subject of research is the elements of collective and individual consciousness - thoughts, stereotypes of thinking, etc., and not direct actions and behavior (for example, in the event of a conflict, you can monitor its behavioral manifestations, but it will not give an idea of ​​the motives for people's participation in the conflict , their reasoning about the legitimacy of the actions of both sides of the conflict);

When the survey complements the ability to describe and analyze the studied phenomena and checks the data obtained using other methods.

Questionnaire

Among the types of surveys, a prominent place is occupied by questioning, the main instrument of which is a questionnaire, or questionnaire. At first glance, there is nothing easier and simpler than the development of a questionnaire on any topic related to the problem situation. Each of us in everyday practice constantly asks questions to others, solving many life problem situations with their help. However, in sociology, the question performs the function of a research tool, which puts forward special requirements for its formulation and the reduction of questions into a questionnaire.

Questionnaire structure

First of all, these are the requirements for questionnaire structure, its components should be:

1. Introduction (appeal to respondents with a summary of the topic, purpose, tasks of the survey, the name of the organization or service that carries it out, with instructions on the procedure for filling out the questionnaire, with reference to the anonymity of the survey and the use of its results only for scientific purposes).

2. Blocks of simple questions, neutral in content (except for the cognitive purpose, they provide easier entry of respondents into the survey process, arouse their interest, form a psychological attitude towards cooperation with researchers, and introduce them into the circle of problems discussed).

3. Blocks over difficult questions, which require analysis and reflection, memory activation, increased concentration and attention. It is here that the core of the study is contained, the main primary sociological information is collected.

4. Final questions that should be quite simple, relieve the psychological tension of the respondents, enable them to feel that they took part in important and necessary work.

5. "Passport", or a block with questions that reveal socio-demographic, vocational, educational, ethnic, cultural and other characteristics of respondents (gender, age, marital status, place of residence, nationality, native language, attitude to religion, education, professional training place of work, length of service, etc.).

Questionnaire blocks

The questions of the questionnaire are combined into blocks according to the thematic and problematic principle based on the "tree" and "branches" of interpretation of the main concepts (see the description of the methodological part of the program in Part 1 of the sociological workshop). In our case, the block that concerns the socio-demographic and other personal characteristics of workers and managers should be placed in the "passport", while other blocks are placed in the main part of the questionnaire. These are blocks:

Attitude to work and results of production activities;

The level of social activity;

Level of awareness;

Assessment of the quality of planning;

Evaluation of the organization, content and working conditions;

Characteristics of living conditions;

Characteristics of the causes of the conflict;

Finding out possible ways to resolve the conflict, etc.

Requirements for substantive questions of the questionnaire

There are also requirements for meaningful questions of the questionnaire, formulated by N. Panina as follows.

1. Validity (validity), that is, the degree of correspondence between the questions of the questionnaire and the indicator that is being investigated and completes the operationalization of the concept (see. previous part workshop). In this case, you should be careful about transition from operational levels to the formulation of questions in the questionnaire. For example, sometimes the conflict between workers and managers flares up due to the lack of timely supply of raw materials or semi-finished products. The following questions should then be included in the questionnaire:

"is raw materials/semi-finished products delivered to your workplace on time?";

"If raw materials / semi-finished products are delivered to your workplace on time, then who is responsible for this:

The workers themselves;

supply services;

Sophistical enterprise center;

Transportation Department;

Workshop management;

Enterprise management;

Who else (specify yourself) ____________________________________________

Hard to say;

No answer".

2. conciseness, or a summary of the survey questions. N. Panina rightly points out: every researcher understands what longer have a question, more difficult respondent to understand its content. She adds that experiments in the field of interpersonal communication have established: for most people 11-13 words in a question is the limit of phrase comprehension without significant distortion of its main content.

3. unambiguity, that is, the same understanding by all respondents of exactly the meaning of the question that the researcher put into it. Most frequent error in this sense is the inclusion in the question of several questions at the same time. For example: "What are the main causes of the conflict between workers and management at your enterprise and what measures can help to resolve this conflict?". It must be remembered that only one thought or statement should be formulated in the question.

