The term R&D (Research and Development) means "Research and Development" or R&D. These works are aimed at obtaining new knowledge and its application in practical life.
For companies that know firsthand what R&D is in management and, accordingly, are oriented towards R&D, this means being at the forefront in creating new types of products and (or) services and promoting them on the markets.
The research institutes and design bureaus that were widespread in the Soviet period carried out similar developments, mainly in the field of weapons. But not only, but, for example, in the fundamental fields of science and, practically, in all sectors of that economy. In modern times, many companies also use R&D as an important element of their development strategy and detuning from competitors.
But this strategy has its problem areas. First of all, it is the cost of such projects and their payback periods. Modern business does not even make it possible to spend a lot of time on development, their development, implementation, and promotion. And what can we say about small and medium-sized businesses.
However, if a company considers R&D to be an important element of its development, then it should not skimp on such projects. Companies of this kind create their own research centers, attract leading specialists and scientists to them on a permanent basis and as temporary consultants. They create for them the conditions required for research, experimental development, industrial serial development.
Automobile companies, together with automotive component manufacturers, create new car models, and this is a prime example of R&D.
Food companies, in cooperation with manufacturers of food components and raw materials, constantly offer their consumers new types of products, and this is also R&D.
Various gadgets (computers, smartphones, tablets, phones, etc.) are constantly developing, and this is also a consequence of ongoing R&D. Similar examples can be brought in any industry, in many areas of commercial and non-commercial activities of enterprises.
The most important element of the R&D (Research and Development) strategy is the speed of research and development, you need to have time to do it ahead of competitors. And here a very essential element of the business of such companies is the protection of intellectual property so that the developments are not used with impunity by competitors who are eager to be the first to make and offer consumers what more successful business rivals invented and designed.
Despite the complexity of organizing R&D, despite the costs associated with "designing the future", many companies, including small ones, use R&D as a competitive tool. Not only new products are being designed, but also new types of services, which is also important in competition for consumers.
In large corporations, under R&D (Research and Development), not only separate divisions are created, but also entire enterprises, research institutes. Small companies can create R&D departments, or they can implement R&D functions in conjunction with marketing or production. That is, small companies may have an R&D function, but not have a specially dedicated unit in the organizational structure for this. Regardless of the form of implementation, the R&D function, if it is present in the company, allows the enterprise to develop through the creation of new types of products and (or) services.
About R&D organization
In R&D (Research and Development), as a rule, design organization of work. Each the new kind product or service is a separate project. Projects may overlap or even merge into so-called mega-projects. To manage such projects or megaprojects, it is convenient to use project management methods, project organization of work. In each project, a project manager can be appointed, who develops a project plan, attracts executors to the project, forms and protects the project budget.
Unlike processes, which are one of the most modern forms enterprise management, projects can also be considered as processes, but having a limited lifetime. The project must always be completed, while the process can exist in the company almost indefinitely.
Completion of projects is their most important feature.
This is what allows, with the correct use of project management mechanisms, to achieve the completion of projects, and with a positive result. It should not be thought that the project itself is already a success. No. Success can only be considered a fully completed project, completed in deadlines within the planned budgets.
R&D example
Example R&D is experience Apple, in which R&D (Research and Development) was and still remains (?) the basis of its progressive development. Will it stay on? What do its leaders think about this topic after the departure of Steve Jobs - certainly one of the brightest project managers in the world?
This company has almost the same long history as Microsoft, but in this case we are talking not only about computers, but also about a wider range of equipment and electronics that this company produces.
Given that it appeared in America, and sales are all over the world, this company can be called transnational and international, since most of the parts for equipment are not produced in America, but in other countries. In addition, some of the models are not only produced, but also assembled abroad, which means that such a principle of operation definitely allows us to consider this corporation international. Besides a large number of employees who work in this company (and this is more than 65 thousand people) are multinational, so the question of how to call Apple in this case is resolved.
Until 2007, the second word was present in the company's name, but it was decided to remove it, since the company produced not only computers, but also other equipment. By the way, the range of products produced is quite wide, because if earlier it created only computers, now there are players, phones, laptops and netbooks, as well as tablets.
In addition, it is planned to create a number of devices that will also occupy their niche in the market. Well, it seems that the company has become very successful, because its phones are the most recognizable, and its computers, created on the principle of monoblocks, also have good characteristics.
At the same time, a lot of scandals are connected with the company, but everything that Apple now has was created or borrowed during the life of its founder, Steve Jobs. Currently, the development of the company has slowed down, despite the fact that the new management is trying to take the company to a new level.
Its revenues have not fallen, they are more than 25 billion dollars a year. But at the same time, the company has done almost nothing in the last two years, while before each year brought people new devices.
Now it remains only to wait for the moment when the next head of the company will make a decision on how to create new devices, and whether people need them. The company's shares have not risen to the level of two years ago, although all the products it announced are actively bought. At the same time, it does not produce any revolutions in the world of technology, continuing its smooth development.
Research work (R&D) – these are scientific developments related to the search, conducting research, experiments in order to obtain new knowledge, test hypotheses, establish patterns, and scientifically substantiate projects.
Research and development activities are regulated by the following normative documents: GOST 15.101-98 "Procedure for performing research", GOST 7.32-2001 "Formation of a report on research", STB-1080-2011 "Procedure for performing research, development and experimental-technological work to create scientific and technical products" and etc. (Appendix 10).
Distinguish fundamental, search and applied R&D.
As a rule, fundamental and research works are not included in the life cycle of a product, however, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into applied R&D.
Basic Research can be divided into "clean" (free) and target.
"Pure" basic research- these are studies, the main purpose of which is the disclosure and knowledge of the unknown laws and patterns of nature and society, the causes of phenomena and the disclosure of the links between them, as well as an increase in the volume scientific knowledge. In "pure" research, there is freedom to choose the field of research and methods of scientific work.
Targeted fundamental research are aimed at solving certain problems using strictly scientific methods based on available data. They are limited to a certain area of science, and their goal is not only to know the laws of nature and society, but also to explain phenomena and processes, to better understand the object under study, and to expand human knowledge.
This fundamental research can be called goal-oriented. They retain the freedom to choose methods of work, but unlike “pure” fundamental research, there is no freedom to choose objects of research, the area and purpose of research are tentatively set (for example, the development of a controlled thermonuclear reaction).
Basic Research conducted by academic research institutes and universities. Results of fundamental research - theories, discoveries, new principles of action. The probability of their use is 5 - 10%.
Exploratory research cover works aimed at studying the ways and means of practical application of the results of fundamental research. Their implementation implies the possibility of alternative directions for solving an applied problem and the choice of the most promising direction for its solution. They are based on the well-known results of fundamental research, although as a result of the search, their main provisions may be revised.
The main goal of exploratory research– using the results of fundamental research for practical application in various fields in the near future (for example, searching for and identifying opportunities for using a laser in practice).
Exploratory research can include work on the creation of fundamentally new materials, metal processing technologies, the study and development of scientific foundations for optimizing technological processes, the search for new medicines, analysis of the biological effect on the body of new chemical compounds etc.
Exploratory research has varieties: exploratory research of a wide profile without a special application to a particular industry and a narrowly focused nature to address issues of specific industries.
Search work is carried out in universities, academic and industry research institutes. In individual branch institutes of industry and other branches National economy specific gravity search works reaches 10%.
Probability practical use exploratory research about 30%.
Applied Research (R&D) are one of the stages life cycle creation of new types of products. These include studies that are carried out with the aim of practical use of the results of fundamental and exploratory research in relation to specific tasks.
The purpose of applied R&D is to answer the question “is it possible to create a new type of product, materials or technological processes based on the results of fundamental and exploratory R&D, and with what characteristics”.
