Depending on which sign value is transferred from one object to another, the following are distinguished portable value types the words.

1) Transferring values ​​for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on similarities their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:

a) head bow, eye Apple - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;

b) nose boats, tail trains, hat nail - transfer on the basis

similarities in the arrangement of objects;

in) street cleaner (in the meaning of "cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electric position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - a transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare these examples: evil wind, indifferent nature, breath spring, "The river plays"(title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), flow running, volcano woke up and etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: cold sight, iron will, stone a heart, gold character, mop hair, a ball of thoughts and etc.

Metaphors are general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of given language (hat nail, sleeve rivers, black envy, iron will and Ar-), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:

S. A. Yesenin: red rowan bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz sky, grains eye and etc.;

B. L. Pasternak: labyrinth lyre, bloody tears september, rolls lanterns and donuts roofs and etc.

2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values ​​is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:

a) material - product from this material. For example, words gold, crystal can designate products from these materials (in her ears gold; on the shelves solid crystal);

b) vessel - content vessel (ate two plates, drank a cup);

G) action - an object actions (actions aimed at edition books«-> illustrated edition books as an object);

e) action - result actions (construction monument- monumental building).

e) action - means or tool actions (putty cracks - fresh putty, fixing with Anastasia- ski fastening, transmission movements- bike gear);

g) action - place actions (output from home - stand by exit, rest

novka traffic - bus stop);

h) animal - fur or meat animal(hunter caught fox- This

what fur, arctic fox or fox?).

One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, words face, mouth, head, hand represent the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: outsiders liam entry denied; in family five mouths; Kolya- lighthead.

Some characteristic signs of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:

- Hey beard, where are you going??

- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...

- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh(Ch.)

"Obsolete words and neologisms"

Changes in the lexical composition of the language occur constantly: some words become obsolete and leave the language, others appear - are borrowed or formed according to existing models. Those words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete; new words that have just appeared in the language are called neologisms.

Outdated vocabulary

Obsolete vocabulary includes words that are out of use, among them historicisms and archaisms are distinguished.

Historicisms are words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the objects and phenomena they designate: bursa, caftan, posadnik. Historicisms are found in the main texts about the past (both scientific and artistic).

Archaisms are words that have passed into a passive reserve due to the fact that the objects, phenomena, concepts they designate - and that exist to this day - have other names. Depending on which aspect of the word is obsolete, they distinguish different types archaisms:

lexical - the word itself is outdated, its sound-letter complex is no longer used, and the meaning is expressed by another lexical unit:

semantic - the word exists in modern Russian, but has lost one or more meanings: And in order not to dare to do wonders again, / Having caught it, hang it / And deprive it of the stomach (Pushk.). Have you read the article in Peterburgskie Vedomosti? (S.-Sch.) Arkady noticed all this, but kept his remarks to himself (Turg.).

phonetic - the sound appearance of the word has changed, which is also reflected in its spelling: He sang the faded color of life / Almost at eighteen years old (Pushk.).

derivational - the derivational structure of the word is outdated: Poison drips through its bark, / By noon melted from the heat, / And freezes in the evening / Thick cool resin (Pushk.); The madman cries only from disaster, / And the smart one seeks means, / How I help my grief (Kry.). And our forester was Fedos Ivanov, a great literate man and knew how to sort out all things well (Lesk.).

grammatical - separate grammatical forms of the word are outdated: The farmer breathes fun / With full granaries rejoices (Beetle.)

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Those of them that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete.

Deprecated words are used in different functions. For example, when used to name objects and phenomena, they perform a nominative function (in scientific and historical works, etc.). AT works of art on historical topics, this vocabulary already performs a nominative-stylistic function - it not only denotes realities, but also creates a certain color of the era. Obsolete words can be used in artistic text to indicate the time at which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mostly archaisms) can also perform proper stylistic functions, be expressive means giving the text a special solemnity.

New words (neologisms)

Outdated words are opposed by neologisms (from the Greek neos ‘new’ and logos ‘word’) - new words, meanings and stable combinations of words, the novelty of which is felt by speakers.

