"By studying people, they govern better than by studying books."

François Fenelon.

Management in society always involves the interaction of a certain number of people. A small organized group or a large social entity is a kind of universe, the life of which is influenced by an infinite number of factors, from the nuances of the work process to the most complex interweaving of human relationships. To be a leader means to be a "god": he directs, organizes, controls, corrects the life of this "universe". And psychology comes to its aid as one of the universal cosmic laws of human existence.

The psychology of management gives the key to the heart of each member of a group or organization, helps to use the hidden potential of a person included in the system. Knowledge theoretical foundations of this science opens the door to the immense abyss of the human psyche, which manifests itself in the processes of management and production.

What is management

The term "management" has many interpretations. In essence, they, taken together, convey the most complete content of this concept.

For example, Joseph Messi, a British political economist of the 18th century, believed: "Management is the process by which an organization, a group, directs actions towards the achievement of common goals."

James L. Lundy, an American politician of the 20th century, meant by management the fundamental task of planning, coordinating, motivating and controlling efforts to achieve specific goals.

Father of the classical school of management Henri Fayol stated: "Management means to predict, plan, organize, command, coordinate and control."

American scientist Peter F. Drucker (1909-2005), one of the most influential management theorists, understood management as “a multi-purpose body that manages business, managers, employees and work” .

Some scientists consider management as the art of most effectively accumulating human efforts to achieve the goals of a large social group.

The concepts of "management" and "management" are interpreted in different ways; The former is used in a narrow sense, the latter in a broad sense.

into the sphere management are included theoretical foundation and practical work aimed at delineating and achieving the company's goals by rationalizing the use of resources, incl. human.

under the term " control refers to a more general phenomenon, namely organizing work done by other people, including planning, distribution of rights and obligations of the elements of a given social system, motivation and control over processes for the implementation of common goals in an optimal way.

Subject and object of management

Subject of management- this is a person (natural or legal) who performs the function of management. In an organization, this definition includes both one head and several heads, for example, the board of directors. Psychology of management implies that the subject of such an impact is, first of all, the personality of the leader with all its features.

It is necessary to distinguish the subject of control from subject of management activity, which can only be a person, an individual.

Personalized control object is a person (natural or legal) in respect of which the management function is performed. In the organization, the objects of management can be called workers in various fields of activity and managers of lower or middle levels. Management psychology considers the following objects of influence:

• the identity of the employee;
• formal and informal group;
• social group, collective, subdivision;
• management level;
• organization.

Phenomena-objects of control:

• Management processes and other types human activity;
• Corporate microclimate;
• corporate morality;
• Leadership style;
• Systems of management, organization, control, regulation, motivation;
• Regulations, rules, norms, plans established in the organization, etc.

Management psychology as scientific knowledge

This direction is a hybrid of two theoretical bases - psychology as a science about the properties of the human psyche and management as a science about all aspects of the organization of a purposefully and optimally functioning social system. The search for the most successful ratio of proportion between psychological and non-psychological characteristics in the management process is considered the most topical issue in management psychology.

This science operates with such important procedures for the formation of a cognition methodology as generalization and systematization of facts and phenomena, data obtained by experimental and statistical methods in the field of human measurements and management.

The field of knowledge in management psychology is defined by:

• The degree of relevance of a particular problem of modern management;
• The need to develop the most effective methods management;
• The spread of the tendency to perceive the employee, first of all, as an individual with his social rights and obligations; this approach requires the authorities to use human resources, taking into account all the psychological characteristics of each member of the group, but in the most effective ways for the organization;
• Requirements for organizing an optimized management system for a group, enterprise, etc. .

Therefore, we can say that management psychology is a branch of psychology that accumulates the achievements of other sciences to study the psychological side of management, optimize it and increase the level of management efficiency.

Related psychological disciplines

The boundary sciences for management psychology are the following.

Social Psychology. Explores the patterns of activity and behavior of people included in social groups, and the psychological characteristics of social groups. Each group has a formal and informal hierarchy, while the second significantly affects the performance of the entire team. In addition, it is known that a group can influence the opinion of its individual members and their perception of a particular situation.

Management psychology uses the data obtained by this science in order to identify patterns and factors that affect the successful management of a team.

Psychology of Personality. It studies the psychological components, qualities, traits, personality traits, their influence on behavior, activity, communication and perception of reality by an individual. This science has accumulated to date a sufficient amount of theoretical and empirical material. There are many theories of personality that decipher and predict various aspects of human behavior in different situations.

Based on the data obtained in this scientific field, management psychology determines for itself a list of precisely those personality traits and qualities, methods of reward and punishment that make the management system of the organization and the professional activities of employees more efficient.

Developmental psychology and acmeology. They study the course of development and formation of the human psyche at different stages of life (from newborn to old age).

Management psychology looks at a person as an employee of a certain field of activity and therefore has its own view on the problem of personality development, the formation of professionally significant qualities and the level of competence of a manager.

The subject of study of management psychology

This area of ​​psychology studies the psychological characteristics that are manifested in the management of an organization and professional communication.

In a narrow understanding of the subject of study, it is worth highlighting the following objects and phenomena:

Psychological features of managerial activity:

• Psychological problems of the manager's work in general, his distinctive features in certain areas of activity;
• Psychological analysis of the role and personality of the leader, requirements for them;
• Psychological subtleties of making managerial decisions;
• Leadership style and how to correct it.

Psychological features of the functioning of the organization:

• Possibilities of using psychological techniques in management;
• Rules for the formation of a favorable and sustainable intra-corporate microclimate;
• Factors for creating optimal interpersonal relationships in a team, problems of psychological compatibility;
• Features of the coexistence of formal and informal structures in the organization;
• Application of motivational techniques in the work of the organization;
• Value installations in the team, creating your own corporate culture.

Psychological features of the relationship between the leader and subordinates:

• Factors of creation and functioning of the communication system of the organization;
• Subtleties of managerial communication;
• Choosing the best system of interaction between the leader and subordinates;
• Increasing the level of awareness as an indicator of management effectiveness.

Goals and objectives of management psychology

Management psychology faces main goals:

• Improving the psychological literacy of managers in the field of management;
• Creation of the necessary theoretical base for understanding the psychological processes in the field of management, in particular, the behavior of employees, the development of interpersonal relationships and patterns that determine the creation of a work collective and its internal changes;
• Formation practical guide for superiors in order to apply it in the psychological sphere of managing an organization.

This psychological direction is designed to solve the following tasks:

• analysis and display of the psychological environment and its features in a particular control system;
• systematization psychological aspects management;
• identification of patterns and causal relationships between psychological aspects;
• development practices for use in the management of the organization.

Psychological patterns of management activity

Knowledge of the following patterns in management psychology allows you to understand the nuances of the flow of many processes in an organization:

Law of Response Uncertainty says: at the same time different people either one person (at different intervals of time) can act in response to the same impact differently, depending on differences in psychological structure of personality.

The law of inadequacy of the reflection of a person by a person implies: one person is unable to fully know the other to make an objective decision regarding him.

The law of inadequacy of self-esteem: most people have either low or high self-esteem.

The law of splitting the meaning of management information. There is a tendency to change the context of directives, orders, resolutions, etc. as they move through the levels of the management vertical.

Law of self-preservation means the following statement: the preservation of one's own social status, the independence of manifestation personal qualities, self-esteem is the dominant motive for the behavior of the subject of managerial activity.

Law of Compensation. If a person falls into social environment, in which either the requirements for him are too high, or the level of incentives is high enough, then he compensates for his lack of skills, knowledge for this status with other skills or abilities. However, this principle does not work if the position held has too high a level of managerial complexity.

Psychological aspects of the main functions of management

To see how all sectors and levels of management are saturated with psychology, it is necessary to consider the following psychological aspects that are manifested in such management functions as:

Planning function predicts the perception and behavior of specific people and, thus, makes their joint activities successful, achievable goals and objectives of the organization.

The psychological aspects of planning can be divided into 3 groups of factors:

Group I - tasks different type resolved during the preparation and implementation of plans;

Group II - features of the mechanisms that reveal the causes of the processes of developing plans;

Group III - the process of formalizing meanings in the activities of the leader, the formation of a personal context, depending on his interests.

Psychological challenges in implementing this function include:

• decision-making problems (problems of managerial thinking);
• motivation problems;
• problems of volitional regulation of activity.
• The organization function creates and maintains a system of roles in the enterprise; such a system was created under the condition of division of labor, cooperation of actions.

There are three groups of psychological aspects, which are a set of problems, taking into account which the function of the organization is realized:

Group I - abuse of the established order in the organization, the so-called "petty regulation", when a higher level of management unreasonably interferes in the affairs of a lower one, when the contours of responsibility are blurred. As a result, the effect of the impact decreases, the staff experiences a lack of motivation and overload.

II group excessive rigidity organizational structures most organizations, which goes against the needs of working groups and individuals, hinders the realization of their own present and future goals.

To solve this set of problems of the organization function, the following measures have been developed:

• The goals set must be verifiable;
• The contours of responsibilities or areas of activity should be clearly delineated;
• There must be a certain degree of freedom of authority and action; this requirement is especially necessary to correct the second group of psychological problems (excessive rigidity of the organizational structure).
• Information must be complete.