Open questions

Question entered in the questionnaire, are divided into different types. It can be open questions, when the researcher asks questions and leaves space for the respondent's handwritten response. For example:

"Please indicate what, in your opinion, are the main causes of the conflict between the workers and the administration of your enterprise?"

(space for answer)

Advantage open questions is that they are easy to formulate and that they do not limit the choice of answers that the researcher can provide. Complexity and difficulties arise when it is necessary to process all possible answers and group them according to a certain criterion after receiving sociological information.

Closed questions and their varieties

Closed questions - these are those for which the questionnaire contains, to the best of its ability, a complete set of answer options, and the respondent only has to indicate the option that corresponds to his opinion. Alternative closed questions require respondents to choose only one answer, resulting in the sum of the answers to all options is 100%. For example:

"How do you perform production tasks?"

1. Of course, I overfulfill the production rate (7%).

2. Of course, I fulfill the production rate (43%).

3. Sometimes I do not fulfill the production norms (33%).

4. Practically it is not possible to fulfill production norms (17%).

As you can see, the sum of the answers in percent is 100. Non-alternative closed questions allow respondents to choose several answers to the same question, so their sum preferably exceeds 100%. For example:

"What factors, in your opinion, are the causes of a conflict situation in your work team?"

1. Factors related to gender and age of workers (44%).

2. Factors related to the marital status of workers (9%).

3. Factors related to the attitude of workers to work (13%).

4. Factors related to poor quality planning (66%).

5. Factors associated with imperfect organization of labor on the part of the administration (39%).

As you can see, the sum of the answers in percentage significantly exceeds 100 and indicates the complex nature of the causes of conflicts in the enterprise.

Semi-closed questions - this is their form when all possible answers are listed first, and at the end they leave room for the respondent's own answers, if he believes that none of the given answers reflects his thoughts. In other words, semi-closed questions are a combination of open and closed questions in one.

Question posting forms

Linear form placement of questions involves their wording and hovering below the possible answers, as in the examples given earlier. You can also use at the same time tabular form posting questions and answers. For example: "In your opinion, how have the organization, content and conditions of your work changed during your work at this enterprise?"

There is also such a form of placing questions, which is based on using the scale. For example: "One group of people believes that the main cause of the conflict in the enterprise is the personal characteristics of employees. This thought corresponds to mark 1 on the scale below. Another group of people is convinced that conflicts are due to socio-economic and organizational reasons due to the unsatisfactory performance of the administration. This thought corresponds to a mark of 7 on the scale. What position corresponds to your opinion and where would you place it on this scale?

The responses received give average scores opinions of respondents that can be compared (for example, the average score of workers' answers can be 6.3, and representatives of the administration - 1.8). That is, according to the workers, the causes of conflicts with the administration are not in their personal characteristics, but are caused by the unsatisfactory work of the management personnel in planning production activities, organizing labor, etc. The opinion of representatives of the administration in this case is the opposite: in their opinion, conflicts arise because workers do not perform production tasks due to their low level of qualification, education, insufficient production experience, systematic absenteeism, etc.

From this, the researcher can make the following assumptions:

There is a different understanding of the causes of conflict situations;

There is a tendency to shift the blame for the conflict situation from oneself to others;

Considering this, there is a need to study the origins of conflict situations at this enterprise using other methods of sociological research: experiment, observation, document analysis, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions to obtain reliable sociological information.

Questionnaire coding rules

When the questionnaire is compiled, it is necessary to encode all the questions and answers contained in it, bearing in mind the further processing of the information received on the computer. For this, they usually choose three-digit code. For example, the first question of the questionnaire receives the digital mark 001, and the answer options for it (if there are five of them) are encoded with the numbers 002, 003, 004, 005, 006. Then the next question will receive the number 007, and the answers to it will be encoded by digital numbers that are more distant in order designations 008,009,010 etc. In the case of using a tabular form for placing questions in the questionnaire, it is worth making sure that each position of the answer has its own code. That is the basic principle coding is to ensure that all questions and answers (together with possible answers to open questions) have their own corresponding code.