Every year, tens of thousands of new words are recorded in the media, but not all of them are included in the language. Some of them are used once in any text or in oral speech, others, used repeatedly different people, are included in the vocabulary of the language and gradually lose the quality of novelty. Some neologisms, not having time to enter the main fund of vocabulary, go out of use and become obsolete words (for example, such a fate befell many neologisms of the first post-revolutionary years: zhendelegatka, general education, kerenka, businessman).

25. vocabulary enrichment

One of the laws historical development language like social phenomenon. There are three main ways to enrich the vocabulary of a language:

1) morphological way of enrichment [basic composition, morphological (affixal) word formation];

2) semantic path [expansion of the meaning of the word, narrowing of the meaning of the word, transfer of meanings (metaphorical, metonymic, functional); lexico-semantic method based on the breakdown of polysemy (the formation of homonyms, the distribution of word meanings according to different periods: stomach - part of the body, stomach (obsolete) - animal world; the emergence of common nouns based on proper names and vice versa: Love - love), conversion];

3) borrowing (necessary borrowings learned by the language at all levels; tracing)

inner form words are the morphonological composition of the stem, indicating the motivated connection of its sound with the given meaning. A phonetic word is an independent word together with unstressed service words and particles adjoining it.

Etymology (from the Greek ετυμος - “the real meaning of the word” and λόγος - “science”) is a branch of linguistics (more specifically, comparative historical linguistics) that studies the origin of words. Initially, among the ancients - the doctrine of the "true" ("original") meaning of the word.

“Etymology” is also called the very origin of the word (for example, “the word notebook has Greek etymology”, “offer a new etymology”, i.e. version of the origin).

De-etymologization (from de... and etymology), simplification, change in the morphological (word-building) structure of a word, when the etymological connection of this word with one or another non-derivative base is lost for the consciousness of native speakers. D. can be caused either by the fact that words with the original non-derivative stem cease to exist in the language (“important” - compare the Old Russian “vaga”), or by the fact that the given word has gone too far in its semantic development from the word with the corresponding non-derivative stem ( "large" - compare "groats").

FOLK ETYMOLOGY - a complete or partial rethinking of a word as a result of its arbitrary convergence with other similar-sounding words. So, “jacket” (English - peajacket - “jacket made of coarse cloth”) turns in Russian dialects into “spinzhak” (due to “back”), “boulevard” (French from German “Bollwerk” - “earth rampart”) - in "gulvar" (in connection with "walk"), "cooperative" in "kupirativ" (in connection with "buy"). The phenomenon of N. e. observed, of course, not only in the "folk" dialects: it played a very significant role in the constructions of the so-called. scientific etymology (section of linguistics about the origin of the words of any language). So for example. Tredyakovsky interpreted the name ancient people"Etruscans" as "cunning", "because these people in the sciences practiced at that time." However, the comparativists also devote considerable space in their constructions to modern economics, especially where they are under the influence of great-power tendencies and nationalist purism (see). tend to downplay the influence of other languages ​​on their language. or to exaggerate the influence of one's language. to others; in the first direction, the attitude of Russian bourgeois etymologists to the Turkic-Mongolian fund of the Russian language is characteristic, in the second - the attitude of German bourgeois etymologists (Girt) to the Romance and Eastern fund of technical terminology. So. arr. the term N. e." is very unfortunate, having only a historical justification; however, attempts to replace it with another term (“lexical assimilation”, at the suggestion of Krushevsky) have not been successful so far.

The phenomenon of N. e. has been studied so far almost exclusively from the point of view of subjective-psychological linguistics, and few of its existing classifications are abstract, schematic. character. Meanwhile, class ideology finds a very clear expression in the phenomena of modern economics, in its orientation, and modern economics itself. easily becomes an instrument of class struggle. Wed e.g. such N. e. in the speech of a serf, as the transformation of the landowner's estate "Bellevue" into a "belmo" or the name "Tiesenhausen" into "Sinegusen". N.'s studying e. from this point of view, it will allow to more accurately determine its significance in plot construction (N. E. in sayings, signs, myths) and style (N. E. in the artistic method of realism, symbolism, imagism and futurism), both oral and written fiction.