Control function

Psychological aspects that impede the optimal implementation of the control function are:

• Inadequate motivation for control is a distortion of the direction of control when narrow group or individual goals are chosen. Here you can give an example of the manifestation of this group of aspects: when control becomes a method of psychological pressure on a subordinate.
• Psychological disagreements between the subjects of activity regarding the criteria for control in a certain situation;
• Combination of an excessive setting for control with low professional self-esteem of the primary and middle levels of management;
• Insufficient systematic, depth of control measures and corrective procedures;
• Violation of the effective balance of distribution of control powers between management and control units;
• Assigning responsibility for a specific situation to the manager, giving the function of controlling the situation in general, provided that the delegation of authority to make decisions and implement corrections is incomplete. In this case, the leader experiences a sense of his own powerlessness and has other negative consequences of such a management model.

G. Schroeder, a German management specialist, highlighted the negative aspects of control:

• Finding an employee under supervision forces him to self-control, he begins to think about his automatic actions and therefore loses self-confidence;
• Control indicates a difference in status and hinders implementation human need in self-realization and recognition;
• Control is most often unpleasant when the employee does not know what exactly is being controlled;
• The legitimization of control does not allow one to somehow protect oneself from it, and this negative feeling can “pour out” in other situations;
• Control is often perceived by those observed as unwarranted nit-picking;
• Control can be perceived as a manifestation of distrust of the management towards the employee, which hinders the establishment of good and constructive relations between them.

The regulation function ensures the direction of the controlled processes in accordance with the given regulations, program, plan; this is achieved by following a number of principles of impact: minimization, complexity, consistency and internal consistency:

• Impact minimization implies the timeliness and optimal dosage of intervention, since its redundancy interferes with the normal flow of processes in the organization;
• Systematic impact considers the regulated course of affairs within the system;
• The complexity of the impact is observed on the condition that in the process of regulating the activities of the employee, the manager uses incentives that are most appropriate to the motivational structure of the employee;
• Internal consistency of impact exists when the use of a set of incentives does not cause mutually exclusive effects.

It is worth noting that there are other control functions:

• goal setting
• Forecasting
• Decision making
• motivation
• Communications
• Work with personnel
• Production and technological
• Derivatives (complex).

Scientific approaches in management psychology

From the 50s. of the last century, thanks to the development of cybernetics, systems theory, computerization of control and other innovations, several approaches have developed in the field of control psychology. These are:

Systems approach. Its supporters consider the focus on only one side of management to be a flaw in previous theories. The application of this approach allows management to see the entire organization in the unity and interdependence of all its elements. It is understood that any organization or other controlled social group is a system that, like a living organism, functions only if all its “organs” are interdependent. This means that each such “organ” makes the necessary contribution to the life of the entire “organism”. The organization is an open system that interacts with the external environment, which greatly affects the survival of the enterprise (subdivisions and other social groups).

The situational approach (from the beginning of the 70s of the XX century) put forward the theory of the equal use of all control systems - from strictly regulated to those based on relative inner freedom. The choice of system depends on the circumstances that affect the work of the organization in a given period of time. The essence of the approach boils down to two theses:

• absence universal prescription effective management in all cases;
• a direct relationship between the level of management efficiency, mobility and adaptability to the environment or situation in which the organization is located.

Empirical or pragmatic approach, which was based on the study of the field of management of firms and military institutions, engaged in the active dissemination of the knowledge gained. Supporters of the approach understood that management theory was important and necessary, but they argued that practical leadership skills were more useful. After analyzing managerial experience, they developed special methodologies for teaching management based on certain situations. Representatives of this approach, who had a particularly strong influence on the spread of the concepts of "manager", "management", promoted the idea of ​​mandatory professionalization of management, i.e. turning it into a separate profession.

Quantitative approach developed managerial techniques based on mathematical, cybernetic, statistical knowledge obtained as a result of the latest achievements of science and technology, thanks to the development of computerization, which to a large extent freed managerial work from routine technical procedures.

This approach has made a significant contribution to the development of the following concepts:

• the concept of operational management (about the requirements for a manager not only as the owner of knowledge of management theory, but also as an expert in mathematics, sociology, psychology, economics, systems theory, etc.);
• the concept of managerial decisions (asserts that a manager, first of all, must be able to make balanced, most effective decisions; management training should be reduced to acquiring this quality);
• the concept of scientific or mathematical management (considers that the current state of affairs in the world suggests that management should be supported by the achievements of science; this is achieved by using mathematical models and theories).

The most common approaches became quantitative and statistical.

Throughout the 20th century, management psychology has increasingly acquired the features of complex scientific knowledge, and today it has been able to take shape in the form of a rich theoretical base that has included the experience of a wide range of other sciences in its arsenal of knowledge. This trend, like psychology in general, is characterized by such a feature as pluralism of views on the subject under study, which is clearly seen in the diversity of scientific approaches. However, it is difficult to argue with the assertion that the truth lies somewhere in between.

References:

1. Evtikhov O. V. Psychology of personnel management: theory and practice [electronic edition]. St. Petersburg: Speech, 2010.
2. Karpov A. V. Psychology of management. Tutorial [electronic edition]. M.: Gardariki, 2005.
3. Levchenko EA Psychology of management. Text of lectures [electronic edition]. Educational Institution "Belarusian Trade and Economic University of Consumer Cooperatives". Gomel, 2011.
4. Naumenko E.A. Psychology of management. Educational-methodical complex for distance learning[electronic edition]. - Tyumen: Tyumen State University Publishing House, 2002.
5. Petrov VV Schools of management. Textbook for universities [electronic edition], M., 2005.
6. Urbanovich A. A. Management Psychology: Textbook [electronic edition]. Series "Library of Practical Psychology". Mn.: Harvest, 2003.
7. Cherednichenko I. P., Telnykh N. V. Psychology of management / Series "Textbooks for high school"[electronic edition]. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2004.
8. electronic edition]. BharathiarUniversity, Coimbatore, New Delhi, 2007.
9. http://studopedia.ru/7_53234_ob-ekti-i-sub-ekti-upravleniya.html

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Baltic Federal University. I. Kant

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1. The concept of management psychology and the content of its main directions

management psychology is a branch of psychological science that combines the achievements of various sciences in the field of studying the psychological aspects of the management process and is aimed at optimizing this process. When defining the psychology of management as a science, social management is most often implied. Management as social management is a special case of management, the essence of which is to guide people to implement the organization's plans. An organization is a form of association of people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal and streamline joint actions. The subject of management is the person (organization) from whom control actions come, the object of management is the person (organization) to whom these actions are directed. A system is understood as an objective unity of interconnected elements (objects, phenomena, knowledge) combined into a single whole to achieve a specific goal. Thus, social management is a continuous process of influence of the manager (subject of management) on organized group people or someone from this group (object of management) to coordinate their joint activities to achieve its best results.

Psychological patterns of management activity

As you know, management is carried out through the interaction of people, so the leader in his activities must take into account the laws that determine the dynamics of mental processes, interpersonal relationships, group behavior. The main regularities include:.5. The law of self-preservation. Its meaning lies in the fact that the leading motive for the behavior of the subject of managerial activity is the preservation of his personal social status, personal solvency, self-esteem. The nature and orientation of behavior patterns in the management process are directly related to taking into account or ignoring this circumstance.6. The Law of Compensation. At high level incentives for this work or the high requirements of the environment for a person lack of any abilities for successful specific activity offset by other abilities or skills. For example, with an underdeveloped memory, you can use notebooks, voice recorders, weekly journals.

The concept of personality and its structure

Personality is the main link in the humanities, including psychological sciences. In the psychology of management, the need to take into account the personal (human) factor acquires special significance. It is natural in this connection to study psychic phenomena, conduct psychological research from the standpoint of the principle of a personal approach.2. The problem of personality has played and continues to play an increasing role in political life society as a whole, each state and even organizations. This explains the discrepancy in the approaches of various scientific schools to the question of the role of the individual in history, the widely developed discussion about the freedom of the individual, about the protection of his rights. 3. In the psychology of management, the concept of "personality" is of particular importance ..2. The concept of "personality" The concept of "personality" came to psychology from the theater, where personality is a mask that the actor put on before entering the arena or stage. This concept has changed over time. So, in the Russian language in the XVIII century. it meant a caustic response to someone's address, had a common, negative, even abusive meaning. Despite close attention to the problem of personality, an adequate theory of personality has not yet been created to this day. So, back in 1937, G. Allport counted 50 definitions of personality, drawn from philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, sociology and psychology. Our understanding of personality comes down to the definition: "Personality is an individual endowed with consciousness and self-awareness and possessing a number of properties acquired by him in the process of communicating with other people, and representing a unique structure that changes as a result of active adaptation to the environment."

