Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium

During its thousand-year history, the Byzantine Empire, which absorbed the magnificent heritage ancient greece and Rome, as well as the Hellenistic East, went through the same basic stages community development, as many countries medieval world. The unique geographical location of the empire, which had possessions both in Europe and Asia, and in other periods of history in Africa, made the country, as it were, a link between East and West. The mixture of different cultures - Eastern, Greek and Roman - could not help but leave imprints on all aspects of the life of Byzantine society - the state system, religion, culture and art. The so-called openness of the Byzantine civilization arose due to the established economic and political relations that connected Byzantium with many countries of Europe and Asia. At the same time, Byzantium went on its own historical way. She claimed to be the ruler of the entire civilized world. Rulers of Western and South of Eastern Europe sought to imitate the customs and methods of state administration and diplomacy of Byzantium.

In the history of the Byzantine Empire, if we consider its internal development and the role it played in the international life of the Middle Ages, we can distinguish several periods: the formation of the empire, the time of its highest prosperity, the fall under the blows of the crusaders and the final death under the onslaught of the Seljuk Turks and Turks. Ottomans.

In 330, the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople. The city was erected on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium on the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara. The new capital was named in honor of the emperor Constantinople - "the city of Constantine." And in 395 the Great Roman Empire broke up into eastern and western parts. It is this date that is considered to be the beginning of the Byzantine Empire proper. Since that time, the history of Byzantine civilization opens. In its early period, Byzantium had possessions in Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. After the collapse of the Roman state, the richest regions were under the rule of Byzantium.

The vast Byzantine Empire included the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, parts of Mesopotamia, Armenia and Arabia. Byzantine possessions were also in the Northern Black Sea region. The territory of the empire was vast. The nature and climate of this state differed great variety: hot and dry summers with warm and rainy winters in one part of the empire, cold and snowy winters in another.

High mountains in Greece and Asia Minor, wide fertile plains in Thessaly and Thrace, fat lands of the Nile Valley - the Byzantine Empire was rich. In Egypt and Thrace, wheat and barley were grown. The coastal regions of the Aegean were famous for their orchards and extensive vineyards, while Greece was famous for its olive oil. In Egypt, flax was grown, and in Syria and Phoenicia they were engaged in sericulture, which brought fame to Byzantium as a manufacturer of valuable silk fabrics. Cattle breeding was developed in the mountainous regions and in the steppes.

“The great state road, leading from west to east, passed through Thessalonica and involuntarily persuaded travelers to stop and buy everything they needed here. Therefore, we turned out to be the owners of all sorts of blessings, whatever you can name. The streets of the city were always filled with a motley crowd of Thessalonians and passing guests, so it was easier to count the grains of sand on the seashore than the people passing through the market square and busy with trading affairs ... ”, - this is how the Thessalonian priest John Kameniata (beginning of the 10th century) described trade in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. c.) in his essay "The Capture of Thessalonica".

Byzantine lands were famous and natural resources: timber, stone and marble, gold and silver, iron and copper. Iron ore was delivered to Byzantium from the distant Caucasian ranges, and silver and copper from Armenia. brought from Egypt essential material for writing - papyrus, and off the coast of Asia Minor and Phenicia, a special shell was mined, which served as a raw material for the manufacture of the famous purple paint. Only one drop of this paint could be obtained from one shell, so it was terribly expensive and was mainly used to dye imperial clothes. Byzantine merchants in search of new goods went to different countries, sometimes making their way to the most remote corners of the world. Merchants were often scouts: they tried to learn as much as possible about customs, strong and weaknesses countries they have been to. “It is more reliable to defeat the enemy with ingenuity, intelligence or even cunning than by force of arms,” the Byzantines believed. And although the empire was constantly at war, since its rich lands always attracted invaders, nevertheless the Romans - subjects of the Byzantine kings - preferred to pay rather than fight. At the same time, they maintained a well-trained professional army. Byzantium managed to happily avoid the fate of the Western Roman Empire - it did not know the complete conquest of the entire country by barbarian tribes and did not experience the death of a centralized state. Until the 7th century Latin was considered the official language of Byzantium, but books were written in Greek, Armenian, Syriac, and Georgian. The majority of the population were Greeks. The inhabitants of the empire called themselves Romans, their state - the Roman kingdom, and Constantinople - New Rome. The ruler of the Byzantine Empire was called Basileus. According to the Byzantines, he was the only legitimate heir to the Roman emperors.

The first period of the history of the empire covers three and a half centuries - from the 4th to the middle of the 7th century. In Byzantium, there were about a thousand cities in which many different peoples lived, speaking different languages. But the biggest was, of course, Constantinople, it was inhabited by more than half a million people. It had a favorable geographical position: the main trade routes crossed here, which led from west to east - to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and Indian Ocean from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. On one side, the walls of Constantinople were washed by the waters of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara, on the other, there was the Golden Horn Bay. This bay was an excellent harbor for Byzantine ships, and in case of danger, the entrance to the bay was blocked by a special iron chain.