27.Synonyms

System connections between the meanings of words

§ 104. The conceptual meaning of a word does not exist in isolation, but in a certain relationship with the conceptual meanings of other words, primarily words of the same "semantic field". The term semantic field denotes a larger or smaller set of words, more precisely, their meanings associated with the same fragment of reality. The words whose meanings are included in the field form a "thematic group" of more or less wide scope. Examples of such groups: words denoting time and its various segments (time, time, year, month, week, day, hour, etc., also spring, winter ... morning, evening, etc.); kinship terms (father, mother, son, brother, cousin, etc.); plant names (or narrower groups: names of trees, shrubs, mushrooms, etc.); names of temperature sensations (hot, warm, cool, cold, etc.); the names of sensory perception processes (see, hear, notice, feel, feel), thought processes (think, believe, count, guess, remember), etc. From the point of view of their internal semantic relations, words belonging to the same thematic group should be considered as a kind of relatively independent lexical microsystem.

Within the thematic group, different types of semantic links are distinguished.

The most important of them is the hierarchical connection along the genus line - the type between the designation of a wider set (a more general, generic concept), the so-called hyperonym, and the designations of subsets subordinate to it included in this set, i.e., "names of species concepts" - hyponyms . Thus, the hypernym animal is subject to the hyponyms dog, wolf, hare, etc., which together make up the “lexical paradigm” (§ 33). The given hyponyms, in turn, are hypernyms for other, more specific hyponyms. For example, a dog acts as a hypernym in relation to such hyponyms as bulldog, dachshund, mongrel, etc. The words bulldog, dog and animal can refer to the same denotation, but the substitution of these words is one-sided: a hypernym can always be used instead of its hyponym, but not vice versa. Sometimes in such hierarchical systems, not a word, but a phrase acts as a link, for example, in Russian, in a hierarchical series, a tree - conifer tree- spruce.

Synonyms are words that are different in sound and spelling, but are close or identical in meaning.

Synonyms

Stylistic function synonyms - to be a means of the most accurate expression of thought. The use of synonyms makes it possible to avoid the monotony of speech, the repetition of the same words, makes our speech more accurate and expressive.

Antonyms

Antonyms are words with the opposite lexical meaning, used to contrast phenomena, to create a contrast.

The stylistic function of antonyms is to be a means of expressing antithesis, to enhance the emotionality of speech.

Antithesis(from the Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - opposition. Proverbs, a paradox, an oxymoron are built on the antithesis.

Paradox- judgment, sharply contrary to common sense, but deep in meaning; can be a means of revealing, satirical depiction of reality, can put judgment on the brink of absurdity ("The worse, the better").

Oxymoron(from Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - stylistic device comparison of contrasting, mutually exclusive concepts ("Living Corpse").

Homonyms

Homonyms(from Greek homos - the same and onyma - name) - words that are the same in spelling or sound, but different in meaning, for example: "head", "wing", "bow", "language", "key", etc. . The word "key" can mean: a key to a lock, a wrench, a spring (spring water).

The stylistic function of homonyms is to give expression to speech, vivid emotionality; be a means of entertainment word game, word play. Homonyms can give the statement comedy and ambiguity.

Jokes and puns are built on polysemantic words and homonyms.

Pun (from French calembour) - a stylistic turn or miniature work based on the predominantly comic use of polysemantic words or homophones. Puns can be built in different ways: matching homonyms, convergence of homophones, clash of homographs, rethinking of stable turns. The pun, as a form of thought transfer, gives it a special expressiveness, emotionality and entertaining, enhancing the artistic effect.

In explanatory dictionaries, polysemantic words are given in one dictionary entry, and homonyms are given in different ones.

Paronyms

Paronyms- (from Greek para - near, ohyma - name) cognates similar in sound but different in meaning selective - qualifying; building - building - building).

(They refer to the same part of speech, differ either in prefixes or suffixes, which give the word a new semantic connotation; one of the paronyms may have a non-derivative, and the other a derivative basis).

Paronyms may differ as stylistic coloring, as well as the area of ​​use.