Psychological schools of personality study

Theory of I. P. Pavlov for graduates high school should be known. IP Pavlov (1849 - 1936) - Russian physiologist, creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. He is credited with discovering the role of conditioned reflexes. Thanks to conditioned reflexes, the body adapts to the changing conditions of existence, acquiring new forms of behavior that are different from innate unconditioned reflexes. Pavlov's students comprehensively studied the dynamics of the formation and change of conditioned reflexes, the processes of excitation, inhibition, etc. Determining the qualitative difference between the higher nervous activity of humans and animals, Pavlov put forward the doctrine of two signal systems - sensory and speech. With the help of the word as a “signal of signals”, the brain generally reflects reality, as a result of which the nature of behavior regulation changes radically. Pavlov's teachings on the types of higher nervous activity, on the "dynamic stereotype" as a stable complex of reactions to a stimulus, etc., are also important for understanding personality. The American psychologist John B. Watson (1878 - 1958) applied the concept of a conditioned reflex to the theory of learning, arguing that All human behavior can be described in two terms - stimulus and response. A stimulus is a change in the external environment, and a reaction is the body's response to a stimulus. B.F. Skinner (b. 1904) significantly expanded the classical theory of conditioned reflexes, singling out from their diversity "operant" reactions that are produced by the body spontaneously (for example, a child crawling when he masters the world). These responses can be strengthened or weakened by punishment or reward. These provisions are already more than a psychoanalytic theory, are applicable in management and are accepted by managers as a tool for influencing subordinates. Factors such as salary, the desire of a person to maintain his place, status, etc., are controllable by the leader.

Personality types and their characteristics

Classifications by personality type in psychology are very heterogeneous and numerous. Meanwhile, the boundary between personality types in any classification can be very blurred. Certain character traits, mindset and type of behavior correspond to a certain psychological type of personality. In each person, one can find almost all the existing characteristics attributed to a particular type of personality, however, we can talk about the existence of more or less well-established criteria in psychology for distinguishing personality types. An introvert as a personality type Individuals whose behavior is dominated by characteristics characteristic of this personality type are immersed in their inner world, and if people of this personality type have to be distracted from their "I" and interact with the outside world, they experience difficulties with such a shift focusing attention. An extrovert as a personality type An extrovert individual easily comes into contact. Extroverted personality type is characterized by expansiveness, the desire for active social interaction with other individuals. Entering into social contact for this type of personality is not difficult and is an important condition for psychological comfort.

Management of informal groups

An informal group arises spontaneously on the basis of likes and dislikes that appear between people, similar interests, friendship, mutual assistance, etc. Informal groups can take shape both within formal groups (based on a common professional orientation) and act as isolated communities outside a common professional orientation (based on common interests - sports, gaming, friendly). There are no insurmountable boundaries between official and informal groups, because they can pass into each other (informal relations of lovers are formalized in marriage, and the family is the official unit of society).

Directions of psychological influence on personality. Techniques and methods of influence are divided into 2 groups: direct, or direct, and indirect, or indirect. Direct, or direct, methods of influence include persuasion, suggestion, infection, imitation. Persuasion is an intellectual psychological impact based on the transmission of logically structured information and aiming at its voluntary acceptance as an incentive for the activity of facts in the form of a live story in order to persuade the interlocutor to certain conclusions. Suggestion is a method of psychological influence of a predominantly emotional-volitional nature, based on an uncritical perception and acceptance by an individual of a purposeful flow of information that does not need proof, logic and contains ready-made conclusions (“healing”). Infection is understood as a method of psychological influence based on the unconscious, involuntary exposure of the individual to certain emotional states transmitted from the outside (panic, subbotnik). Imitation is a method of psychological influence based both on the acceptance of external features of the behavior of another person or mass mental states, and on the reproduction by an individual of the features and patterns of behavior and activity demonstrated (vocational school master, hero of the novel, teacher). Indirect, or indirect, methods of influence: orienting situation, change or preservation of role elements, use of symbols - rituals, stimulation. Stimulation involves the use of activities that encourage a person to improve quality is perceived negatively. So, the leader in the regulation of social behavior and activities of a subordinate should treat him not only as an object of leadership, but as a person, a partner in interaction; constantly focus on the best features, the dignity of the people he leads, use a variety of management methods, as well as the capabilities of the team. With such an attitude of the leader to the subordinate, his individual psychological properties are revealed, manifested and developed - character, orientation, abilities.

Personal potential and self-esteem

Personal potential appears as an integral characteristic of the level of personal maturity, and the main phenomenon of personal maturity and the form of manifestation of personal potential is just the phenomenon of self-determination of the personality, that is, the implementation of activities in relative freedom from the given conditions of this activity - both external and internal conditions, under which biological, in particular bodily prerequisites, as well as needs, character and other stable psychological structures are understood. Personal potential reflects the extent to which a person overcomes given circumstances, and ultimately the person's overcoming of himself. I will refer to the general anthropological model of E. Fromm (1995), which seems to me to be a very accurate and complete image of a person. Fromm states the fundamental duality of man. On the one hand, man has emerged from the natural world and is drawn along the path of least resistance drawn by nature. This is the path of returning to the bosom of mother nature, the path of merging with the clan, clan, and so on, the path of renunciation of independence, of one's own decision-making, ultimately, of consciousness, and escape from freedom. But since a person cannot return to this womb, he is expelled from paradise, he must seek his own, already human path, in which no one can help him; he must go over the edge and create the foundations for his life, because he is deprived of the foundations that all other living beings have. Strictly speaking, in the extent to which a person self-determines in relation to this dichotomy, the personal potential in the personality also finds its manifestation. In essence, personality potential reflects the extent to which a given individual is descended from a monkey, because one of the biggest illusions is to believe that we have already descended from a monkey. Each person throughout his life continues to solve this problem, and the result of a variety of responses to this evolutionary challenge is a very large spectrum of individual variations in the degree of humanity. Unfortunately, this image is not as metaphorical as it seems at first glance.

Psychological properties of personality

Psychology studies not only individual mental processes and those peculiar combinations of them that are observed in complex human activity, but also the mental properties that characterize each human personality: its interests and inclinations, its abilities, its temperament and character. It is impossible to find two people who are absolutely identical in their mental properties. Each person differs from other people in a number of features, the totality of which forms his individuality. Speaking of the mental properties of a personality, we mean its essential, more or less stable, permanent features. Every person happens to forget something; but not for every person "forgetfulness" is a characteristic feature. Every person has experienced at some time an irritable mood, but "irritability" is characteristic only of some people. The mental properties of a person are not something that a person receives in ready-made and remains unchanged until the end of his days. The mental properties of a person - his abilities, his character, his interests and inclinations - are developed, formed in the course of life. These features are more or less stable, but not immutable. There are no absolutely immutable properties in the human personality. While a person lives, he develops and, therefore, changes in one way or another.

Motivation as a personality management factor

In order to connect a person to the solution of a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. And only with appropriate motivation can inspire people to solve complex and super-complex tasks. The motivational approach has long been developed in foreign and domestic psychology. Motivation as a psychological phenomenon is interpreted in different ways. In one case - as a combination of factors that determine behavior. In another - as a set of motives. In the third - as an impulse that causes the activity of the organism and determines its direction. Etc. For the unambiguous perception of the concept of "motivation" in this text, we will consider motivation as a dynamic process of forming a motive (as the basis of an act). Quite often, psychologists in their theoretical works try to consider separately external motivation - extrinsic and internal - intrinsive. But in practice, a person cannot but depend in his decisions and actions on the influence of the environment. That is, internal motivation is influenced by external factors. Speaking about external motivation, it is necessary to take into account that circumstances, conditions, situations acquire significance for motivation only when they become significant for a person, to satisfy needs, desires. Therefore, external factors must be transformed into internal ones in the process of motivation.

Personality as a subject of management, guidance and leadership

In enterprises, firms, institutions, organizations or teams, as a rule, there is a clear division of managerial relations: some - manage, manage; others are subject to leadership. The subject of management is most often the head of the team, but it can also be a committee. Sometimes an ordinary member of the team, who is an informal leader in it, becomes the subject of management. Recently, the idea of ​​participatory management has been increasingly accepted, i.e. such management of the affairs of an organization, firm, when all members of the organization participate in the development and adoption of the most important decisions. In management science, psychologists distinguish between management and leadership. Leadership is always associated with power, it is a phenomenon derived from official relations. The head, as a rule, is appointed from the outside, by higher authorities, receiving from them powers of authority, including the right to apply positive and negative sanctions. The leader emerges spontaneously. Any informal leader has a personal attraction, which manifests itself in different form. There are three types of leaders - the leader, the leader (in the narrow sense of the word) and the situational leader. The leader is the most authoritative member of the group, possessing the gift of suggestion and persuasion. He influences other members of the group with a word, a gesture, a look. The leader is much less authoritative than the leader, along with suggestion and persuasion, he often has to induce action by personal example (do as I do!). A situational leader has personal qualities that matter only in some very specific situation. There are leaders in any team, and they deserve special attention, because it is they who influence the moral and psychological climate in the team, can become a source of conflict, but it is they who make up the reserve for the promotion of personnel. Despite the obvious differences between management and leadership, they have a lot in common. There are the following three common features: - the leader and the leader play the role of coordinators, organizers of the members of the social group; - the leader and the leader exercise social influence in the team, only by different means; - the manager and the leader use subordinate relations, although in the first case they are clearly regulated, in the second they are not provided in advance. There are at least three concepts of the origin of the personal qualities of a leader. According to the first - a person from birth with the makings of a leader, he is prescribed to lead people. According to the second - the "theory of traits", the personality itself acquires the necessary set of qualities of a leader - high intelligence, extensive knowledge, common sense, initiative, etc. Proponents of this theory believe that it is enough to identify

Manager as managerial leader

The leader is a person who directs and coordinates the activities of performers, who must obey him without fail and, within the framework of certain powers, fulfill all his requirements. The manager himself can take on the functions of an executor only in order to understand the specifics of the problem. The head can successfully manage the performers only if they submit to his authority. Power is the ability of some people to subordinate others to their will, influencing them. The latter is understood as an emotional or rational impact that changes the behavior in the right direction for the organization, encourages more efficient work, and prevents conflicts.