Applied research is carried out mainly in branch research institutes. The results of applied research - patentable schemes, scientific recommendations proving technical capability creation of innovations (machines, devices, technologies). At this stage, a market target can be set with a high degree of probability. The probability of practical use of applied research is 75 - 85%.
R&D consists of stages (stages), which are understood as a logically justified set of works that has independent significance and is the object of planning and financing.
The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.
According to GOST 15.101-98 "Procedure for performing research" the main stages of research are:
1. Development of terms of reference (TOR)– selection and study of scientific and technical literature, patent information and other materials on the topic, discussion of the data obtained, on the basis of which an analytical review is compiled, hypotheses and forecasts are put forward, customer requirements are taken into account. Based on the results of the analysis, research directions and ways of implementing the requirements that the product must satisfy are selected. Reporting scientific and technical documentation for the stage is compiled, the necessary performers are determined, the terms of reference are prepared and issued.
At the stage of development of the terms of reference for research, the following types information:
· object of study;
description of the requirements for the object of study;
List of functions of the object of study of a general technical nature;
a list of physical and other effects, regularities and theories that can be the basis of the principle of operation of a new product;
technical solutions (in predictive studies);
· information about the scientific and technical potential of the R&D performer;
Information about production and material resources executor of research;
· marketing research;
data on the expected economic effect.
Additionally, the following information is used:
methods for solving individual problems;
general technical requirements (standards, environmental and other restrictions, requirements for reliability, maintainability, ergonomics, and so on);
Projected terms of product renewal;
· offers of licenses and "know-how" on the object of research.
2. Choice of research direction– collection and study of scientific and technical information, drawing up an analytical review, conducting patent research, formulating possible directions solving the tasks set in the TOR of R&D and their comparative evaluation, selection and justification of the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems, comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of R&D results with existing indicators of analogue products, assessment of the approximate economic efficiency of new products, development of a general methodology conducting research. Preparation of an interim report.
3. Conducting theoretical, experimental research– development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions, scientific and technical ideas, research methods are developed, the choice of various kinds of schemes is justified, calculation and research methods are selected, the need for experimental work is revealed, and methods for their implementation are developed.
If the need for experimental work is determined, design and manufacture of mock-ups and an experimental sample are carried out.
Bench and field experimental tests of the sample are carried out according to the developed programs and methods, the test results are analyzed, the degree of compliance of the data obtained on the experimental sample with the calculated and theoretical conclusions is determined.
If there are deviations from the TOR, then the experimental sample is being finalized, additional tests, if necessary, changes are made to the developed schemes, calculations, technical documentation.
4. Registration of research results- preparation of reporting documentation on the results of research, including materials on the novelty and expediency of using the results of research, on economic efficiency. If positive results are obtained, then scientific and technical documentation and draft terms of reference for development work are developed. The compiled and executed set of scientific and technical documentation is presented to the customer for acceptance. If private technical solutions are new, then they are issued through the patent service, regardless of the completion of the preparation of all technical documentation. The leader of the topic, before presenting the research work to the commission, draws up a notice of its readiness for acceptance.
5. Subject acceptance– discussion and approval of the results of research (scientific and technical report) and the signing of the customer's act on acceptance of the work. If positive results are obtained and the acceptance certificate is signed, the developer transfers to the customer:
An experimental sample of a new product accepted by the commission;
Protocols of acceptance tests and acts of acceptance of a prototype (dummy) of the product;
Calculations of economic efficiency of using the development results;
Necessary design and technological documentation for the production of an experimental sample.
The developer takes part in the design and development of a new product and, along with the customer, is responsible for achieving the product performance guaranteed by him.
The comprehensive implementation of research on a specific target program allows not only to solve a scientific and technical problem, but also to create a sufficient reserve for more efficient and high-quality development work, design and technological pre-production, as well as significantly reduce the amount of improvements and the timing of the creation and development of a new technology.
Experimental design developments (R&D). Continuation of applied R&D are technical developments: experimental design (R&D), design and technological (PTR) and design (PR) developments. At this stage, new technological processes are developed, samples of new products, machines and devices, etc. are created.
R&D is regulated by:
· STB 1218-2000. Development and production of products. Terms and Definitions.
· STB-1080-2011. “Procedure for the implementation of research, development and development work on the creation of scientific and technical products”.
· TCP 424-2012 (02260). The procedure for the development and production of products. Technical code. The provisions of the technical code apply to work on the creation of new or improved products (services, technologies), including the creation of innovative products.
· GOST R 15.201-2000, System for the development and production of products. Products for industrial and technical purposes. The procedure for the development and production of products.
and others (see Appendix 10).
The purpose of the development work is the development of a set of working design documentation in the volume and quality of mining, sufficient for putting into production a certain kind products (GOST R 15.201-2000).
Development work in its objectives is a consistent implementation of the results of previously conducted applied research.
Development work is mainly carried out by design and engineering organizations. The material result of this stage is drawings, projects, standards, instructions, prototypes. The probability of practical use of the results is 90 - 95%.
Main types of work that are included in the OKR:
1) preliminary design (development of fundamental technical solutions of the product, giving a general idea of the principle of operation and (or) the device of the product);
2) technical design (development of final technical solutions that give a complete picture of the product design);
3) design (design implementation of technical solutions);
4) modeling, pilot production of product samples;
5) confirmation of technical solutions and their design implementation by testing layouts and prototypes.
Typical stages OKRs are:
1. Technical task - the source document, on the basis of which all work is carried out to create a new product, developed by the manufacturer of the product and agreed with the customer (main consumer). Approved by the lead ministry (whose profile the product under development belongs to).
In the terms of reference, the purpose of the future product is determined, its technical and operational parameters and characteristics are carefully substantiated: performance, dimensions, speed, reliability, durability and other indicators due to the nature of the work of the future product. It also contains information on the nature of production, conditions of transportation, storage and repair, recommendations on the implementation of the necessary stages of development of design documentation and its composition, a feasibility study and other requirements.
The development of the terms of reference is based on the performed research work, marketing research information, analysis of existing similar models and their operating conditions.
When developing TOR for R&D, information is used similar to that for the development of TOR for R&D (see above).
After coordination and approval, the technical task is the basis for the development of a draft design.
2. Preliminary design consists of a graphic part and an explanatory note. The first part contains the main Constructive decisions, giving an idea about the product and the principle of its operation, as well as data that determine the purpose, main parameters and dimensions. It gives an idea of the future design of the product, including general drawings, functional blocks, input and output electrical data of all nodes (blocks) that make up the overall block diagram.
At this stage, documentation for the manufacture of mock-ups is developed, they are manufactured and tested, after which the design documentation is corrected. The second part of the preliminary design contains the calculation of the main design parameters, a description of the operational features and an approximate work schedule for the technical preparation of production.
The layout of the product allows you to achieve a successful layout of individual parts, find more correct aesthetic and ergonomic solutions and thereby speed up the development of design documentation at subsequent stages.
The tasks of the preliminary design include the development of guidelines for ensuring manufacturability, reliability, standardization and unification at subsequent stages, as well as drawing up a list of specifications for materials and components for prototypes for their subsequent transfer to the logistics service.
The draft design goes through the same stages of approval and approval as the terms of reference.
3. Technical project is developed on the basis of an approved preliminary design and provides for the implementation of the graphic and calculation parts, as well as the refinement of the technical and economic indicators of the product being created. It consists of a set of design documents containing the final technical solutions that give a complete picture of the design of the product being developed and the initial data for the development of working documentation.
The graphic part of the technical project contains drawings of a general view of the designed product, assemblies in the assembly and main parts. Drawings must be coordinated with technologists.
The explanatory note contains a description and calculation of the parameters of the main assembly units and basic parts of the product, a description of the principles of its operation, justification for the choice of materials and types protective coatings, description of all schemes and final technical and economic calculations. At this stage, when developing product options, a prototype is manufactured and tested. The technical project goes through the same stages of approval and approval as the terms of reference.