Taby means a prohibition that occurs in the sphere public life at different levels human development. Taboo (prohibition) among many peoples (including the Slavs) arose on the basis of mythological beliefs. So, for example, it was believed that one should not touch the body of the deceased leader, enter his house, touch his things ... You could not even talk to his widow. Moreover, the very name of the deceased leader could not be pronounced, as well as the name of the animal that served as the main object of the tribe's hunting. People believed that, having uttered certain words (usually these are words denoting death, the names of diseases, the names of gods, etc.), they will invite trouble on themselves - the wrath of spirits that cannot be contradicted (the very fact of death, for example, considered by our ancestors as a manifestation of the activity of spirits). Incidentally, it is quite possible that impersonal verbs(chills, fever; dawn, dusk, etc.) are called so precisely because people were afraid to name the force that causes similar phenomena, or simply could not explain many facts of the reality around them, which led them to believe in some kind of higher being that controls the affairs of people, their actions, feelings and stands above them.

"Taboo" is not only an ethnographic concept, it can also apply to the facts of the language, because since ancient times, people believed that with the help of language (speech) it is possible to directly influence the world around them, that is, they believed in the magical function of the word.

Taboo (or prohibition) also applies to the norms of the literary language. So, for example, taboo is imposed on the use of obscene language, rude vernacular, etc.

To replace the names of things that were subject to taboo (prohibition), other words became necessary, which received the name of euphemisms in linguistics. Euphemisms are emotionally neutral words or expressions used instead of synonymous words or expressions that seem obscene, rude or tactless to the speaker. The word euphemism comes from the Greek word eufhemismos (eu - "good" and phemi - "I say"). Literally: “I speak well”, “I speak politely”.

To replace the taboo of words, other words are needed - euphemisms. Euphemisms are substitute, permitted words that are used instead of prohibited (taboo).

TERMINOLOGY, a set of terms of a certain branch of knowledge or production, as well as the doctrine of the formation, composition and functioning of terms.

Thing general theory terminologies are: the study of the formation and use of special words, with the help of which the knowledge accumulated by mankind is accumulated and transmitted; improvement of existing terminological systems; search for optimal ways to create new terms and their systems; the search for universal features inherent in the terminologies of different fields of knowledge.

A term (lat. terminus "border, limit, end") is a special word or phrase adopted in a certain professional field and used under special conditions. The term is a verbal designation of a concept included in the system of concepts of a certain area of ​​professional knowledge. Terminology (as a set of terms) is an autonomous sector of any national language closely related to professional activity. The terms of each branch of science, technology, production form their own systems, determined, first of all, by conceptual relationships. professional knowledge in an effort to express these connections by linguistic means.

Phraseologisms

Phraseologism is a stable (non-free) phrase. Phraseologism has a stable grammatical structure, a constant lexical composition, and requires accurate reproduction in speech. As part of a phraseological unit, not individual words have meaning, but only the entire expression as a whole.

Phraseologisms are different in origin (originally Russian; borrowed; Old Slavonic origin).

Phraseological units are used in various functional styles, have a stylistic coloring. Stylistic role phraseological units - figurativeness and expressiveness of speech.

Phraseologisms with a pronounced stylistic coloring are used as a means of speech characterization of characters; book phraseological units, which have a coloring of pathos, are used to give the text a solemn tone; stylistically reduced colloquial phraseological units contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of ease, conversationality in the text; Phraseological units can also be used to create puns in speech.

Phraseological turns also include language aphorisms (proverbs, sayings, catchwords).

A proverb is a figurative saying, which usually has an instructive (edifying) character. (Live and learn).

A proverb is a figurative allegorical expression that aptly defines any life phenomenon. (My tongue is my enemy).

Idioms- These are literary quotations belonging to various authors and widely known. (From the ship to the ball - from "Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov).

The source of phraseological units can be literary works, statements of great people

The figurative meaning of words is especially common in artistic and colloquial styles. There are such types of figurative meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphor(from Greek. metaphora- transfer) is a type of figurative use of a word based on the similarity of certain features. Most often, metaphorical transfer of signs, properties of objects to creatures and vice versa occurs, for example: And the earth, and water, and air - all fell asleep.