Psychological techniques for achieving the disposition of subordinates

Managerial communication - communication between the head and officials in order to implement the management function (changing the activities of subordinates in a certain direction, maintaining it in a given direction or forming it in a new direction). There are three main functions of managerial communication: the issuance of administrative information, the receipt of information back (feedback) and the issuance of evaluation information (assessment of the performance of the task by subordinates). Management psychology, which studies the behavior of people in the process of social production, has importance in terms of staffing. Psychological management methods play a very important role in working with personnel, as they are aimed at the specific personality of the worker or employee and, as a rule, are strictly personalized and individual. Their main feature is the appeal to inner world a person, his personality, intellect, feelings, images and behavior in order to direct the internal potential of a person to solve specific problems of the enterprise.

psychology management personality self-esteem

One of the features of managerial work is the presence of difficulties in assessing its effectiveness, i.e. achieving the required results with minimal cost. Leadership does not always bring fleeting results. Changes caused by management are most often long-term, prolonged in nature (formation of the socio-psychological climate of the workforce), while assessing partial changes is difficult due to the lack of criteria and is hardly appropriate. The true criterion for assessing the activities of the leader is the final result of the work of the entire team, in which the results of the work of both the leader and the performers are organically combined. The results of labor from an economic point of view are manifested as the profit of the enterprise, the quality and quantity of products, productivity, efficiency (cost), product innovation, efficiency (according to D. Scott Sink). To improve the efficiency of management, it is necessary to carry out a number of measures in the production and organizational spheres. Yes, in production area these measures are: the release of products that are in demand, the use modern technologies, In each organization, it must be determined how many subordinates a manager can manage. To the rules of effective leadership, proven practical experience abroad and in our country, the following can be attributed: transfer (delegation) to the relevant structures of authority and responsibility for the results of the used power; planning the main areas of work with people; relentless pursuit of the goal; clarity and clarity of orders given; the ratio of the capabilities of performers to the complexity of the tasks; formation of a business and friendly atmosphere in the organization; promotion for best performance in work and the exclusion of punitive measures; publicity and openness in work; strict control over the mental and physical condition of employees; material and moral support of employees in necessary cases; regular conversations between managers and subordinates. Compliance with these rules is the key to improving the effectiveness of management.

14. The structure of the personal qualities of the leader

Socio-political qualities characterize the degree of political maturity of the leader, understanding and acceptance of the foundations of state foreign and domestic policy, ideological principles, the active implementation of the ideas of the formation of the Belarusian statehood, the transition to market relations. rules, compliance with generally accepted sociocultural norms that regulate the behavior of a leader in the process of performing activities and communicating with subordinates. Social and psychological qualities provide: - effective reception and processing of information flows, optimal information interaction both in terms of subordination and coordination components of this interaction, i.e. e. success of the communicative function in management; - perception, understanding of a communication partner, building relationships with colleagues and subordinates, thereby realizing the perceptual function of communication; - distribution of responsibilities, delegation of authority, organization of joint activities of employees, creation of a team (team), i.e. implementation of the interactive function of communication. Professional and managerial (business) qualities are personality traits that manifest and improve (form) in the course of managerial activity and largely ensure and determine its success. Intellectual qualities leader determine his ability to find best way solving practical problems in the process of emerging problem management situations, adaptability to new conditions of life, flexibility in behavior, use of the necessary information in the right amount and at the right time. Self-confidence - firmness, lack of hesitation, doubts when making decisions and their implementation. Organizational insight is the "flair" of the leader, manifested as attention to the intricacies of relationships, the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to understand him. Self-esteem is a sense of self-worth, coupled with a jealous attitude towards the opinion of others about oneself.

The concept of methods and leadership styles

In the process of performing managerial functions, the manager uses a variety of management methods. Management method - a set of management techniques used by the head to perform his functions. Such methods can be an order, persuasion, encouragement, punishment, material and moral incentives. Management style - in a certain way, an ordered application of methods, mediated by the personal qualities of the leader, i.e. management style is a subjective-personal implementation of a particular method or their combination. Often method and style act as a number of concepts. This is due to the fact that both the method and the style of management pursue the same goal, namely, the unification of people into a group with the capacity to perform joint activities. In this regard, both the method and style act as a manager's toolkit for the organization to achieve the ultimate goal of the activity. Method and style are in close interaction, mutual influence. This is manifested in the fact that the method of leadership determines and subjugates the leadership style; well suited to each of the established methods certain style guides; the leadership method is implemented in practice in a variety of styles; the method is more mobile, changeable and sensitive to new needs in the field of management than style; the style of leadership affects the method if the latter has become stagnant. At the same time, there are some qualitative differences in the methods and styles of management that characterize their originality. If the leadership method is a way of uniting, rallying people into a capable group in accordance with the objective conditions of activity, then the leadership style is a stable set of personal, subjective-psychological characteristics of the leader, through which this or that leadership method is carried out. In other words, the method is the content side of management activity, and the style is the form of its implementation. The method and style can be compared with the notes and manner of performing a piece of music: the notes are the same for everyone, but each performer interprets the work in his own way. Since the effectiveness of the activities of subordinates is largely determined by the personality of the leader, the concept of “leadership (management) style” is more often used in management psychology, i.e. the method is, as it were, included in the leadership style, is equivalent, identical to it.

Leadership style considering human relations and achievements

According to the predominance of individual or group methods of influencing the content of activity, authoritarian, democratic and liberal styles of leadership (according to K. Levin) are distinguished. The authoritarian (autocratic) style is characterized by high centralization of leadership, dominance of one-man management. The leader demands that all cases be reported to him, single-handedly makes decisions or cancels them. Do not listen to the opinion of the team. The prevailing methods of management are orders, punishments, remarks, reprimands, deprivation of various benefits. Control is tough, strict, detailed, depriving subordinates of initiative. The interests of the cause are put above the interests of people, in communication harshness and rudeness prevail. This style is most effective in well-ordered (structured) situations. Democratic (collegiate) style is characterized by the distribution of authority, initiative and responsibility between the leader and subordinates. The head of the democratic style always finds out the opinion of the team on important production issues. Communication with subordinates takes place in the form of wishes, recommendations, advice, rewards for high-quality operational work, in a friendly and polite manner. The leader stimulates a favorable psychological climate in the team, defends the interests of subordinates. This style is most effective in semi-structured situations and is focused on interpersonal relationships, solving creative problems. The liberal (anarchist) style is characterized by the lack of active participation of the leader in the management of the team. Such a leader “goes with the flow”, waits or requires instructions from above, or falls under the influence of the team. He prefers not to take risks, “keep his head down”, shirks the resolution of urgent conflicts, seeks to reduce his personal responsibility. Lets work take its course, rarely controls. This style of leadership is preferable in creative teams, where employees are distinguished by independence and creative individuality.

Psychological methods of management

Psychological methods, which are a set of specific ways of influencing personal relationships and connections that arise in labor collectives, as well as on the social processes taking place in them. They are based on the use of moral incentives for work, influence the personality with the help of psychological techniques in order to turn an administrative task into a conscious duty, an internal human need. The main goal of applying these methods is the formation of a positive socio-psychological climate in the team, thanks to which, to a large extent, problems will be solved. nutritional, organizational and economic tasks.

Psychological indicators of collective efficiency

The team is a small contact group, characterized by common goals, the presence of joint socially useful activities, a high level of organization, cohesion, and psychological compatibility. The team has the following characteristics: 1. The socially significant goal facing the group is recognized and accepted by all members of the group, who put the maximum of their abilities into its achievement and thereby ensure optimal performance.2. The presence of the most valuable interpersonal relationships between employees: trust, mutual assistance, mutual understanding, cohesion, providing a positive psychological climate, high performance and stability of the group.3. The management of the group by the leader-leader. A. N. Lutoshkin called the group with such characteristics “a burning torch”.

The concept of organization as an object of management

Social group as a psychological characteristic of an organization

An organization is a type of social system characterized by a multi-level structure, the ability to develop, and openness. The organization is divided into social, functional, socio-demographic, professional and qualification structures. social structure in an organization can be represented by such categories as workers (skilled and unskilled), managerial personnel (managers, specialists and technical performers). management personnel, accounting and office workers, production and technical personnel). In the socio-demographic structure, groups are distinguished by sex, age, nationality, etc. In the professional qualification structure, the following groups of workers are distinguished: highly qualified, skilled, low-skilled, unskilled, trainees, with secondary special education, with higher education. Normal, effective organization of labor, management of joint activities, its coordination are due to the communicative structure, i.e. a network of channels or paths through which information is exchanged (informal, formal channels, vertical communication with a downward flow, an upward communication flow, horizontal communication, etc.). The carrier of the sign of an organization is a group of people (2 or more people), whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal.