Qualitative methods of sociological research

Questionnaire is the most common quantitative method obtaining sociological information. However, in sociology there are other, so-called quality methods. American sociologists A. Strause and J. Corbin, in their book on the foundations of qualitative research, understand it as any kind of research in which data is obtained in non-statistical or non-similar ways. They believe that qualitative methods well suited to research on the life histories and behaviors of individuals, organizations, social movements, or interactive relationships. Scholars give the example of a study that attempts to uncover the nature of subjective experience associated with phenomena such as illness, religious conversion, or drug addiction.

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

Areas of application of qualitative methods

At the same time, there are many such areas of research that, by their very nature, are more suitable for qualitative types of analysis. Researchers use them when little is known about a particular phenomenon. their importance is great for research within the framework of the whole interpretative paradigm. So, currently popular are conversational analysis within the framework of symbolic interactionism or qualitative study of the meaning of spiritual interactions (phenomenological sociology). Qualitative methods can provide a clearer picture of the intricate details of a phenomenon that are difficult to obtain with quantitative methods.

Interview as a method of qualitative sociological research

The two most common qualitative methods is interview and focus group discussion (hereinafter FCD). Interview refers to the survey methods of qualitative sociology and is briefly referred to as a way of obtaining information using an oral survey (conversation). Russian sociologists consider interviews to be the second most popular method of empirical sociology after questionnaires. The essence of the interview consists in the fact that a conversation takes place according to a pre-planned plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer (i.e., a specially trained sociologist-executor) and the respondent (the person with whom the researcher conducts this conversation), during which the first scrupulously registers the answers of the second.

Comparing the two most popular methods in sociology - quantitative questioning and qualitative interviewing - Russian scientists determine the advantages and disadvantages of the latter.

Advantages and disadvantages of an interview

The interview is ahead of the survey according to the following parameters:

There are practically no unanswered questions;

Vague or inconsistent answers can be clarified;

Observation of the respondent ensures the fixation of both verbal responses and his direct non-verbal reactions, which enriches sociological information by receiving and taking into account the emotions and feelings of the respondents.

As a result of the foregoing, sociological data obtained through interviews are more complete, deep, versatile and reliable compared to questionnaires, where there is no live dialogue between the researcher and the respondent, since the contact is mediated by the questionnaire.

The main limitations The method of interviewing lies in the fact that it can be used to interview a very small number of respondents, and the number of interviewers should be as large as possible, in addition, they require special training. To this must be added a significant investment of time and money, especially for the training of interviewers, because different types of interviews require different sets of knowledge and skills.

Types of interview

Russian researchers highlight three typological groups according to criteria such as the degree of standardization of questions, the number of topics discussed and the number of respondents. In turn, they all have intra-group varieties. If the criterion is degree of standardization, the interview is divided into:

1. formalized (conversation according to a detailed program, questions, answer options).

2. semi-structured (when researchers identify only the main questions around which the conversation unfolds with the spontaneous inclusion of previously unplanned questions).

3. informal (that is, a longer conversation on a general program, but without specific questions).

that number, what is being discussed can be highlighted focused (an in-depth discussion of one topic) and unfocused (talk around various topics) interview. And finally, depending on number of respondents stand out individual (or personal) interview with one interviewee face to face, without outside presence, and group interview (that is, a conversation of one interviewer with several people).

Focus group discussion

Group interviews in the form of a focus group quickly emerged as a separate research method in qualitative sociology. D. Stewart and P. Shamdesani believe that they were the first to use a focused interview. which over time was reformatted into a modern focus group discussion, G. Merton and P. Lazarsfeld in 1941 to study the effectiveness of the radio. The essence of the FOM method consists in organizing a group discussion around several related and predetermined questions (no more than 10 in number) in accordance with a predetermined plan, which is conducted by a moderator. Optimal quantity FGD participants are estimated differently by different scientists: in foreign studies of this kind, usually from 6 to 10 people take part, their number can reach 12, but not more. Due