Metaphor can be built on:

1) similarities Fort: Pomereziv evening curly icy window costs(M. Dry-Khmara)

2) color similarities: The sun was already sinking towards the west and flooded the snowy valleys with a bloody sheen.(I. Franko)

3) Property Similarities: It is known what kind of person from Nevkipylogo is flint (A. Golovko)

4) similarities in the manifestation of feelings: Thoughts, memories tormented the heart of Kostomarov(M. Ivchenko)

5) similarities in behavior, mode of action Fatigue creeps quietly, but he does not let fatigue take him(V. Bychko).

A metaphor can also be based on impressions and evaluation of what: Cherry smell of thoughts(M. Dry-Khmara).

On the basis of metaphorization in artistic speech, language images are created: thunder of applause, a star of hope.

Metonymy(from Greek. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one class of objects or the name of one object to another, bordering, are in organic connection with each other.

Can be transferred:

1) the name of the room - for the people in it: The Institute celebrates its centenary(P. Voronko)

2) the name of the material - for a product from it: The whole table is filled with silver(i.e. silverware)

3) the name of the action - on the result: stop(the action itself and the place where they stop)

4) the subject is being studied - on the branch of science: anatomy and physiology;

5) the name of the event - for its participants: The conference adopted the appeal;

6) title emotional state- on its cause: Horror!;

8) the name of the object - for the preparation: head pills;

9) the name of the item - to what it contains: - Here, drink a glass, freshen up;

10) the name of the features, properties - on its carrier: The folk bass himself, who was sitting in front, also ran onto the stage, kept up a little ...(Yu. Yanovsky).

Synecdoche(from Greek. Snekdoche- spivpereimannya) is a type of transfer of the name of a part to the name of the whole and vice versa. For example: Greenjolami silently passed the casing(M. Dry-Khmara).

Like metonymy, synecdoche is based on the concept of contiguity, but what is specific to it is that this contiguity of a quantitative nature is more general and specific from the name: He has a hand everywhere, and what are we?(I. Karpenko-Kary). Synecdoche is used as a language artistic medium, but not as common as metaphor and metonymy.

Homonyms. paronyms

Homonyms(from Greek. Homos- the same and GUT name) are words that sound the same but have different meanings.

There are lexical homonyms absolute (or complete) and incomplete. Full homonyms are within the same part of speech. The sound composition of absolute (full) homonyms is the same in all grammatical forms. For example: corncrake - with a migratory bird and landrail- erased broom.

Incomplete homonyms are words that do not match in sound in all grammatical forms. Incomplete lexical homonyms are called homoforms. For example: some(names) - Little fish and some(numeral) - Indefinite number of items; sons(names) - Genitive plural noun son and sons(ch.) - Past tense masculine form of the verb turn blue.

homographs- this is the spelling type of homonyms, - words that are the same in spelling, but different in sound (have different stress) and meaning. For example: water - Genitive singular noun water and water- nominative case of a noun, used only in the plural; antimony - wind musical instrument and antimony- silvery-white brittle metal.

Homophones- words that have the same sound composition, but different in meaning and spelling. For example: sleep it(I'm dreaming) and sun(shines).

Attention! Distinguish homonyms from polysemantic words. There are connections between the meanings of a polysemantic word, they are combined general concept, similar feature or similar function. For example: pen(child) - pen(for writing) - pen(doors) root(oak) - root(tooth) - root(the words). When individual meanings are already removed from the main content of the word and lose contact with it, then these are homonyms. For example: You are welcome(caresses) and please(animal), right(side) and right(not guilty).

Paronyms- words that are close enough in sound composition and sound, but different in meaning. For example: bleach and turn white; strong and (purple, Often they have one root, and differ only in a suffix, prefix or ending. Little difference in pronunciation leads to mistakes. Therefore, watch out for the use of unfamiliar words, clarify their meanings in an explanatory dictionary.