4. working draft is a further development and concretization of the technical project. This stage is divided into three levels: development of working documentation for an experimental batch (prototype); development of working documentation for the installation series; development of working documentation for serial or mass production.
The result of the R&D is a set of working design documentation (RKD) for putting a new type of product into production.
Working design documentation (RKD)- a set of design documents intended for the manufacture, control, acceptance, delivery, operation and repair of the product. Along with the term "working design documentation", the terms "working technological documentation" and "working technical documentation" are used with a similar definition. working documentation depending on the scope of use, it is divided into production, operational and repair design documentation.
Thus, the result of R&D, in other words, scientific and technical products (STP) is a set of design documentation. Such a set of RKD may contain:
actual design documentation,
software documentation
operational documentation.
In some cases, if it is provided for by the requirements of the terms of reference, the technological documentation may also be included in the working technical documentation.
Various stages R&D as they are carried out should contain their characteristic results, such results are:
· technical documentation based on the results of preliminary design;
· layouts, experimental and prototypes made in the course of R&D;
The results of testing prototypes: preliminary (PI), interdepartmental (MI), acceptance (PriI), state (GI), etc.
Similar information.
Research and development work (R&D) is the conduct of fundamental and applied research, experimental development, the purpose of which is the creation of new products and technologies.
R&D: accounting and tax accounting in 2019
To accept R&D for accounting, certain conditions must be met (clause 7 PBU 17/02):
- the amount of R&D expenses is determined and can be confirmed;
- it is possible to document the performance of work (for example, there is an act of acceptance of work performed);
- the use of R&D results for production or management needs will lead to income in the future;
- the use of R&D results can be demonstrated.
If at least one of the conditions is not met, then the costs associated with R&D are written off to account 91 "Other income and expenses", subaccount "Other expenses".
Account 91 also includes those R&D expenses that did not produce a positive result.
Accounting for R&D as intangible assets
R&D expenses are collected on the debit of account 08 “Investments in non-current assets”, sub-account “R&D performance” from the credit of accounts:
- 10 "Materials";
- 70 “Settlements with personnel for wages”, 69 “Settlement for social insurance and security”;
- 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets";
- 60 "Settlements with suppliers and contractors", etc.
Completed R&D expenses are written off from account 08 to the debit of account 04 "Intangible assets".
From the 1st day of the month following the month in which the actual application of R&D results is started, R&D expenses are written off:
Debit of account 20 “Main production”, 25 “General production expenses”, 44 “Sale expenses” - Credit of account 04 “Intangible assets”.
R&D expenses are written off over the period that is set as the time period for the R&D benefits. In this case, a linear method or a write-off method is used in proportion to the volume of output (clause 11 PBU 17/02). It is important to keep in mind that this period cannot be more than 5 years (clause 11 PBU 17/02)
R&D tax accounting
R&D expenses for profit taxation purposes are taken into account in the period in which these works are completed (clause 4, article 262 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation), and are accepted as a reduction in the income tax base, regardless of their effectiveness. At the same time, if, as a result of R&D, an organization receives exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity, then they are recognized as intangible assets and are subject to depreciation or are accounted for in other expenses within 2 years (
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3
Research…………………………………………………………………………….4
Concept…………………………………………………………........4
Types of R&D………………………………………………………………4
Regulatory documents………………………………………….5
OKR…………………………………………………………………………….7
Concept………………………………………………………………7
Regulatory documents………………………………………….7
R&D organization…………………………………………………………9
Values of R&D in the development of the country……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
R&D in Russia, investments…………………………………………...15
Conducting R&D in Russia. Myths and reality…………………...16
Conclusion…………………………………………………………18
References………………………………………………...19
Introduction:
Constant modernization and optimization of production is simply necessary and promises enterprises not only profit growth, but also the release of unique, superior products, which will lead to a leading position in the market. However, the interest in R&D in our country is negligible compared to Western countries. The state allocates hundreds of millions for scientific research and still the result is almost not noticeable. We, as students whose future work is closely related to innovation, need to understand: at what level is this system at the moment, what are the reasons for this and whether there are prospects for its development.
Research work (R&D): A set of theoretical or experimental studies carried out in order to obtain reasonable initial data, find principles and ways to create or modernize products.
The basis for the implementation of research is the terms of reference (hereinafter: TOR) for the implementation of research or a contract with the customer. The role of the customer can be: technical committees for standardization, organizations, enterprises, associations, associations, concerns, joint-stock companies and other business entities, regardless of the organizational and legal form of ownership and subordination, as well as government bodies directly related to the development, production, operation and repair of products.
There are the following types of R&D:
Fundamental R&D: research work, the result of which are:
Expansion of theoretical knowledge.
Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area;
Scientific bases, methods and principles of research.
Exploratory R&D: research work, the result of which are:
Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology;
Discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns.
Applied R&D: research work, the result of which are:
Solving specific scientific problems to create new products.
Determination of the possibility of conducting R & D (experimental design development) on the subject of research.
Research work is regulated by the following documents:
GOST 15.101 it reflects:
general requirements for the organization and implementation of research work;
the procedure for the implementation and acceptance of R&D;
stages of research, rules for their implementation and acceptance
GOST 15.201 it reflects:
TK requirements
GOST 7.32 it reflects:
Research report requirements
Experimental design work (R&D) is a stage of innovative activity in the development of new or modernization of existing products, which includes work performed at all stages of the development of design documentation, the manufacture of a prototype, and testing. R&D is carried out both on the basis of the results of scientific research, and when implementing a new constructive idea, improving the product through the use of new structural materials or components.
Development work is regulated by the following documents:
GOST R 15.201 it reflects:
Development of technical specifications for R&D;
Development of documentation;
Manufacturing and testing of prototypes of products;
Acceptance of product development results;
Preparation and development of production.
GOST series 2.100 which reflect:
Types and completeness of design documents are established in accordance with GOST 2.102
Basic requirements for drawings in accordance with GOST 2.106,
Designation of products and design documents in accordance with GOST 2.201,
General requirements for text documents in accordance with GOST 2.105,
Forms and rules for the execution of text documents (VS, VD, VP, PT, TP, EP, PZ, RR) in accordance with GOST 2.106.
Chapter 38 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation reflects in it:
Article 769 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Contracts for the performance of research, development and technological work
Article 770 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Execution of works
Article 771 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Confidentiality of information constituting the subject of the contract
Article 772 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. The rights of the parties to the results of work
Article 773 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Contractor's obligations
Article 774 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Customer Responsibilities
Article 775 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Consequences of the impossibility of achieving the results of research work
Article 776 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Consequences of the inability to continue development and technological work
Article 777 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Contractor's liability for breach of contract
Article 778 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Legal regulation of contracts for the performance of research, development and technological work
R&D
In the process of performing R&D, sometimes it becomes necessary to conduct research. That is, the stages of R&D and R&D can alternate sequentially, and sometimes combined (R&D). Because the main task This work is the study of the organization of R&D systems at the enterprises of the machine-building and metallurgical industries, we will not consider the stages of carrying out these works separately, but we will consider the stages of R&D.
Stages of R&D:
Conducting research, developing a technical proposal;
Development of technical specifications for development work.
Development
Development of a draft design;
Development of a technical project;
Development of working design documentation for the manufacture of a prototype;
Production of a prototype;
Testing a prototype;
Development of documentation
Approval of working design documentation for the organization of industrial production of products.
Supply of products for production and operation
Correction of design documentation for identified hidden shortcomings;
Development of operational documentation.
Development of working design documentation for repair work.
Retirement
Development of working design documentation for recycling.
The importance of R&D in the development of the country on the example of the metallurgical and engineering industries.
Metallurgy and mechanical engineering are comprehensive, interdependent industries.