Mechanism of group dynamics

There are several approaches to describing the psychological characteristics of the interaction of group subjects. One of these models was proposed by American psychologists M. Woodcock and D. Francis. Their idea of ​​the main stages of group development is as follows. The first stage of group development is “grinding in”. At this stage, group members look at each other. The degree of personal interest in working in this group is determined. Personal feelings and experiences are masked or hidden. There is practically no sincere and interested discussion of the goals and methods of work. Members of the group are not interested in their colleagues, almost do not listen to each other. Creative and inspiring collective work is virtually non-existent. The second stage - in the terminology of the authors - "close combat". This is a period of struggle and upheaval. The period when the contribution of the leader is evaluated, when clans and groups are formed, and disagreements are expressed more openly. At this stage, personal relationships become increasingly important. Strong and weak sides individual members of the group are more and more clearly identified. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership. The group begins to discuss ways to reach agreement, seeks to establish effective relationships. The third stage is "experimentation". At this stage, the members of the group realize their potential, which as a whole increases. The problem of effective use of the abilities and resources of the group becomes more and more urgent. There is an interest in how you can work better. Working methods are being reviewed. There is a desire to experiment. Measures are being taken to really increase the efficiency of the group's work. The fourth stage is "efficiency". The group gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. Employees experience a sense of pride in their belonging to the “winning team”. Problems that arise are explored realistically and solved creatively. Management functions can be smoothly delegated to one or another member of the group, depending on the specific task. The fifth stage is "maturity". At this stage, the group functions as a team, united around real common goals that are well understood by all, into which individual goals are converged (reduced). There are strong bonds between group members.

22.Typichnye restrictions hindering the effective operation of the team

Main restrictions that prevent ef-noy count: 1. unsuitability of hands-la, giftedness of hands-la (organizational skills) is found 10 times less often than musical methods. But the quality of hands-la is trainable. 2. unqualified employees. We need such collaborators and their composition, a cat. can work fruitfully together in one team. members of the count cannot contribute. 4. Abnormal microclimate, people are united: common goals and emotions. 5. unsatisfactory work results. and confrontation. When there is no freedom of opinion in the community, an unhealthy climate arises in it. Members of the count must be able to express their opinions without fear of revenge, ridicule, etc. 8. low creative ways of the count. Efficient number of mt generate creative ideas and generate them. 9. non-constructive relations with other numbers.

How to increase the effectiveness of the group

Because these groups are a deliberately created component of the formal organization, much of what we have said about running an organization applies to them as well. Like the entire organization as a whole, in order to achieve effective functioning, groups require planning, organization, motivation and control of activities. Therefore, in this section, we will focus on only one aspect of the functioning of a small group, according to many leaders, the most difficult, namely, to increase the effectiveness of meetings where problems are solved and decisions are made. Depending on the characteristics of the group and the way it is led, a meeting can be a fruitless exercise or an extremely effective tool where talent, experience, and the ability to generate new ideas come together. Before we present some specific recommendations on how to make a meeting effective, let's first look at the general factors that affect the effectiveness of a group.

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Managerial psychology is a field of psychological science that studies psychological patterns in managerial work. This is the structure, features and specificity, ways of using psychological aspects to solve a variety of managerial tasks. The leader every day faces a variety of cases, tasks, problems. It is not difficult to get entangled in this whirlpool, and difficulties, as you know, often await at the most inopportune moment, and you must constantly be ready to resolve them.

It is noteworthy that there is absolutely no system in the occurrence and unforeseen circumstances, however, if you set a goal, you can develop an algorithm of actions for the case when something goes wrong. Indirectly, this includes drawing up a work plan, keeping all current affairs in order, so that in an undesirable situation there are no hitches that could be foreseen and prevented.

The complexity of the manager's work, by and large, lies in the fact that he constantly needs to streamline and systematize the moments and actions that are necessary for successful work companies. The manager understands that every day he has to make many decisions, and they must turn out to be correct. Psychologically it is very difficult.

Managerial psychology teaches to master one's activity, to realize oneself as a part of it. The activity of each person consists of small components, and they need to be known perfectly, including their psychological structure. A leader who is well acquainted with the main components of the psychological has a number of advantages. For example, he sees the main thing that needs to be done to achieve a particular goal. He also knows how close the target is and how much time is left before it is reached. An experienced manager can correct the course of solving a problem and get the desired result in the most beneficial way for himself and the company.

Psychology involves the following components:

• Intelligible setting of clear goals, ideally - in front of all employees. Each employee must clearly understand what specific contribution he must make in order to achieve the common goal.
• Motivation is something without which ordinary employees will not make efforts to solve any problem. The fact is that usually any company is the business of the leader, his ambitions, and for most employees - a way to earn money.
• Delegation of authority - the transfer of control over the progress of the task in each unit.
• Reflection.

Managerial psychology teaches to create conditions for the subordination of the main components of the manager's activity. Such conditions can be expressed in terms of manager skill requirements.

Control is, perhaps, the main point that managerial psychology requires. Moreover, it is necessary to control both the work of all employees and their own activities.

Goal setting is an understanding of the psychological weight of goals, the ability to clearly articulate and correctly convey upcoming goals to employees, the ability to effectively plan one's activities and implement this useful skill in the enterprise.

Motivation - ideally, you need to know the nature and characteristics of your subordinates, be aware of their lives in order to determine what is interesting to everyone and what can captivate a group of workers.

Setting the task - you need to know what is needed for fruitful work, what may be needed in the future and how much the previously completed tasks helped. It is also necessary to determine the stages of work and their time frame, to know how the goal being achieved is consistent with other possible ones, how it will fit into the work of the company.

Delegation involves the transfer of part of the authority to local leaders, but not all authority can be entrusted to others.

Thus, the activity of a leader requires a broad base of knowledge and skills and their continuous improvement.

Control- a special kind of human activity carried out within the framework of collective labor.

Any joint work requires management. This means that management is an indispensable element of any collective activity of people, not only in the sphere of production, but also in the non-productive sphere, covering education, training of specialists in science, health, culture, etc.

Management synthesizes in itself the organization of people's activities and the management of this activity, which means that the whole complex of sciences that study a person and his activity acquires a very significant role.

Since management includes, as an important component, the management of people's activities, its improvement involves reliance on knowledge about a person, about the patterns of his activity and behavior, about opportunities and abilities, psychological differences between people, about their interaction in labor collectives.

In connection with the increasing role of human factors in various spheres of society, the problem of man becomes one of the central ones in the entire system of modern science. In its development, a special role belongs to the psychology of management; studying a person as a subject of labor, cognition and communication, it inevitably becomes a link between the social, natural and technical sciences.

One of the important reserves for increasing the efficiency of any labor is human factors, i.e. factors determined by the physiological, psychological and socio-psychological properties of a person - the main productive force of society.

In expedient activity, as a rule, reserves associated with human factors are formed and implemented.

In the course of this activity, the needs and abilities of a person, his creative potential and professional skills, value orientations and social attitudes develop.

An essential point in the improvement of management activity is its psychological analysis: identifying the requirements for perception and attention, memory and thinking, emotions and will (i.e. the so-called “mental sphere”) of a person due to this activity and determining the most effective ways to form significant qualities.

In the process of joint labor activity of people, a system of interpersonal relations (psychological in nature) is formed: likes, dislikes, personal friendship, etc.

A system of mutual requirements, a general mood, a common style of work, intellectual, moral and volitional unity are formed in the team, in other words, in the conditions of joint activity, what is usually called the "psychological climate" is formed.

Due to the fact that large interconnected teams of people participate in management processes, for the science of management the problem of the team appears in two aspects. On the one hand, the labor collective is the object of management. Therefore, the patterns of formation and development of the team, its structure and dynamics need to be known in order to find the most adequate means of influencing it in each specific case. On the other hand, management activity itself in the conditions of modern production is also collective, i.e. the team also acts as a subject of management.

An important task of management psychology is a deep study of the structure and mechanisms of management activity.

Structural and managerial activities include: analysis and evaluation of management objects, problem situations, management decision-making, organization and implementation decision. In the general structure of managerial activity, the role of “goal-setting”, motivational-attitudinal, emotional-volitional and other personal factors is great.

The central link of managerial activity is the solution of managerial problems. Management decisions in general are characterized by the following features:

• a complex ratio of a strategic, fairly stable solution with variable private solutions associated with changes in the operational environment
• hierarchical decision-making procedure with a certain degree of autonomy at each level
• conflict, but, of course, non-antagonistic nature of the process of preparing a decision, reflecting the "struggle" of motives, alternatives, a combination of collective development and sole decision-making with a high level of responsibility, etc.

An important problem in the psychology of leadership is the analysis of the leader's personality.

Obviously, a serious problem is the identification of professionally important qualities of a leader and the corresponding criteria.

There are three levels of personality structure:

• psychophysiological, including mainly primary cognitive, informational processes with their parameters
• proper psychological, including features of temperament and character of a person, his intellectual sphere, emotional-volitional sphere, specific personal properties - professional, organizational, psychological and pedagogical
• the highest social level, including the worldview, political and moral qualities of the leader

It is important for a leader to have an analytical-synthetic type of perception, the ability to observe facts and explain them without prejudice; sustained attention combined with the ability to switch attention from one problem to another, developed, especially operational, memory for events, facts, faces, names. One of the most important qualities is deep practical thinking. The practical mind of a leader should be characterized by: speed, decisiveness, the ability to foresee and find new solutions. In the intense activity of the leader, especially in unusual situations, the role of emotional-volitional reserves is great.