Polysemy (Greek poly - many + sēma - sign) is a phenomenon of lexical polysemy of words.
Polysemantic words (polysemantics) are words that have several LZs. In a polysemantic word, one meaning is connected with another in meaning. The word companion in the NRS has several meanings related to each other: 1) a person who travels with someone: My companions turned out to be pleasant conversationalists; 2) something that accompanies something: Rock salt is a companion of oil; 3) a celestial body revolving around the planet: the Moon is a satellite of the Earth; 4) a spacecraft launched into orbit using rocket devices.
Polysemy is opposed to the phenomenon of monosemy.
Monosemia (Greek monos - one + sēma - sign) is a phenomenon of lexical unambiguity of words.
Single-valued words (monosemantics) are words with one LZ. For example: a coat of arms is a distinctive sign of a state or city, which is depicted on flags, coins, seals (coat of arms, coat of arms; many coats of arms, coats of arms).
There are more polysemantic words in the language than unambiguous ones. In explanatory dictionaries, individual meanings of polysemantic words are distinguished by numbers.
The polysemy of the word poses the problem of the typology of the LZ word.
The types of LZ words are diverse. One of the first DL typologies was developed by V.V. Vinogradov.
Allocate according to different parameters: basic and derivative; direct and figurative; free and related, etc. LZ words.
Direct and figurative LZ words. Types of transfer of word meanings.
Primary meanings are considered direct, nominative, because they are directly directed at the phenomena of reality, they name objects, actions, signs (house, book, stone, iron, goes, stands, etc.).
Secondary meanings are portable, because they are based on the transfer of the name from one phenomenon to another. For example: a residential building and a house in the meaning of "family" (we are familiar with houses, that is, our families visit each other), stone house and a stone heart (i.e. hard, hard, “like a stone”, similar to a stone), a person goes and time goes (i.e. flows, moves).
Nominative, direct meanings usually do not contain an assessment of the phenomenon, while figurative ones often turn out to contain an assessment of the corresponding phenomena (cf.: a stone house and a stone heart, a steel bar and a steel character, spoiled milk and sour mood, etc.).
Often the names of animals are used in a figurative sense: a fox - a cunning one, a donkey or a ram - a stupid one, a bear or an elephant - a clumsy one, a lion - a brave, courageous person.
The direct and figurative meanings of words differ in context: a bird's wing is an airplane wing, a girl's hat is a nail's hat.
Figurative meanings over time can become direct in polysemantic words: the spout of a teapot, a door handle, a table leg.
Types of word meaning transfer
The transfer of the name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. There are several types of figurative, figurative use of words.
Metaphor (from other Greek metaphora) - the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their similarity: stuffing statements, chair leg, worm of doubt, bitter smile, green ones (about dollars), bright mind, eye of a needle, etc. .
Renaming objects based on their relationship in space or time is called metonymy (Greek metonymia - “renaming”).
So, for example, in the phrase I ate three plates (I.A. Krylov), the word plate denotes two phenomena at the same time - a meal and a plate. Like metaphor, metonymy is an "overlay" on figurative meaning words of its direct meaning - with the only difference that both components are connected by relations not of similarity, but of adjacency.
Phenomena brought into connection by means of metonymy and forming a “subject pair” can relate to each other as (types of metonymy):
thing and material: Not on silver, but on gold (A.S. Griboyedov);
contents and containing: A flooded stove cracks (A.S. Pushkin);
property carrier and property: The courage of the city takes (proverb);
creation and creator: A man ... Belinsky and Gogol will be carried from the market (N.A. Nekrasov);
whole and part: Hey, beard! but how to get from here to Plyushkin (N.V. Gogol), etc.
The last type of metonymic transfer is singled out specifically and is called synecdoche (Greek synecdoche - “correlation”, “co-understanding”, “co-implying”), i.e. naming the whole through a part and vice versa.
The polysemy of a word or polysemy is the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word. The polysemy of a word arises in the process of the historical development of a language, when a word, due to semantic transfers, along with the designation of one object or phenomenon of objective reality, begins to be used to designate another, similar to it in some features or properties. Potentially, any word of a language can acquire a new meaning when the need arises, therefore, as a rule, there are more polysemantic words in a language than single-valued ones. In the Russian language, for example, there are especially many polysemantic words among the vocabulary of native Russian origin or long-term use (cf., polysemantic words house, earth, field, star, bread, etc.).