The results of their activities have a significant impact on the well-being of the country. Therefore, for the stable development and prosperity of the state, constant modernization and optimization of production is necessary. During this process, the enterprise should pay attention not only to profit maximization, through development and research aimed at making it easier and more economical to obtain finished products, but also for the solution environmental issues. Such as: reducing emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, environmentally friendly disposal of production waste, reducing water pollution, etc. The example of Western countries clearly shows the prospects for developing R&D and attracting investment from the private sector. It's no secret that Germany occupies a leading position in the international engineering market, and the efficiency of the economy of this country is highly dependent on success in this market. Such a situation would be simply impossible without the constant modernization of not only products but also production. More than 4,000 patent applications are filed by German mechanical engineering companies every year. It is especially noteworthy that the initiators of R&D are the enterprises themselves.
Relationships between R&D in metallurgy and mechanical engineering
First of all, it should be noted that the results of research and development activities in these industries have a mutual influence on each other. And, often, they act as initiators, and sometimes customers, for their implementation. For example: for the development of the military industry, which includes all branches of engineering, and, as a result, to increase the country's defense capability, new materials are simply needed that have unique, more advanced properties than the old models. Let's consider this process in more detail using the example of aviation technology: the first aircraft that took to the air had a simple in-line four-piston engine. Later, used for forty years. Of course, its design has undergone many changes during this time and was close to ideal, but the requirements for aviation continued to grow and it was impossible to satisfy them through further modernization. A new, innovative solution was required, and they became an air-jet engine. it was distinguished not only by technical characteristics, but also by the principle of operation, which, of course, is a merit in the developments of the engineering industry. However, despite the fact that aircraft equipped with this type of engine were faster than their predecessors and had a higher “ceiling”, their use did not become widespread at that time. The reason for this was that they were much heavier, required more fuel and had higher takeoff and landing speeds than their piston counterparts, which means they were less maneuverable, the flight distance was shorter, and they needed long airfields to take off. And, just at that moment, it became necessary to modernize not the design, but the material, to make it lighter, wear and heat resistant, to endow it with the necessary technical characteristics, which became the reason for research in the field of metallurgy.
R&D in metallurgy.
Russia occupies one of the leading places in the export of metallurgical products. Owners of enterprises set themselves the main task of obtaining as much profit as possible. Theoretically, for this, they must continuously modernize production, investing huge amounts of money in the development of new technologies for the search, extraction and processing of resources. But in practice, everything is different: our country is so rich in minerals that there is simply no need for these developments, and therefore investment in research and development from the private sector is negligible. The main investor in this industry is the state.
R&D in mechanical engineering.
In my opinion, the most promising and interesting area of mechanical engineering is the military industry. Firstly, it covers all branches of engineering, and secondly, the share of spending on national defense relative to GDP in 2011 was 3.01%, in 2012 - 2.97% and in 2013 - 3.39%, which is higher than the parameters of 2010 (2.84%). This indicates the interest of the state in the development of the military-industrial complex. The main investor in this area is the state.
Conducting R&D in Russia. Myths and reality.
As mentioned earlier, metallurgy and mechanical engineering are science-intensive, resource-intensive and energy-intensive industries. And carrying out even the simplest research requires huge financial costs. Unfortunately, in Russia the share of enthusiasts who come up with their own projects and seek funding is extremely small. Most often, R&D is carried out under government contracts. And most often according to the following scheme: State lots are formed for carrying out any research or design work, enterprises apply for their implementation. The main information specified in the applications is:
Deadline for the implementation of the state order;
The budget required for this (but not higher than the price of the state contract)
Then the most profitable option is selected on a competitive basis. But this is only in theory. In practice, it is impossible for a person without connections to get a lot, even if he is ready to do all the work for free. The thing is that the budget that the state is ready to allocate even for applied R&D, based on the already available results of previous studies and consisting in easy modernization, or research new area application is estimated at tens of millions of rubles. Which naturally leads to corruption. Bribes, kickbacks, bribes have long ceased to be something new and striking in the innovative activities of the state.
It is worth recalling that the TOR includes:
Goals and objectives for all stages.
how to work with all the characteristics of the equipment.
work plan.
However, after receiving the contract by corrupt methods, the expediency, effectiveness and, in general, the need for some points already attract less attention. The main goal is to spend the allocated budget as fully as possible. Naturally on paper.
In practice, it is not uncommon for old equipment to be purchased at the price of new, unqualified personnel being hired, paying less than according to the documents. Save on everything you possibly can. In general, stealing the budget in other interesting ways that lack ingenuity, connections or impudence.
It is logical to assume that the state is trying to fight this. Quite often, the contract specifies how much of the cost should be covered by the allocated budget. Control occurs by providing in the report a certificate of extra-budgetary funds (VBS) spent on research. It is prohibited to use the budget of other R&D for EBS. It is forbidden in theory, in practice it turns out that no one controls it.
A striking example of such a “cut” of money is the scandal with the fall of the GLONASS satellite.
Forms of reporting and activity control It should be noted that the implementation and provision of R&D results to the customer is carried out in stages. The deadline for completing the work for each of the stages is agreed in advance. The method of control is a report on each of the stages. It includes:
Information on the VBS extrabudgetary
The report itself
Program documentation on the work done
Program-method. Plans for experiments.
Results of experiments with application protocols.
If the contractor does not have time to pass the stage on time, then the customer has the right to terminate the contract with him and demand a refund of the money spent.
Conclusion:
There are many examples that often the current level of development of enterprises does not correspond to the level that is necessary for squeezing out on the world stage. Taking the machine-building and metallurgical industries as an example, we can state with confidence that in some areas the development of the industry is extremely difficult without R&D. It is necessary to overcome a certain “fear” of spending money on research, it is necessary to convince private investors to invest in the development of R&D, which in turn will contribute to the stable development of the country's economy and reduce the gap with other states.
Development work (R&D) are project-based activities that result in a new scientific and technical product in the form of a set of text and drawing documents characterizing a new object. This is the main, but not the only goal of such works, which will be discussed in more detail below.
In essence, R&D is a special type of investment activity, in which the main costs are incurred, as a rule, within an enterprise (firm), where there are specialized divisions - design and research centers, bureaus, laboratories, etc. At the same time, the scale of these investments in leading firms can reach several percent of the annual sales volume.
It is clear that the rational use of such considerable funds to achieve the required results is of particular importance for the leaders of the company and its specialized divisions. Typically, such divisions have a set annual budget and, within this framework, they must ensure that their products are constantly updated in accordance with changing market requirements, while striving not only to maintain their competitive position, but also to strengthen it.
Based on this, the strategic goal of each R&D is ultimately to create a new, more advanced production facility. This goal is achieved proper organization, accurate implementation and timely implementation of the results of the R & D. In turn, each of these concepts is saturated with specific content from a sequence of certain principles (of which, perhaps, only the content of the term “implementation”, which boils down to the fact that the created object should be used in accordance with its purpose, does not require disclosure).
Objectives of development work.
If you do not know where to sail, not a single wind will be fair. (Old saying).
It has already been said that OKRs are one of the types of investment activities. It is clear that the goal is to obtain sufficient profit from the invested funds. But this is a general, strategic goal, and it needs to be specified. First of all, it can be pointed out that goals can be realized here both for the near future and for a fairly distant future.
The immediate goals of R&D may be related to one single need: to develop a new production facility. It is needed in order to better satisfy the desires of the consumer and thereby increase the competitiveness of your company. At the same time, the production of a new object can be both single (piece) and mass.
There can be quite a lot of incentives that determine the feasibility of R&D. In some cases, this is a direct order of the consumer or a person representing his interests. Such orders usually come from some public institutions, for example, defense, law enforcement and others. However, such orders represent a relatively small proportion of the R&D volume performed globally or in a particular country, although for a particular firm they may be prevalent.