By this, Russian sociologists believe that the group should not be too large, because then it will become uncontrollable, or the discussion will unfold only between individual participants. At the same time, the group should not be too small to be different from an interview with one person, because the essence of the method is to identify and compare several points of view on the same range of issues. AT one study (as in our case with a conflict situation at the enterprise) 2 to 6 focus group discussions are held. The focus group lasts no more than 1.5-2 hours. For our study, it is advisable to create at least

4 focus groups, which include representatives of the conflicting parties (employees and representatives of the administration), representatives of a trade union or public organization, etc. S. Grigoriev and Yu. Rastov formulate a rule: people with different views on the issues that are submitted for discussion should be invited to the same group. The moderator manages the conversation-discussion, which takes place in an arbitrary form, but according to a specific scheme. The process of conducting FGD is recorded on videotape with its subsequent processing, resulting in FOM result - the text of the entire discussion (or transcript).

Rationale for methods

A sociological research program is considered complete when it contains not only a simple list of methods for collecting primary sociological information, but also justification their choice; the connection between the methods of collecting information and the goals, objectives and hypotheses of the study was demonstrated. For example, if survey method, then it is advisable to indicate in the program that in order to solve such and such a problem and confirm such and such a hypothesis, such and such a block of questions of the questionnaire was produced. In our case, it would be appropriate to use various methods research of a conflict situation: observation, experiment, document analysis, survey, etc.; their application will make it possible to analyze various aspects of the conflict situation in all its complexity, eliminate one-sidedness in the assessment of the conflict, deeply clarify the essence of the reasons that led to its occurrence, possible ways to solve the problem.

Sociological information processing programs

The program also needs to specify which computer programs primary sociological information will be processed. For example, in the case of a survey, computer processing of the information received can be carried out using two programs:

The Ukrainian OCA program (i.e., the software processing of sociological questionnaires compiled by A. Gorbachik, which now exists in several versions. This program was developed on the basis of the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology at the University of Kiev-Mohyla Academy and can be considered quite sufficient for primary processing of received data);

The American program SPSS (i.e., the statistical program for the social sciences. It is used in cases where it is necessary to carry out a deeper analysis of data, mainly by professional sociologists).

Sociological research - it is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, connected by a single goal - to obtain reliable data on the phenomenon under study for their subsequent practical application.

It follows from the definition that sociological research has three levels: methodological, methodical and procedural. Under methodological level refers to a set of common theoretical principles and provisions on the basis of which research is conducted, their results are interpreted. Methodical level reflects a set of specific techniques and methods for collecting and processing empirical data. procedural level characterizes the direct organization of the study itself.

Depending on the tasks to be solved, there are three main types of sociological research: intelligence, descriptive and analytical.

intelligence research(it is sometimes called pilotage or probing) - the simplest type of sociological research, aimed at obtaining operational sociological information. A type of exploratory research is express survey, whose task is to reveal the attitude of people to current events and facts (the so-called probing of public opinion).

Descriptive research - a more complex type of sociological research that involves obtaining information that gives a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study.

Analytical research - the deepest type of sociological research, which aims not only to describe the phenomenon under study, but also to clarify the cause-and-effect relationships between its characteristics. A type of analytical research is experiment, which in sociology serves not so much as a method of collecting information, but as a test of the hypothesis put forward.

According to the frequency of conducting, one-time and repeated sociological studies are distinguished. One-time study(it is also called point) provides information about the state of the object of analysis at the time of its study. Repeat studies make it possible to obtain data reflecting the change in the studied social object, its dynamics. There are two types of iterations - panel and longitudinal. The former provide for the repeated study of the same social objects at certain intervals of time, the latter examine the same set of individuals for many years.

Finally, according to the scale, sociological research is divided into international, national, regional, branch, local.

There are three stages in empirical sociological research: preparatory, main and final.

I. On preparatory stage is developing research programs, which is a statement of the main tasks, methodological principles, hypotheses, rules of procedure and logical sequential operations for testing the stated assumptions.