The semantic development of the word occurs, as a rule, in two directions:
1. by changing denotations, when a name is transferred from one object or action to another;
1. by enriching the concept and deepening the meaning of the word.

Despite the changes that occur in the semantic structure of the word, the relationship between the meanings of a polysemantic word is preserved. The presence of this connection gives grounds to consider them as the values ​​of one and the same
of the same word, but qualify as lexico-semantic variants. Any polysemantic word consists of a set of interrelated elementary lexical units or lexico-semantic variants.

The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word often manifests itself in the presence of common associative features that unite these meanings.

The system of meanings of a polysemantic word is organized hierarchically, i.e. the main (or main) and derived values ​​are distinguished. The main meanings are the least contextually determined (it is they that arise in the minds of speakers when pronouncing a word out of context), while derivatives (or figurative) are realized only in context (cf. -something or something ": look out the window, in the mirror, at the clock, etc.; derivative -" look like ": look well done).

When describing the system of meanings of a polysemantic word and their hierarchy, two types of relations of its meanings are usually distinguished - the main and particular, and the invariant and variant meanings of the word.
The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and depends on the context to the least degree. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.
2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
A metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: a ripe apple is an eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.
In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) We sat on the recess of the bastion, so that we could see everything in both directions (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having a common border.
In the first sentence, the word angle is used in its direct meaning: "the place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations “in a dead corner”, “bear corner”, the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dead corner - in a remote area, a bear corner - a deaf place.
In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning words are given first, and figurative meanings go under the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5. A value fixed as a figurative recently comes with the mark “trans,” for example:
Wooden, th, th. 1. Made of wood, 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. Wood oil is a cheap variety of olive oil.
Portable Value Types

Depending on the basis on which the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.
1) The transfer of meanings by any similarity between objects, phenomena. Such figurative meanings are called metaphorical. Metaphor (from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location, etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, anthropomorphism is characteristic, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a mop of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. Metaphors are common language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely , as a result of which it is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, river inlet, black envy, iron will), and individual ones, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.
2) Transfer of the name from one subject to another based on the adjacency of these subjects. Such a transfer of meanings is called metonymy (from the Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; there are five mouths in the family; Kolya is a bright head.
Some characteristic signs of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...
- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh (Ch.)

Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word

Lexico-semantic variants, or individual meanings of a polysemantic word, formed in the process of historical development as a result of the transfer of features, properties of one object to another, are called figurative meanings. There are several types of figurative meanings: metaphor, metonymy, syn-ecdoche.

Metaphor (Greek metaphora ʼʼtransferʼʼ) is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the similarity of their external or internal features. The metaphorical transfer is very diverse: it should be in shape - a ring on the hand, a ring of smoke; by color - gold ring, smoke ring; by appointment - a fireplace was flooded, an electric fireplace; location

- tail of a cat; tail of a comet; evaluation - clear day, clear style; by sign, impression – black color, black thoughts.

Metaphorization often occurs as a result of transferring the properties of an inanimate object to an animate one or vice versa: iron bars - iron nerves; golden ring - golden hands; the roar of a bear is the roar of a waterfall. Such figurative meanings are noted in the explanatory dictionary, because are common language. In a literary text, in poetry, one can meet individual-author's, or occasional. For example, tear windows (Chekhov), the country of birch chintz (Yesenin) - the meanings of such words are clear only in context.

Metonymy (Greek metonymia ʼʼrenamingʼʼ) is a transfer from one object to another on the basis of spatial, logical, temporal connection or on the basis of emerging associations.

And every evening at the appointed hour

(Or I'm only dreaming)

Maiden's camp, seized by silks,

In the foggy window moves. (A. Blok).

An example of metonymic meanings in this context are the words stan in the meaning of ʼʼgirlʼʼ and silk - ʼʼclothing made of silk fabricʼʼ. In Russian, there are several varieties of metonymic transfer:

- from the name of the action - to the result of the action: doing embroidery - beautiful embroidery, soda water - drinking soda.

- from the name of the action - to the place of action: entry is prohibited - the entrance was blocked, the train stopped for 5 minutes - the parking lot was closed.

- from the name of the action - to the subject of the action: management of the institute - change of leadership; attack on the cashier - the attack of the team consists of 3 players.