Most of the R&D volumes are the work that firms organize according to own initiative. However, it also appears for very specific reasons. The main one is the continuous progress of science and technology, which allows, with its achievements, to unlimitedly improve the objects of production in terms of their consumer properties, making these objects more and more attractive to the consumer and thereby strengthening their market positions in competition. Here, one cannot exclude such a factor as changing fashion, to which products such as cars and household appliances are especially sensitive.
The next reason may be related to the fact that the production or operation of a previously developed object reveals certain design flaws that could not be detected at the time. These may be insufficient reliability, excessive consumption of resources, for example, energy, insufficient ease of management or maintenance, insufficient compliance with legal safety or environmental requirements that have changed in the direction of tightening. It may turn out that the manufactured product does not work effectively enough in some area of application in which there is a significant need for it, but at the same time there are specific requirements that are not fully taken into account during its development.
A serious reason for OCD may be the need to reduce the cost of production in order to maintain or expand its market niche or increase the profitability of production. This result is achieved by a set of measures, including organizational and managerial ones. However, the center of gravity in this totality lies in the field of technology, in which far from everywhere it is possible to manage only by replacing one process with another or by intensifying regimes. Often, radical solutions are required, in which both the design of the product and the technology of its production are changed at the same time. For example, during the transition from stamp-welded structures to cast structures (or vice versa), the configuration, dimensions and masses of parts and assembly units change significantly. Another example is related to the desire to reduce the complexity of assembly processes, for which connections using threaded fasteners are replaced with connections such as snaps. In electrical circuits, connections using screw terminals are replaced by quick connectors, etc.
This also includes the desire to use cheaper materials in production (both in terms of the primary price and the cost of the consumed quantity - it should be noted here that the transition to a more expensive primary price, but higher quality material allows it to be spent in much smaller quantities and ultimately Or it may be that the transition to a more expensive, but better quality material will so improve the consumer qualities of the product that the consumer will agree to pay more for it without objection and the profitability of production will not only not decrease, but may even increase) and components products. Often, this requires not only changing the corresponding entry in the drawing of the part or assembly unit and in the technological instructions for production, but also changing the design of the part or assembly unit itself. This is most pronounced when replacing metals with plastics or steel structures with aluminum. It is clear that here, along with technology, both the configuration and the dimensions of both the variable parts and assembly units themselves and those with which they are mated (as well as the tolerances for these dimensions) change.
It also happens that technological goals are not associated with the task of reducing costs, but are reduced to increasing production productivity to increase its volume. This happens when the product is in stable demand in the market, exceeding the achieved production volumes. Here, of course, there is the possibility of extensive development with appropriate capital investments to expand production capacity (construction of additional premises and equipping them with equipment). However, it may be more reasonable to intensify production at existing facilities by increasing productivity. And this is essentially the same task, which also includes design and technological measures. Only here the main criterion for the effectiveness of the solution will be the reduction of labor intensity and capital intensity of production.
Here it is worth considering some possible features of the design and development work in case it is planned to design a product similar to the manufactured one. It can be conceived as being substantially different from the one produced in most respects. However, such productions are also possible, in which the differences of the new product will be relatively shallow. Such a setting is usually called modernization and it provides some advantages compared to the radical processing of the product. First of all, the transition to the production of a new (modernized) product is carried out, as a rule, during production without stopping it and without a radical change in technology, including equipment and tooling. At the same time, some components of the product simply do not change at all. The service of the modernized product requires minimal changes, and it is easier and more readily accepted by the consumer.
This practice of constant and frequent upgrading also has the advantage of less need for one-time capital investment, which essentially stretches the investment process over time. It is no coincidence that in many industries and individual large firms, constant modernization has become the main form of R&D. Examples of this practice can be shown in the military aircraft industry, where it is customary to create a number of modifications based on the first basic model for specific applications. Examples can be given from the practice of the domestic automotive industry. So, JSC Moskvich (former AZLK) for a number of years successively switched from the M-402 model to the M-407 model, then from the M-408 model to the M-412, 2138 and 2140 models. VAZ did the same. Now AMO ZIL, based on the basic model of the truck 5301 ("Bull"), is developing and putting into production a number of modifications special purpose up to the bus. GAZ has a similar strategy based on the Gazelle car.
The goals of R&D for a more distant future are not associated with putting the object being created into production. In this case, the object is intended to replenish the scientific and technical reserve of the company. It is subjected to research and testing, the results of which can be usefully applied in subsequent developments. The possibilities of new materials, components or design and technological solutions are checked. Previously unknown patterns are being sought, the limits of permissible operating modes are being expanded.
In aircraft construction, this type of R&D is used very widely. Experimental aircraft are being created that are not intended for subsequent replication, but to obtain information about the possibility and expediency of using new circuit-parametric solutions, about the behavior of the device in previously inaccessible flight modes, etc. Suffice it to recall the first Soviet aircraft with a BI-1 liquid-propellant engine or the American experimental aircraft X-15. Without the design, manufacture and testing of such objects, the aircraft industry simply cannot develop.
The automotive industry also practices the design and manufacture of experimental machines. As a rule, they are not only shown at exhibitions and salons, but also tested. Such cars are called "concept cars". True, innovations in them are most often associated with artistic and design solutions, with what is commonly called design.
Other branches of mechanical engineering are not alien to such productions of R&D. Often when creating experimental machines it is not entirely clear whether such a machine will provide the expected effects or even work at all. Nevertheless, such R&D, called search, are quite common, for example, in tractor and agricultural engineering. One possible beneficial outcome of exploratory R&D is the emergence of new production technologies in machine-consuming industries.
R&D is practiced for the manufacture and testing of experimental samples and for defense purposes. The possibilities of creating new types of weapons and equipment are being studied, the feasibility of their use is being studied, and, if available, methods of application are being worked out.
Naturally, different ROC goals lead to differences in both organization and execution. These differences will be shown below when considering other issues.
The goal of R&D formulated in this way determines its final result - the emergence of a new production object or a means for obtaining new information. Such goals associated with obtaining the final result are usually called general. However, they cannot be achieved by any single action. On the way to this, intermediate goals must be set, the achievement of which is necessary steps on the way to the general goal. It is convenient to show the approximate composition of such intermediate goals using the example of R&D in the near future - the development of a new production facility.
In order for a new object to be considered developed and ready for production, it is necessary to obtain a complete set of drawing and text documentation, which must fully and unambiguously characterize this object and its manufacturing technology. At the same time, the probability of errors in this documentation should be minimized (of course, one can strive for the complete elimination of errors, but, unfortunately, among them there are those that are detected only in subsequent production or operation). The receipt of such a kit serves as confirmation that the general goal has been achieved. It should be especially noted that its achievement does not yet mean readiness for production itself. For this, other measures must be taken, in particular, prepared necessary equipment and a stock of tools, the first batches of materials and components were purchased and contracts were drawn up with their suppliers for further deliveries, etc. However, these activities can be considered outside the scope of the ROC, although their implementation may coincide in time with its final stages.
Now consider what is the content of this kit. Firstly, it contains drawings of all, without exception, the parts and assembly units that make up the product. They include all the corrections, the need for which was established during the tests and final development of the technology. Secondly, this technology itself has been worked out in all stages of production without exception for each part and assembly unit, including methods of assembly, adjustment, testing and control.
In fact, we have already formulated the goals, the achievement of which is necessary to achieve the general goal and which can be considered goals of a lower level in comparison with it. The procedure for formulating such goals can essentially be considered a decomposition of a higher-level goal, and it is repeated from top to bottom from the general down to the most elementary. At the same time, of course, each goal of a higher level may require two or more goals of a lower level to achieve it. Graphic image Such a multi-level set of goals is usually called a goal tree and it allows you to visualize the content of the project as a whole (in our case, the entire R & D) and the relationship between its constituent parts - goals of different levels. The goal tree in general is shown in the figure.