The work of a leader is compared with the work of a conductor, who must know who, where and what kind of violin, where, how and what instrument he studied, where, who and why is out of tune, whom, how and where it is necessary to translate to correct dissonance, etc.

The main reasons that form the psychological climate are: the personality of the leader, the competence of the performers and their compatibility in the performance of team work. When these conditions are violated, conflicts arise. The causes of conflicts were experimentally established: in 45% of cases - due to the fault of the manager, in 33% - due to the psychological incompatibility of employees, in 15% - due to improper selection of personnel.

To ensure normal work, it is important to create a good mood Goodwill, sensitivity, tact, mutual courtesy are stimulants of good mood. On the contrary, hostility, rudeness, infringement of the pride of subordinates - all this damages the nervous system and reduces the efficiency of the team.

Under the control process, we understand the purposeful information interaction between the subject (leader) and the object (team) in order to transfer it from one state to another or maintain the control object in a given state when exposed to various disturbances (both internal and external) by subject to the variable parameters of the control object.

Management process– complex view activities. And in this regard, it seems relevant to consider the mental mechanisms underlying it.

The scheme of the control system can be described as follows. There is some control object. A person sets a task (or other people set a task for him) to transfer the object from state a1 to state a2 (or, on the contrary, to keep the object in the state, overcoming external perturbations). Based on the information at his disposal (including professional experience), a certain image of the specified (future) state of the object (state a2) is formed in a person. Perceiving information, a person evaluates the current state of the object (state a1), analyzes various ways of performing a task, makes a decision and performs a control action (or a system of actions), transferring the control object from state a1 to state a2. Information about the changed state comes to the person, and he evaluates whether the problem is solved by comparing the current state a1 with the given a2, and, depending on the result, performs new control actions: the control cycle is repeated.

Management actions are of interest to us as an information process. At the input of this process is information about the current state of the object, at the output is the expedient transforming effect of the subject of action on the object. The control process does not begin with the fact that the object is in some current state, but with the fact that the subject begins, in order to achieve the goal, to receive information about the state of the object to be changed. Similarly, the action ends not with the fact that the object is transformed, but with the fact that the subject receives information about the result of the transforming effect he has exerted on the object.

What is the relationship between the "input" and "output" of the action, how is the transition from input information to output action carried out? Obviously, the input information by itself could not cause an output action. It was the subject that transformed one into the other, and the action itself consisted in this transformation.

The most important feature of the control process carried out by a person is the fact that the process of converting input information about an object into a meaningful impact on the object occurs in the form of mental reflection. The result of mental reflection of highly controlled systems is an image. It is the psychic reflection, the ideal images, that are the desired "intermediate variable" that makes the connection between the external behavior of a person and the flow of information coming to him from the objects of the environment.

From a psychological point of view, the question of an “intermediate variable” is easily solved when understanding the control process as a process of expedient transformation of an object based on the information available to the subject and the information coming to him from the object through the channel feedback. With this understanding, the psyche, a subjective image, organically fits into the information cycle taking place in the process of management, as a central processing link.

The processing of information that characterizes the process of management from the psychological side is carried out, according to our understanding, in the processes of confrontation of various types of images. Some of the images act as a material processed in the management process, others - as a means of processing this material. In this sense, it is convenient to call the former correlative (current), the latter - correlative (reference). Corresponding images directly reflect the current state of the object. Correlating images act as a more or less stable information reserve organized specifically for the purposes of this type of management. Corresponding information flow, on the one hand, correlating information backlog, on the other. These are the two information flows, the active interaction of which ensures this management process.

To solve the problems of management psychology, one should begin with understanding the ideas about the object and subject of management psychology. The object of management psychology is an organization, which is considered as a specialized social institution designed to fulfill certain socially significant goals and, in this regard, endowing labor, technical and energy resources, as well as rights and obligations that determine the functions of the organization and its place in society and organizational structures.

The organization acts as the main formation, within which the role of management in regulating the joint activities of people is most clearly revealed. The structure of the organization, its place in the management system, its functional originality leaves a certain imprint on the activities of both the individual and the team, which are an integral part of the organization's resources.

The subject of management psychology is the diverse activities of the individual and the team, aimed at realizing the goals of the organization. In accordance with externally set labor goals, the main type of activity in the organization is functional activity, i.e. actual professional work.

The subject of management psychology is not only professional activity, but a system of activities that is collectively aimed at fulfilling the goals of the organization, and a person as an actor appears in relations of interaction with various structural and functional parts of the organization, designed to fulfill its labor and social goals.

This approach to the activities of the individual and the team in the structure of the organization is extremely important, as it makes it possible to assess the impact of factors of various origins on the effectiveness of the organization.

Activity can be considered as the leading form of social activity of the individual, a kind of subjective activity. The personality does not simply “play” the social role prepared for it, does not dispassionately implement an objectively given activity, but modulates the latter, as it were, gives it its own “personal profile”, modifies it so much that two people implementing the activity of the same name cannot work in exactly the same way, no matter how hard they strive for it. It is here that the psychological problems of activity are revealed, which differ from the cybernetic, sociological, and any other approach.

Psychological science studies the organization as a system of activities from a specific point of view, figuratively speaking, as an integral living organism with its inherent emotions and feelings, intellect and will.

Such an approach to the question of the object and subject of management psychology allows us to formulate a number of promising areas designed to create scientific and psychological support for tasks, among which special attention is paid to improving organizational structures and management methods.

Management psychology, on the one hand, should direct its efforts to the study of organizational factors that activate the professional activities of people, and, on the other hand, explore those aspects of the "human factor" that have a significant impact on the functioning of the organization as a certain social institution.

In the variety of activities that form the organization as an integral system, it is possible to single out the elements of the system and the links between them. Individual activities act as elements, and the role of connections as structural components systems play the ways of their conjugation, i.e. specific socio-psychological conditions in which workers interact, performing related tasks.

Individual activities as elements of the organization for legal status personalities are divided into leading and executive. The study of leadership activity in the psychology of management is a central direction.

Social practice is in dire need of evidence-based recommendations for improving the work of the leader, depending on the level in the management system, individual qualities personality, socio-psychological characteristics of the work collective, the nature and content of the social functions of the organization, etc.

Studies of performing activity are no less relevant. Here, it seems promising to study the patterns of social regulation of people's behavior, effective forms and methods of influencing the consciousness and behavior of a person, ensuring the initiative and conscientious fulfillment of the tasks facing the organization.

In management psychology, in contrast to general psychology and labor psychology, activity is studied primarily as a socio-psychological category. An organization as a system of activities functions effectively only if a clear coordination of the efforts of interacting employees is sufficiently reliably ensured. The way in which individual activities are “linked” with each other ultimately determines what the total effect of joint labor will turn out to be. It is important to direct research towards uncovering patterns of activity coordination.

Typical functions of managerial activity are the functions of information processing and decision making. This activity includes a number of peculiar moments peculiar only to management. The most characteristic point is that the activity of processing information and making decisions is carried out in the organization as an activity included in the functional communication between members of the organization. It refers to a kind of communication subordinated to the goals of professional activity performed by subjects in conditions of interdependence.

In management activities, functional communication serves to transfer information from one member of the organization to another. This information is the starting point of information processing and decision-making activities.

However, this does not exhaust the role of functional communication. Like any communication, it involves the interaction of participants and their mutual influence. In turn, mutual influence makes information flows mutually directed. This side of managerial activity is of the greatest interest for psychology. The problem is that in order to optimally organize functional communication, it is necessary to establish psychological patterns that determine the impact of functional communication on the processing of information and decision-making in the organization. The processing of information in the organization is carried out according to the hierarchical levels of the organization. At each level, selection and transformation of information takes place in accordance with the functions of this level and the next one.

Thus, information is simultaneously relayed and processed. If the information follows from the lower hierarchical levels, then its transformation goes in the direction of data integration, when following from higher to lower levels, the transformation is carried out in the direction of data differentiation. In this situation, the question of the level of integration and differentiation of management information, including information generated again as a solution, becomes relevant.

All this indicates the seriousness and significance of the problem of representation in the organization of information.

The subjective moment is of great importance in the functioning of the organization. The influence of the subjective factor is manifested in all aspects and conditions of the organization's activities that are associated with a person as a subject and object of management.

Until recently, management style has been studied mainly in terms of relations that develop in the leader-subordinate system. At the same time, it should be noted that the influence of style in the supervisor-subordinate system was considered in statics, i.e. as a non-developing system. The problems of style in the leader-team system have not been studied enough. Meanwhile, the problem of growing under the influence of the management style of relations, predominantly functional, into collectivist relations, in other words, the problem of enriching functional relations with relations characteristic of a developed team, is of great interest. The management style plays an important role here, as it forms a certain way of life of the organization and thereby contributes to the development of interests and needs that are characteristic of a developed team.