- from the name of the receptacle - to its contents: 304th audience - the audience listened attentively, the desk - a festive table.

- from the name of the material - to a product made from it: high-grade silver - table silver.

- from the name of the institution - to the name of the people: worked at the plant - the plant voted for the director.

- from the name of the institution - to the premises: organized a laboratory - entered the laboratory.

- from the name of the settlement - to its inhabitants: a city not far from the river - the city fell asleep.

Metonymy also includes the transfer of a proper name to a common noun: visited Cashmere (state of India) - a cashmere coat. Metonymic transfer is characteristic of colloquial speech when the contraction occurs syntactic constructions. For example, I love Pushkin (in the meaning of his work); After coffee for a long time did not disperse.

Synœkdokha (Greek synekdoche ʼʼcomprehensionʼʼ) is the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting only a part of the named object or a single object. Some linguists classify syn-ecdoche as metonymy, because transfer occurs on the basis of associations of the whole and part of the subject. For example, Otkole, smart, you wander, head; There are plums - plant plums.

Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word" 2017, 2018.

Polysemy, or polysemy, is typical for the vast majority of words in a language. In most cases, one word has several stable meanings that form semantic variants of this word. And potentially, any or almost any word is able to acquire new meanings when people using the language have a need to use it to name a new phenomenon for them, which does not yet have a designation in the corresponding language.

Exploring figurative meanings in the common language and portable use words in works of fiction, philologists have identified a number of types of transfer of names. The most important of these types can be considered two - metaphor and metonymy.

With metaphor(from other Greek "transfer") we are dealing with where the transfer of a name from one object to another is carried out on the basis of the similarity of certain signs - metaphor symbols. The similarity underlying the metaphorical transfer can be "internal", that is, the similarity is not external signs but sensations, impressions or evaluations. So they say about a warm meeting, about hot love, or, on the contrary, about a cold reception, about a dry answer, about a sour mine and a bitter reproach. This is a syncretic metaphor. With the metaphorical transfer of meaning, the thing changes, but the concept does not change completely: with all metaphorical changes, some sign of the original concept remains. Metaphors can come from different cases similarities. Such, for example, are metaphorical terms, where the transfer is based on the similarity of the form with the names of animals: bulls at the bridge, a frog (a gasoline pump in a car), a front sight on a gun barrel, a winch in a port, a duck (medical vessel), a tractor caterpillar, a dog at a gun; or from the names of body parts: neck, neck, handle, leg, shoulder, cam, head, back.

Metonymy- such a transfer of the name, which is carried out not on the basis of the similarity of the external or internal features of the former thing and the new one, but on the basis of adjacency, that is, the contact of things in space or time. Typical cases of metonymy are associated with the following relationships:

a) One in the other: the words class, audience as the names of the premises and as the designation of the students sitting in these premises.

b) One on the other: a table - "furniture" and a table - "food".

c) One under the other: the table - "furniture" got its name from the table - "something sent."

d) One through the other: French jalousie - blinds - "window curtains made of wooden plates" from jalousie - "jealousy" (the one who peeped through the window through the curtain).

e) One after the other or as a result of the other, process-result; such are all verbal nouns of the type: “the admission of students is continued”, “the set of the book took three months”.

f) Material-product: copper, silver, gold as the names of metals and as the names of coins from them.

g) Place - product: sherry, Madeira, Bordeaux, Abrau-Durso, Curacao - as names of wines and as geographical points

h) Name - product: Colt, Mauser, Browning, Revolver, Winchester - as the names of weapons and the names of their manufacturers.

A type of metonymy is synecdoche(from other Greek "coindication, expression by hint") - the transfer of a name from a part to a whole, for example, from a piece of clothing to a person (he ran after each skirt), or from a whole class of objects or phenomena to one of the subclasses (the so-called "narrowing of the meaning", for example car in the meaning of "car"). As in the case of metonymy, synecdoche is based on contiguity, but a significant difference is the quantitative sign of the ratio of what the name is transferred from and what the name is transferred to; one member of such a ratio will always be larger, wider, more general, the other smaller, narrower, more particular.