Goal tree structure
It is clear that the complete concrete view of the R&D goal tree for creating even a fairly simple product is too cumbersome to present in a book. Therefore, we will illustrate some part in the form of examples of goals decreasing from the goal of producing a complete set of product drawings. From the foregoing, it is clear that this should have been preceded by the purpose of making adjustments, including the results of testing the product. But this means that these tests have been carried out. And for this it was necessary to make at least one sample of the product in pilot production.
This would not have been possible without a complete set of drawings of all parts and assembly units (let us make a reservation that some drawings appear as a result of the manufacture of individual parts "in place" according to diagrams or sketches. This is done, for example, for spatially curved metal pipelines). For the design of some parts and assembly units, calculations such as kinematic, strength, thermal, etc. are required. Calculations require specific initial data, which are contained in the regulatory documentation of the type of technical assignment (we will talk about it in more detail below), in reference literature or research reports, which require certain calculation and analytical work. Thus, we have actually reached the very origins of OCD.
The formation of a set of goals, in particular in the form of a tree "from top to bottom", is essentially the beginning of OKR planning. Such planning is usually called target planning and it is convenient because there is less chance of missing any development component. This, however, does not exclude the possibility of forming a tree of goals "from the bottom up", starting from the lowest level goals. Such planning, which is called normative, can be used for R & D for the development of an object similar to the one already developed or the one whose development was already planned.
Having a set of goals, i.e. expected intermediate and final results, allows you to determine the actions necessary to obtain these results. This, in turn, makes it possible to determine the timing of the planned R&D and a number of other circumstances, which will be discussed below.
Stages of development work.
Development work and the documentation produced at the same time include the following stages:
- 1) Terms of reference.
- 2) Draft design.
- 3) Technical project.
- 4) Working draft.
- 5) A complete set of design documentation.
- 6) Reporting on testing of product samples.
- 7) Information about the patent purity of the product.
Technical task. Development of terms of reference is usually the first stage of R&D. In some cases, the release of this document precedes the official start of the development work, especially when it is carried out on a contractual basis.
If, based on the results of R&D, the production of a new product begins, the terms of reference become the basis for the development of the document "Specifications" (see below).
Preliminary design. The draft design is basically a drawing preliminary study of the design of the product. It usually includes a general view of the product and the necessary diagrams.
During the preliminary design, necessary calculations, which are summarized in the settlement and explanatory note. The composition of the components used is preliminarily determined.
In necessary cases, based on the results of preliminary design, a mock-up of the product is made to coordinate the dimensions and connecting dimensions.
Usually preliminary design subjected to public discussion - protection. Based on the results of this procedure, a decision is made on the transition to the next stages of R&D.
Technical project. It differs from the sketch in a more detailed study of the design of the product. Often these stages are even combined into one - a preliminary design.
Working project. Contains a complete set of drawings and text documents required for the manufacture of a product in pilot production.
Complete set of design documentation. It consists of a working draft with the additional inclusion of a number of documents necessary for the preparation of production. Examples of these documents are tooling drawings, assembly and adjustment instructions, container drawings and preservation and packaging instructions, forms of accompanying documents.
Mandatory document set are technical specifications. They contain a list of product characteristics guaranteed by the manufacturer and a description of the methods by which these characteristics are verified. In the spirit of the law, the manufacturer is solely responsible for providing the guaranteed performance of the product (unless, of course, the user violates certain rules that the manufacturer is required to report).
The use of the product in conditions corresponding to the manufacturer's instructions does not require any agreement with him. However, it is possible, by agreement between the consumer and the manufacturer, to draw up private specifications, in which the requirements for the product or the rules for its use can be either tightened or weakened (with a corresponding price adjustment).
Reporting on testing of product samples. Typically refers to internal, confidential documents of an organization. It consists of acts, protocols and reports (depending on the volume and complexity of the tests). The typical content of each document is a brief or detailed description of the test object, an indication of the purpose of the tests, a description of the methods and conditions for testing, a presentation of the test results and conclusions in accordance with the purpose of the tests. Often such documents end with recommendations on how to eliminate the shortcomings identified as a result of the tests.
The format of reporting documents may be regulated by internal rules.
Reporting on results is a special type. certification tests. The list of products subject to such tests is established by law. To carry out such tests, only specially authorized organizations with the so-called. accreditation. As a result of successfully passing such tests, the product receives a certificate of conformity, confirming that it, in terms of its characteristics, which are regulated by law (this includes everything related to the safety and health of people, with the impact on the environment, etc.), complies with the requirements of regulatory documents.
Information about the patent purity of the product. As a rule, they are issued for internal use in the form of a report on the results of a patent research. At the same time, answers to two questions are obligatory: whether the developed product, by its features, falls under the claims of any patent with a continuing validity period, and whether the developed product contains features that could become the claims of a new patent.
Insufficient attention to these issues can be costly for the developer. Being covered by a valid patent, especially one owned by a competitor, can result in large losses as a result of a lawsuit. Neglecting to protect your own solutions, which came at a high cost of R&D, will allow anyone who wants to reproduce the same solutions in their own production at much lower costs.
Development of technical specifications.
How will we cut? - Well, let's get a haircut. We will leave the necessary, we will remove the excess (From a conversation in a hairdresser).
Having defined the general and intermediate goals of the ROC, we have determined the actions that need to be taken to achieve these goals. And then you have to determine what these results and actions should be. In other words, after answering the question "What?" questions immediately arise: “What?” And How?".
The question “What?”, or rather, “Which?”, refers to the most important result of R & D - to the object or product that we want to design. After all, it should be quite specific, having well-defined characteristics and features. In domestic R&D practice, it is customary to establish these characteristics and features in a document called the terms of reference (TOR). Similar documents exist in foreign practice.
Technical task is a text document that establishes the requirements for the design and characteristics of the product to be developed.
Development of terms of reference is usually the first stage of R&D. In some cases, the release of this document precedes the official start of the development work, especially when it is carried out on a contractual basis.
The procedure for compiling, agreeing and approving the terms of reference does not have a single regulation and basically corresponds to those accepted by the parties to the ROC general rules. The terms of reference are usually considered valid until the official recognition of the R & D as completed. During the term of its validity, changes and additions may be made to it by agreement between the interested parties.
If, based on the results of R&D, the production of a new product begins, the terms of reference become the basis for the development of the document "Specifications".
Who and how drafts this document and makes the final decisions on its content in the form of approval? Where does the data needed to compile it come from? What format is this document in? There is no universal uniformity here, although certain rules have been established in some areas (for example, for R&D carried out in the interests of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, where even this document itself is called “Tactical and Technical Assignment”). However, there are general principles for the preparation and execution of this most important document in the domestic practice of R&D and should be considered in detail.
As a rule, the draft TOR is developed by the specialists of the developer organization, i.e. the organization that will conduct the planned R&D. In order for this project to acquire the force of a directive, i.e. binding document, it is approved by at least the head of this organization. Approval can be practiced for more high level- the management of the company or a higher department. If there is a specific customer in the intended R&D, joint approval can be practiced both on his part and on the part of the developer. And the tactical and technical tasks of the Ministry of Defense are approved only by its representative in the person of the interested unit, and the future developer is only coordinated (although the draft of this document is being prepared by him).
A very important question is on whose initiative the draft TK is being developed. At one time in the USSR, GOST 15.001-73 “Development and putting products into production” came into effect (and had later editions). According to this standard, the only basis for the development of a draft TOR could be the existence of technical requirements of the customer. For all the seeming logic of this rule - to develop only what someone really needs - it either simply got around (in my practice there were precedents when we ourselves prepared such requirements on behalf of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture and received the required signatures), or it was unnecessary an obstacle. Indeed, how could it be possible to obtain technical requirements for any initiative development, for which it was not always even initially clear who could be considered a customer. Therefore, common sense suggests a number of reasonable grounds for preparing this draft.