So far, the importance of those problems in the study of management style, which are mainly associated with the implementation of the personal qualities of a manager, those that inevitably bring originality to the performance of necessary functions, has been emphasized. However, there must be another side to the study of style. Usually, the system of relations of the head to the function of the organization, to the members of the organization is fixed in the form of an image of a certain behavior. This image is formed on the basis of the model of the leader, which is set by the socio-economic system, and on the basis of experience gained from observing the real types of behavior of the leaders of the organization. The image of the manager's behavior that has developed in the organization requires a certain adaptation of his individual, personal qualities to this image, including when it comes to their manifestation in the management system. This approach to management style allows us to formulate another problem of management psychology, which can be called the problem of the personality of an authoritative leader. In the study of the image of the leader's activity, one should rely on two criteria related to the performance of the two main functions of the organization: production efficiency and social efficiency. This approach allows, in our opinion, to overcome the subjectivity in the assessment of the leader through various kinds of expert assessments. Often in this respect there are errors arising not from the assessment of activity, but from the assessment of behavior. Undoubtedly, the leader's behavior is a very important means of achieving the goals of managerial activity, but mixing them in assessing the effectiveness of the leader leads to the fact that the compiled quality models conflict with reality.

At the same time, it cannot be denied that the leader's behavior affects the formation of interpersonal relations in the team, its socio-psychological climate in general, and the rate of approval of the leader in the organization as an authority. Studies indicate that the discrepancy between the leader's behavior and role expectations often comes from ignorance of how a particular behavioral act is reflected in the minds and activities of people, from ignorance of the basics of psychologically expedient behavior, which should have a stimulating effect on both relationships and activities. members of the organization. In this regard, the problem of the content of the psychological education of managers becomes practically important.

The most important for the manager are psychological knowledge, designed to provide comprehensive self-knowledge and development of the leader's personality in order to increase his professional competence, knowledge of the psychological patterns that affect the activities of the team and the individual, and, finally, knowledge of the methods for managing these patterns that should be used in everyday work. with staff.

An important aspect of the management style is the stimulation of labor by the manager.

A fair management style is one that combines material and moral incentives in a dynamic balance. Skillful handling of material and moral incentives creates the necessary prerequisites for a comprehensive impact on labor activity. At present, there is a need to solve the problem of more accurate hitting of stimuli on the target through their psychologization. In this case, the psychologization of incentives is understood as their correspondence to the interests, needs, orientations of a particular team, an individual. At the same time, psychologization is necessary in relation to both material and moral incentives.

When implementing control, it is necessary to strive for its optimization, and for this, the requirements of optimal control must be met.

The first requirement is that the control mechanism must correspond to the capabilities of the subject and the complexity of the object; the second is the presence of well-developed feedback; the third is the availability of reserves that provide the possibility of correcting all management functions in order to achieve their optimal implementation in the course of the activity itself; the fourth is the correct choice of evaluation criteria. Optimality criteria are always criteria for the final result, they are always associated with goals; fifth - taking into account the characteristics of specific people.

When exercising management, it is necessary to search for contradictions, which is part of the analytical activity of the head of the organization, and the work to resolve them is part of optimization. Resolving contradictions, the leader identifies points of development of the managed system.

Even the very formulation of the principles of management organization is built on contradictions: centralization and decentralization, unity of command and collegiality, rights and obligations in management. From the interaction of two conflicting parties, the optimal practice of managing an organization is born.

It is possible to optimize management in an organization under any, even the most adverse conditions. Of course, the optimum level under these conditions will not be high, but it will be the maximum possible.

At the methodological level, the optimization approach is characterized by three principles: consistency, specificity and measure. Consistency provides for the development in the work of the head of all managerial functions, their interaction and interconnection. The principle of concreteness should encourage the leader to look for management options that are optimal for himself, his organization, its traditions, and the characteristics of the team, and not strive to manage the organization on the principle of “like everyone else, so am I.” The philosophical category "measure" allows only such quantitative changes in control characteristics that do not lead to a new (worse) quality, in which the optimality is lost.

The “specific conditions” include: the social situation in the country, the nature of the region where the organization is located, the traditions of the people, the characteristics of the microenvironment, etc.

It is wrong to equate the terms “ideal” and “optimal” regardless of the context. The first term implies the achievement of the highest results in general, corresponding to the ultimate goal of theoretically possible development, the second one means not the best in general, but the maximum possible in today’s conditions of a certain organization, a specific leader, in a certain time period.

The selected criteria should serve as the most important indicator of the achievement of the goals. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that big number criteria causes insurmountable difficulties in using them; therefore, one should strive to reduce the number of criteria by convolving them down to one.

Managerial resonance occurs only when the sawing of the problem for all participants in the controlled process is close or hits. Thus, it is precisely in managerial resonance that the mechanism of democratization is hidden as a way to optimize management.

By themselves, management methods cannot be optimal and non-optimal outside of specific conditions.

Preparing an organization plan is, in essence, making the most important management decision. The plan should reflect the entire managed and managing system of the organization; image, model of the organization itself, and, of course, every leader should strive to ensure that the plan is as optimal as possible, i.e. would allow to recreate the image of the organization with the least number of omissions and in the shortest possible time.

Management that ignores or poorly takes into account the personal principle, the human factor, is the opposite of optimizing perestroika, which should be based on the humanistic idea of ​​turning all spheres of society, including management, face to face with a person with his real problems.

The managerial thinking of the head of the organization acts as the intellectual basis of his managerial activity and is a set of mental processes (attention, perception, memory, imagination, abstract thinking) both conscious and intuitive, which provide the perception of significant information and its processing into managerial decisions and actions.

In connection with the intensification of management activities, the introduction automated systems management (ACS) sharply increases the problem of selection and placement of managers. We are talking about the psychological selection of persons who are able to ensure the greatest efficiency in the performance of tasks characteristic of this type of activity; To one degree or another, not only specialists, but also managers of all ranks should master the selection methods when evaluating their subordinates, promoting them to a higher position, and hiring new employees.

There is an urgent need for special training of managers, teaching them the principles of management, taking into account all modern psychological aspects of managerial activity.

As can be seen, the resolution of a number of outstanding problems in the field of management psychology will make it possible to approach the improvement of the organization and management process from a scientific standpoint.

Rice. 1. Roles performed and categories of managers

Management psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological patterns of managerial activity.

Management - a set of coordinated activities aimed at achieving significant goals of the organization.

Main control functions: planning, organization, motivation, control.

The purpose of management psychology- analysis of psychological conditions and features of management activities in order to improve the efficiency and quality of work in the management system.

Object of management psychology- a community of people united in a particular social organization.

The subject of management psychology- development of psychological aspects of human activities, groups and organizations as a whole.

Cast subjects of management is a set of officials, hierarchically united in different groups.

A manager is a person who performs managerial functions.

Management psychology is associated with such branches of psychology: general, social, engineering, economic, as well as ergonomics, philosophy, sociology of organizations, etc.

General psychology- a branch of psychology that theoretically and experimentally studies the patterns of the emergence and functioning of mental reflection in the activities of humans and animals. Sometimes general psychology is understood as the study of mental processes (cognitive, emotional, volitional), mental properties (abilities, character, temperament) and mental states in a normal adult (stress, affect).

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of behavior and activities of people due to their inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves (according to G.M. Andreeva).

Engineering psychology (from French ingenieur - engineer, specialist in the field of technology) is a science that studies the processes and means of interaction between a person and a machine.

Economic psychology representing interdisciplinary knowledge about a person and human relations that develop in the process of economic activity, uses the theoretical positions and methods of various branches of psychology and economic disciplines, as well as sociology, biology, anthropology, philosophy, studying aspects of economic behavior, from the economic activity of an individual to countries' economic policies. Economic psychology is different from economic sciences the fact that the subject of her research is not economic processes in themselves, but, first of all, the people participating in them.

Ergonomics (from the Greek ergon - work and nomos - law) - the science of adapting job responsibilities, jobs, equipment and computer programs for the safest and most efficient work of the employee, based on the physical and mental characteristics human body.

A broader definition of ergonomics, adopted in 2010 by the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), is as follows: “The scientific discipline that studies the interaction of a person and other elements of a system, as well as the field of application of the theory, principles, data and methods of this science to ensure well-being human and optimizing the overall performance of the system.

Philosophy (gr. philio - love, sophia - wisdom) - a system of ideas, views on the world and on a person's place in it; the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and thought.

Sociology of organizations- a branch of sociology that studies social patterns and mechanisms for the functioning and development of organizations as complex multi-purpose systems of social relations.

Management is an ancient area of ​​human activity, since it has existed since people live and work in communities, its origins are laid down in the writings of philosophers. But until the beginning of the 20th century, management was not considered an independent area. scientific research with its methodological apparatus.

Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1915) was born in the family of a lawyer. He was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy in New Hampshire. In 1874 he graduated from Harvard law college. In 1878, at the peak of the economic depression, he got a job as a laborer at the Midvale steel mill.

From 1882 to 1883 he worked as the head of mechanical workshops. In parallel, he received a technical education (degree of mechanical engineer, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1883). In 1884, Taylor became chief engineer, the same year he first used the system of differential pay for productivity.

From 1890 to 1893, Taylor was the general manager of the Manufactory Investment Company in Philadelphia, the owner of paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, where he organized his own management consulting business, the first in the history of management.

In 1906, he became president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1911, he established the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Management.

Since 1895, Taylor began his world-famous research on the scientific organization of labor. He patented about a hundred of his inventions and rationalizations.

With the advent of the book "Management" or "Factory Management" (1911), basic principles of managerial work:

1. The administration undertakes to work out a scientific foundation, replacing the old traditional and crudely practical methods, for every single action in all the various kinds of labor employed in the enterprise.