The methodological section of the program consists of the following elements:

formulation of the problem, object and subject of research;

determination of the purpose and objectives of the study;

interpretation of basic concepts;

preliminary system analysis object of study;

putting forward hypotheses.

The methodological section of the program includes:

specification general scheme research;

determination of the surveyed set of social objects;

characteristics of methods, basic procedures and procedures for collecting, processing and analyzing primary empirical data.

The program should clearly indicate whether the study is continuous or selective. Solid research covers general population, which is understood as the totality of all possible social objects to be studied. Sample study covers sampling set (sample), i.e., only a part of the objects of the general population, selected according to special parameters. Sample must be representative, i.e. reflect the main characteristics of the general population. The study is considered representative (reliable) if the deviation of the sample from the general population does not exceed 5%.

II. On the main stage research is collecting sociological information. The main methods of collecting empirical data include survey, observation and documentary method.

1. Sociological survey - this is the most common method of collecting primary information, involving a written or oral appeal to a group of people called respondents.

Written surveys are called questioning. Questioning can be individual or collective, face-to-face or correspondence (for example, through the mail, newspaper or magazine).

The central problem of a questionnaire survey is the correct formulation of questions, which should be formulated clearly, unambiguously, accessible, in accordance with the solution of research problems. Questionnaire questions can be classified according to the following criteria:

Form: open (without pre-formulated answers), semi-closed (along with these answer options, free answers are provided), closed (with pre-formulated answer options);

Functions: basic (aimed at collecting information on the topic of the survey), non-core (filter questions to identify the addressee of the main question and control questions to check the sincerity of the respondent).

Oral surveys are called interviewing. The main difference between a questionnaire survey and a sociological interview is in the form of contact between the researcher and the respondent: when questioning, it is carried out using questionnaires, and when interviewing, through direct communication. The interview has a certain advantage: if the respondent finds it difficult to answer, he can ask the interviewer for help.

A sociological interview can be direct (“face to face”) and indirect (telephone interview), individual and group, single and multiple. Finally, in applied sociology, three types of interviews are distinguished: standardized (conducted according to a predetermined plan), focused (less formalized interview, the purpose of which is to collect information on a specific issue) and free (in the form of a casual conversation).

2. Sociological observation - this is a method of collecting primary data by directly perceiving a phenomenon, the properties and features of which are recorded by the researcher. The forms and methods of such fixation can be very different: entries in a form or observation diary, photo or film, audio or video recording, etc.

In sociology there are included and unincluded observation. With included observation, the researcher is to some extent included in the object under study and is in direct contact with the observed. Non-included is such an observation in which the researcher is outside the object under study.

As a rule, the method of observation in specific sociological studies is used in combination with other methods of collecting factual material.

3. Documentary Method - it is a way of obtaining sociological information by studying documents. This method is associated with the use of two main methods of analysis of documentary materials: traditional, involving the disclosure of the content of documents, and formalized, associated with a quantitative approach to the study of documentary sources. The latter was named content analysis.

The use of content analysis is advisable in the following cases:

when a high degree of accuracy or objectivity of the analysis is required;

when studying large arrays of documents (press, recordings of radio and television programs, etc.);

when processing answers to open questions of questionnaires.

A variation of the documentary method is the documentary-biographical method, in which, by studying personal documents (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, etc.), information is extracted that allows one to explore society through the life of a particular individual. This method is more often used in historical sociological research.

III. Final stage sociological research involves the processing, analysis and interpretation of data, obtaining empirically based generalizations, conclusions and recommendations. The data processing and analysis process includes the following sequential steps:

1) editing information, the main purpose of which is the verification and unification of the received data. At this stage, poor-quality completed questionnaires are culled;

2) encoding information - translation of data into the language of formalized processing and analysis;

3) statistical analysis, during which statistical regularities are revealed, allowing the researcher to make a definition of generalization and conclusions. For statistical analysis sociologists use programs of mathematical and statistical processing.

The results of a sociological study are drawn up in the form of a report, which includes a description of the study, analysis of empirical material, theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations.

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