First, the initiative of the customer is not excluded. This is especially true for OCD of a defensive or similar nature. But this is typical for large or complex products. Often the developer of such large or complex products acts as a customer of smaller and simpler ones, which he intends to use as components instead of those that are available on the market, but he is not satisfied (sometimes such relationships also arise for materials with special properties). Thus, the developer of a new car or tractor model may issue technical requirements for the development of new engines, electrical or hydraulic equipment, rims, tires, etc., if he has reason to consider such developments necessary.
The design organization that receives the technical requirements of the customer is obliged to study them carefully, first of all in order to gain confidence in the correct understanding of his needs. At the same time, the very content of these requirements is not subjected to any criticism. The main attention is paid to the extent to which these requirements can be implemented within the capabilities of the developer. Then the possibility of raising the level of requirements without a significant increase in the cost of both the development itself and the subsequent production of the ordered object is being worked out. After that, the developer draws up a draft TOR and coordinates it with the customer.
As follows from the essence of the procedure for preparing a draft TOR, the characteristics of the object contained in it cannot be worse than those proposed in the technical requirements of the customer. However, situations are not excluded when the wishes of the customer either cannot be realized at all using the existing state of the art, or the price of development or production may turn out to be too high. This conflict forces us to start working together with the customer to clarify his requirements. It is generally accepted here that the performer is obliged to understand the concerns and difficulties of the customer better than he himself. In any case, the draft TOR is the result of a compromise between the requirements of the parties, however, in order to achieve it, the developer must take a more flexible position, guided by two well-known rules:
The client (customer, buyer, consumer) is always right.
If the client is wrong, see rule 1.
Secondly, the terms of reference may be the result of the initiative of the design organization itself. The sources of this initiative are quite diverse. There are new achievements in science and technology, including inventions that make it possible to develop and produce more advanced products. The operating experience of manufactured products indicates the need to eliminate certain shortcomings that were not noticed during development. There was information that a competing company is preparing the production of new products that may be more attractive to the market. Finally, we recall that among the motives for the formation of R&D goals, there may be aspirations for more efficient production (reducing costs, increasing volumes).
It is clear that although in this case there seems to be no formal customer, the developers of the technical specification must, in in full represent for whom and for what the ROC will be conducted. The initial information for such representations are the results of marketing research, which any self-respecting company is obliged to conduct. Often the costs of such research are comparable to the costs of R&D themselves, but practice shows that this approach is the only correct one.
Now let's consider what sources of information are involved in the development of the draft TOR. There are no priorities here, and all possible sources should be used to the maximum.
Firstly, these are the already mentioned technical requirements of the customer, if any. Secondly, these are the results of the research work of the company itself (if it has the appropriate structures), and specialized organizations, including laboratories of higher educational institutions. Thirdly, it is a patent fund containing descriptions of inventions, including inventions made by employees of the company. Fourthly, these are the results of testing and research of special experimental products, as well as manufactured products (both at the stages of pre-production and in operation). Fifthly, these are the mentioned results of marketing research, which are worth dwelling on for a more detailed consideration.
Unlike the first four groups of sources, in which information is usually presented in a language understandable to developers and manufacturers of specific technical terms, the results of marketing research may contain information in terms of the user (buyer). It is often said that these are requirements at the household level. This should not be treated with arrogance, since the average user is not required to have the same training in understanding technical terminology as a specialist. Therefore, one should be able to translate the user's desires into specific technical characteristics of the future product. The mechanisms of such translation are developed and described in domestic and foreign literature. The most effective is the method called "Quality Function Deployment" (structuring the quality function). Its main features are that the initial information contains the user's requirements exactly at this household level, and also the fact that during the procedure for translating these requirements into the language of technical terminology, one compares one's position with the position of the closest competitors in the market of manufactured products (the one one wants catch up or even overtake, and the one that is catching up with us). In addition, the very process of obtaining information about user requirements can take the form of surveys organized with sufficient representativeness. Finally, this method makes it possible to seamlessly move from the technical characteristics of the future R&D facility to the technical requirements for materials and components, on the one hand, and production technologies, on the other.
More detailed information about the essence and features of this method is available in many foreign publications. In domestic practice, Yu. P. Adler did a lot for its propaganda in the journal “Kurs na kachestvo” published by him.
The design of TK does not have general rules and is rather determined by the rules or traditions of the department or company. The document may be in the form of plain text. Design can be accepted according to the rules established for text documents as part of design documentation according to the standards of the "Unified System for Design Documentation (ESKD)", adopted in domestic practice. At the same time, in any case, the document must contain the signatures of officials and specialists responsible for its preparation, approval and approval.
The content of the TK also cannot be subject to uniform rules, however, there are certain general requirements in this part. Usually at the beginning of the document indicate the name, designation and purpose of the product, as well as the area and features of its intended use. Next comes a section that contains technical requirements, including the composition of the product (all its components are listed and, if necessary, the purpose of each is indicated) and the design requirements for both the product as a whole and for each of its component parts separately. We will dwell on the content of this section (“Technical requirements”) for a more detailed consideration.
First of all, specific, including quantitative, requirements for the operation and characteristics of the product as a whole and its components are set out. At the same time, the completeness of the presentation should be sufficient for a complete idea of the features and properties of the future product. Dimensional-mass, energy and other restrictions are indicated. If necessary, interaction with other products is stipulated.
The following details the expected operating conditions of the product. Specified allowable level vibro-impact loads on the product, as a rule, in units of "g" (for vibrations with an indication of the frequency band), if necessary - along different axes of the product. The temperature range from the lowest negative to the highest positive temperatures is indicated for both product operation and non-operating storage. Negotiated as much as possible permissible humidity and dust content of the air surrounding the product. If necessary, conditions such as radiation exposures (including direct solar radiation), the presence of chemically active substances in the ambient air, extreme values atmospheric pressure, possible biological effects (fungal microorganisms, insects, rodents), etc. For external power supply, the features of the sources are indicated, for example, in terms of the stability of voltages and frequencies of the power supply.
For each of these impacts, verification methods are indicated. In addition, conformity criteria are established for them, on the basis of which it will be possible to subsequently decide whether the product is sufficiently resistant to these influences. As a rule, such criteria are taken to be the preservation of the functions and characteristics of the product specified in the previous paragraphs of the "Technical requirements" section.
A mandatory part of the section is the requirements for the reliability of the product. For different products, they can be formulated in different terms depending on the type of product, its purpose, customer requirements, etc. Here, terms such as resource before overhaul or culling, the probability of failure-free operation for a given time, etc. can be used. In this case, operating modes may be indicated under which these requirements must be met, for example, the relative duration of switching on, the permissible duration of limiting loading modes or operation at extreme values of operating conditions. Test methods may be specified to verify that these requirements are met.
A special part is the safety requirements for people and the environment. As a rule, there are national and international standards requiring unconditional fulfillment and the violation of which may be associated with liability under the law, from financial to criminal. Therefore, when compiling, agreeing and approving the ToR, the product must be fully compliant with all such standards by recording the relevant requirements. If necessary, methods for verifying compliance are also indicated.
AT last years Ergonomic requirements have become an integral part of many TK. They arise where the use of the product must take into account the human factor when using the product, operating it or maintaining it. Part of these requirements are the safety requirements for people mentioned above, but the goal of the designer and manufacturer should also be to give the product such properties and characteristics that it will not only be safe for health and life itself, but also convenient to use. Such an approach must exclude the situation in which the product does not provide the expected results in operation precisely because it is inconvenient to operate or maintain. For products where the buyer and user most often coincide (the most obvious example is a car), and not only for them, these requirements fall into the category of key ones. Some ergonomic requirements are included in the safety standards, for example, requirements for visibility from the cabs of cars and tractors and requirements for the operation of external lighting devices.