2. The administration makes a careful selection of workers on the basis of scientifically established characteristics, and then trains, educates and develops each one individually, while in the past the worker himself chose his specialty and trained as well as he knew how.

3. The administration cooperates cordially with the workers in the direction of achieving the conformity of all individual branches of production with the scientific principles that it has previously worked out.

4. An almost even distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration of the enterprise and the workers is established. The administration takes over all those branches of labor for which it is better equipped than the workers, while in the past almost all the work and most of the responsibility were placed on the workers.

It is this combination of workers' initiative, coupled with new types of functions carried out by the management of the enterprise, that makes the scientific organization so far superior in productivity to all the old systems.

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) - French mining engineer, manager of a mining and metallurgical company, management theorist and practitioner, founder of the administrative (classical) school of management.

In the book "General and industrial management”, published in the 20s, he proposed the following system of management principles:

1. Division of labor- reassignment of certain operations to employees and, as a result, an increase in labor productivity, due to the fact that the staff gets the opportunity to focus their attention.

2. Authority and responsibility- the right to give orders must be balanced by the responsibility for their consequences.

3. Discipline - the need to comply with the rules established within the organization. To maintain discipline, it is necessary to have leaders at all levels who are able to apply adequate sanctions to violators of order.

4. Unity of command - each employee reports to only one leader and only receives orders from him.

5. Unity of action- a group of employees should work only according to a single plan aimed at achieving one goal.

6. Subordination of interests- the interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the organization.

7. Remuneration - the presence of fair methods of stimulating employees.

8. Centralization - the natural order in an organization that has a control center. The degree of centralization depends on each specific case.

9. Hierarchy - an organizational hierarchy that should not be violated, but which, as far as possible, must be reduced in order to avoid harm.

10. Order - a workplace for each employee, as well as each employee at his workplace.

11. Justice - respect and fairness of the administration to subordinates, a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Staff stability- staff turnover weakens the organization and is a consequence of poor management.

13. Initiative - providing an opportunity for employees to show personal initiative.

14. corporate spirit- cohesion of workers, unity of strength.

Thanks to A. Fayol, a new branch of science arose - "management psychology".

In the 30s. management theorists are actively addressing the motivational factors of human labor activity.

George Elton Mayo(1880-1949) - Australian-American researcher of problems of organizational behavior and management in industrial organizations, one of the founders of the American doctrine of "human relations".

Supervised next research projects and experiments, including those of Hawthorne. He founded the movement “for the development of human relations” and is one of the founders of the school of human relations, from the standpoint of which an industrial organization is seen as a social organism, and people working in it as members of this social system, carriers of motivational, personal, individual psychological qualities .

E. Mayo's contribution to the theory and practice of management:

1. Increasing attention to human social needs.

2. Refusal of over-specialization of labor.

3. Rejection of the need for hierarchy of power within the organization.

4. Recognition of the role of informal relations between people within enterprises.

5. Development of methods for studying formal and informal groups within organizations.

American scientist Chester Irving Barnard(1886-1961) in 30-40s. defined the organization and its requirements.

Organization - a structure within which certain activities are carried out to achieve specific significant goals.

Organization requirements:

The presence of two or more people who consider themselves members of this group;

The presence of at least one goal as an end state or result, which is accepted as common to all members of this group;

The existence of group members who consciously and intentionally work together to achieve a goal that is meaningful to them all.

He also highlighted the functions of managers:

The art of decision making;

Setting goals based on foresight of the future;

A clear representation of the communication system, including the organization scheme and the structure of management personnel;

Creation of organizational morality.

Barnard paid great attention to the analysis of the interaction of formal and informal structures within the organization.

He considered motivation one of the main factors of production, and that the essence of the relationship between a person and an organization lies in cooperation.

Formulated the principles of operation of communications within the organization (mainly concerning formal relations).

Relegated the person to the strategic factor of the organization.

American scientist Douglas McGregor(1906-1964) in 1960 published the book The Human Side of the Enterprise.

D. McGregor singled out the means of controlling the behavior of people in an organization:

1) the transition from physical violence to reliance on formal power;

2) the transition from formal power to leadership.

D. McGregor called leadership a social attitude that has several variables:

Characteristics of a leader;

The attitudes and needs of his followers;

Characteristics of the organization (such as purpose, structure, nature of tasks to be performed);

Social, economic and political environment.

D. McGregor argued that there are two types of personnel management, the first of which is based on "theory X", and the second - on "theory Y". This is discussed in more detail in § 2.3.

Representatives of the school of "human relations" believed that for a truly democratic organization, close interaction of individuals and groups is necessary.

There are the following methodological approaches: systemic, situational, process.

Via systems approach the organization is considered as a whole with all its most complex connections and relationships, as well as the coordination of the activities of all its subsystems.

The systems approach requires the use of the principle of feedback between parts and the whole; the whole and the environment (i.e. the environment), as well as between the parts and the environment. This principle is a manifestation of the dialectic of interdependence between different properties.

The smooth functioning of an organization affects many factors, the most important of which are psychological and socio-psychological phenomena.

System (system) - a unity consisting of interdependent parts, each of which brings something specific to the unique characteristics of the whole. Organizations are considered open systems because they interact dynamically with the external environment.

With regard to management problems in a systematic approach, the most important is to perform the following actions:

a) selection of the object of study;

b) determination of the hierarchy of the goals of the system and its reflection in the goals of the subsystems;

c) description of the influence of each of the subsystems on the system in which they operate and the reverse influence of the system on the objects of the subsystem;

d) determination of possible ways to improve the activity of the studied subsystems.

Using situational approach managers proceed from the fact that the specific situation is the basis for the application of possible management methods. At the same time, the most effective method is considered to be the one that best suits the given management situation.

The situational approach is the concept that the optimal solution is a function of environmental factors in the organization itself (internal variables) and in environment(external variables). In this approach, the main provisions of well-known management schools are concentrated through a combination of certain techniques.

Process approach is based on the concept that management is a continuous chain of management functions carried out as a result of the performance of interconnected actions.

There are several classifications of management levels.

Direction of impact.

Horizontal division of labor- involves the interaction of subjects equal in hierarchical power. It may not manifest itself in small organizations when managers are placed in various departments of the organization. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that horizontally divided work must be coordinated.

Vertical division of labor- involves the interaction of subjects of vertical subordination: the head - the subordinate, the enterprise - the parent organization.

According to the function performed by the head in the organization(highlighted by Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)).

On the institutional level- are mainly engaged in the development of long-term (long-term) plans, the formulation of goals, the adaptation of the organization to various kinds of changes, the management of relations between the organization and the external environment, as well as the society in which the organization exists and functions.

On the managerial level- are engaged in management and coordination within the organization, they coordinate the various forms of activity and efforts of various departments of the organization.

On the technical level— engage in the day-to-day operations and activities necessary to ensure efficient operation without interruption in the production of products or services.

Leaders top management management are the persons responsible for making the most important organizational decisions as a whole or for a major part of the organization.

Even in the largest organizations, there are only a few senior managers. Typical senior executive positions in business are chairman of the board, president, corporate vice president, corporate treasurer, etc.

Middle managers are subordinated to senior managers, coordinating and monitoring the work of lower-level managers. A middle manager often leads a large division or department within an organization. The nature of his work is determined to a greater extent by the content of the work of the unit than by the organization as a whole. They prepare information for decisions made by top managers and transfer these decisions, usually after their transformation in a technologically convenient form, in the form of specific tasks to lower line managers.

Grassroots managers supervise the execution of production tasks. Managers at this level are often responsible for the direct use of resources allocated to them, such as raw materials and equipment. Typical positions at this level: foreman, shift foreman, head of department, head of the department of management at a business school. Most of the managers in general are low-level managers.

Roles are most clearly manifested in the joint work of persons organized in groups, and the authority, respect and recognition of this individual depends on how duties are performed.

The leader performs many roles that correspond to his real position, i.e. status, in the organization.

The highest level of management.

The choice of the main direction of the organization's activity, taking into account external and internal factors of work. Setting strategic goals, organizing strategic planning, forecasting the company's work for a certain period of time. Anticipation of future performance results of the company. Responsibility for all tasks solved in the organization and decisions made. Full possession of information about tasks, means of solving them, about competitors and the situation on the market. Implementation of power and authority in accordance with the existing status and roles.

Average level of management.

Knowledge complete information about the tasks of this level. Management of small (working) groups. Responsibility for the activities of these groups. Implementation of leadership functions. Management of group-dynamic processes. Responsible behavior for the cohesion of groups, group unity, group motivation, acceptance by all members of groups of organizational goals, the formation of value-oriented unity. Motivating individual employees as well as the whole group. Participation in the performance of all management functions. Fighting conflicts.

Lower level management.

Operational management of production operation. Direct contact with each member of the working group. Implementation of individual motivation of each employee. Constant communication with group members. Organization of the activities of performers. Control over the execution of tasks. Resolution of business and interpersonal conflicts. Solving current management problems. Provide feedback to staff.

The effectiveness of management activities directly interacts with three parameters:

1) a sense of the likelihood of success;

2) the motive of behavior as a personal factor;

3) the consequences of success or failure in solving managerial situations.

Managers, like subordinates, who have a positive motivation to work, want to get job satisfaction.