Often ergonomic requirements are combined with aesthetic ones related to appearance products and (if the product has internal spaces- cabins, cabins, saloons, etc.) to its interior(s). At the same time, aesthetic requirements are often written down in a very generalized form, but the presence of such requirements in the composition of the TK at least inspires confidence that artistic design specialists - designers - will take part in the development of the product.
The section "Technical requirements" ends with paragraphs containing specific requirements, some of which are nevertheless present in each TOR. These are the requirements for packaging and preservation for products that may not be certain time. The meaning of the requirements for transportation and storage is clear. And, probably, it is not required to explain that the implementation of these requirements is linked to the design of the product.
In domestic practice, it is customary for some products to indicate the requirements for standardization and unification. They stipulate the degree of use in the product of both standard components and parts already used in previously developed products that are in production. In my opinion, the presence of such requirements, especially in terms of unification, is justified when developing modifications. When developing a new product, these requirements should not be introduced. The designers themselves will decide what they can apply for it the best way without looking back at the given percentages.
In some cases, such specific requirements are introduced as requirements for the composition of a set of spare parts, tools and accessories, requirements for the development of special technological equipment such as stands for assembly, adjustment and testing of parts of the product and the product as a whole, requirements for the development of training funds for training, etc. It is clear that the presence of such requirements is determined by the very nature of the future product and the features of its application. At the same time, such requirements can be either part of the technical requirements for the product, or displayed in separate sections.
In essence, such sections are no longer requirements for the product, but determine the requirements for the nature of the maintenance of the R&D itself. Among them, the composition of the R&D stages and the scheduled deadlines for implementation are indicated. Economic (price) restrictions on the production of a product are established. For developments of a defensive nature, measures to comply with state secrets are indicated. This list can be continued, but it is more important to understand that everything here is determined by the specifics of the product, including its purpose, features of the design organization, and many other factors.
Having mentioned the deadlines for completing the R&D stages, we essentially moved from answering the question “Which?”, Related to the product, to answering the question “How?”, Relating to the rules and restrictions of conducting the R&D itself. Indeed, when setting the deadline for the development, the head of the design organization or another person who makes a decision about it sets a time limit for obtaining the required result and thus constitutes the main part of the R&D implementation plan. After all, it is clear that its results are needed not in general, but at a very specific time, because the goals for which it begins must also be achieved without delay. So the calendar plan for the implementation of R & D should be considered one of the main rules.
The following rule applies to the composition of the ROC. It should provide for all its main components: issuing a set of design documentation (CD), manufacturing a sample (samples) of the product in pilot production, testing the components and the sample (s) as a whole, and adjusting the design documentation based on the results of manufacturing and testing. However, one should keep in mind the goals of the ROC, which may make certain amendments to this list. So, when designing a piece of a unique product such as a heavy press or a rolling mill, it is hardly worth planning the production of a preliminary sample. And if the product is being developed as an experimental product, it is unlikely that the design documentation will be adjusted based on the results of its testing or research, unless it turns out that the product simply does not work and needs to be redone.
Now consider some rules for the implementation of the components (stages) of R&D. As for the issuance of CD, there are rules for completeness and execution, mainly based on the already mentioned ESKD. At the same time, there may exist in the form of enterprise standards and their own rules and regulations. They can concern very many features, ranging from dimensional designations and tolerances and technological guidelines to restrictions on the use of materials, standardized or normalized products. Purely proprietary are the rules for the production of drawings and text documents using paper or computer design technologies.
According to the content of the CD itself, it is difficult to indicate any general rules. Nevertheless, it is worth paying attention to an important trend in modern production, which manifests itself in the fact that the high quality of a future product is laid down already during its design. And here we are not talking about the fact that the design should be sufficiently qualified and error-free - this is implied by itself (and guaranteed in many ways, for example, by carefully fine-tuning the design of the product and testing the technology before starting its production). This means that the design of the product is such that it ensures minimal damage from possible errors in production or use. This approach provides the product with a feature that in Russian translation can be called “fool proof” (in English “foolproof”). Examples of such an approach can be constructive solutions that exclude incorrect assembly or failure of the product if the polarity of the DC supply is not observed (but they, of course, will not save if the product is assembled with a sledgehammer or instead of a battery, it is connected to a high-voltage network).
With regard to the production of samples in pilot production, it is also difficult to specify general rules. Each production is unique in its own way, even though pilot productions are much more versatile than the main (serial) ones. However, R&D organizers and managers need to understand that pilot production has a number of features that require understanding and attention.
First of all, you need to remember the specifics of the technological capabilities of pilot production. It is allowed more weight inefficient, but requiring higher qualification operations performed manually or on universal equipment. At the same time, a technology that requires expensive labor-intensive tooling such as models for large or complex castings, heavy dies or complex molds is hardly applicable to pilot production (unless this tooling is designed with great confidence and manufactured immediately for the main production). However, in the design of objects such as tractors and automobiles, casting is used exclusively for the manufacture of some parts such as bodies.
Therefore, based on the results of manufacturing samples, it is not worth evaluating the manufacturability of the designed product. But it is necessary to monitor whether the pilot production technology will distort the results of future testing of samples, and in any direction - both for better and for worse. So, in mechanical engineering, as a rule, the reliability of samples is somewhat higher than that of mass-produced products (except for primary failures, due to which design changes are made in the course of debugging). And in electronic instrumentation, it is rather the opposite - the reliability of samples assembled with manual soldering is lower than that of mass-produced products with machine soldering.
Finally, speaking about testing samples, we immediately note the obvious variety of goals, methods and means. It is clear that testing an aircraft has little in common with testing a sample of a household electrical appliance. At the same time, all and all tests have one thing in common - they should be as exhaustive as possible. This means that as a result of the tests carried out, all answers to all questions should be obtained. The general and mandatory rule is that each test begins with the development of a program-method, is carried out in strict accordance with it and ends with a reporting document with conclusions containing unambiguous answers to all the questions posed and recommendations for further work, including on adjusting the design documentation for products for production.
The second general rule is that trials should have a clear purpose. It is she who determines the content of the program-methodology. For samples of products scheduled for production, first of all, the compliance of the sample with the requirements recorded in the TOR should be checked. In this case, design flaws that cause non-compliance with these requirements should be identified.
In some cases, the goal arises of obtaining experimental data for entering into the working, technological or operational documentation of information that cannot be obtained by preliminary calculation with sufficient reliability. These, for example, may include the diameters of throttle openings in hydraulic or pneumatic systems, the stiffness of some springs, resistance and capacitance in electrical circuits, the position of the tuning elements of some mechanisms. To obtain these data, special tests are organized (we note that they are mainly subjected to component parts of products, although situations in which it is necessary to test products as a whole are not excluded). Subsequently, on the basis of such tests, control and acceptance tests can be introduced into the production technology of products in order to correctly configure the product or its component, both with the help of adjustments and with the help of replaceable elements (jets, thermal compensating packages, springs, resistors, capacitors, etc. .P.).
The third general rule is that tests should produce reliable results. This is also ensured by the program-method through the conditions for conducting tests, the means used for collecting and processing the information obtained in their course, as well as the envisaged volumes of tests.
Planning, or rather, the entire organization of ROC, may be accompanied by some particular restrictions. They may relate to the content of the TOR and the order in which the R&D stages are completed. Only a few examples can be shown here. So, when developing modifications of a manufactured product, they strive to minimize the number of changes to the basic model. When developing a new product, they strive not only to use parts and components of the previous model in it, but also, if possible, to ensure the so-called technological continuity, in which the same technological processes and equipment are used. This is especially true for its expensive types.
Of course, all of the above does not exhaust all the features of the preparation of technical specifications and the organization of R&D. It is only important to understand that all information about how the product should turn out and according to what rules and subject to what restrictions R&D should be carried out should be known before it starts. Only then can it be expected to obtain the planned result.