The fortified city walls and towers of Constantinople that have survived to this day amaze with their power and grandeur. It was also the largest port in the entire Mediterranean. Byzantium for almost the entire early medieval was a great maritime power. It was the presence of the fleet that contributed to the economic and political influence of Byzantium in the medieval world.

In the IV century. around the world, the products of skilled Byzantine craftsmen were already known, who made items of the most sophisticated luxury. The works of jewelers, mosaicists, enamellers, wood and stone carvers and other Byzantine craftsmen served as an unattainable standard for artisans in many countries. The Byzantines called their capital "the vast workshop of the universe." Luxurious patterned silk fabrics, the finest linen and woolen fabrics were famous all over the world. But merchants were not allowed to sell purple, scarlet, purple fabrics to foreigners, since wearing clothes of such colors was the exclusive privilege of the emperor. The sale of such fabrics was considered an encroachment on the imperial colors, and therefore on the very dignity of the emperor.

The works of Byzantine jewelers were distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and delicate taste. Valuable handwritten books, magnificently illustrated with artistic miniatures, were highly valued throughout the civilized world.

“The crusaders could not even imagine that there was such a mighty city in the world before they saw the high walls and powerful towers surrounding it, its magnificent palaces, high cathedrals. And there are so many of them that you can’t believe it without seeing with your own eyes the expanse and distance of it, the city that stands as a king over other cities, ”wrote J. Villardouin from Champagne, who participated in the capture of Constantinople.

The beauty and grandeur of the city amazed contemporaries. Admired by the beautiful appearance of palaces and temples, writers and poets glorified the splendor and exquisite charm of the Byzantine capital in their works: “A city of cities, the light of the universe, the glory of the world, the mother of churches, the foundation of faith, the patron of science and art, the fatherland and the hearth of beauty.”

Merchants came to Constantinople from different countries, and the Byzantines themselves went to the most remote corners of the ecumene. In the east, they traded with such fantastic countries as Europeans imagined, such as India and Ceylon, distant China. In the south they reached Arabia and rich in gold and ivory Ethiopia, in the north - the harsh coast of Scandinavia and the misty islands of Albion.

According to its state structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy. The emperor-autocrat - basileus was considered the sovereign ruler of the country. According to Roman tradition, the emperor was elected by the senate, the army and the people. His power was considered sacred. He had the power to make and amend laws, appoint and dismiss officials, sentence his subjects to death, and confiscate their property. The emperor was the supreme judge, commander-in-chief of the army, he was in charge of all foreign policy. Vasivlevs was the ruler of the country, but still not its owner, which could be observed in the eastern states. The power of the emperor in Byzantium was not inherited. The emperor had to prove himself "a faithful servant of Christ God." In the case of unrighteous deeds, he lost the support of God. And then anyone could encroach on his power. If the attempt to seize power was successful, then the usurper became emperor, otherwise he was blinded. Many Byzantine rulers reigned for a short time and ended their lives at best in a monastery, at worst - death at the hands of assassins. The researchers noted that "in Byzantium during its existence, one hundred and nine emperors ruled, and only thirty-four of them died a natural death." So, the fate of many of them was tragic: “Michael III was stabbed to death at a feast in his country residence, Nicephorus II was killed in his own bedroom, John I was poisoned, Roman III was drowned in a bath. In just a hundred years from the beginning of the reign of Basil II (976) to the beginning of the reign of Alexei I Komnenos (1081), there were about 50 conspiracies and rebellions. (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996). Even a person of no noble birth could become an emperor. For example, Emperor Justinian was the son of a peasant, and his wife, the beautiful Theodora, was an actress in the past; Vasily I and Roman I also came from peasants, and Mikhail IV was a money changer. However, it was in Byzantium that the Christian church substantiated the theory of the divine origin of imperial power, laying the foundation for an unlimited Christian monarchy.

The emperor had a powerful but cumbersome administrative system under his control. The whole empire was divided into themes (districts), at the head of each was a strategist, who had military and civil power in it. He managed the district and was obliged to report annually to the basileus. He could be moved to manage another district. Subordinate to the strategist was a judge in charge of the civil administration. Money was needed to maintain such a large state apparatus. Therefore, all subjects of the emperor were obliged to pay taxes. Special employees determined the amounts of these taxes, and collectors collected them. Each village was jointly responsible for paying the tax. If someone did not pay, then others were obliged to pay for it.

The second person in the state was the patriarch, who led all the clergy and was subordinate to the emperor.

Byzantium preserved the traditions of Roman military art, published and studied works on the theory, strategy and tactics of military affairs. However, by the end of the existence of the empire, the army became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.

Many written monuments and images have survived to our time, thanks to which we can reconstruct the weapons of Byzantine soldiers. Sculptures confirm that late Italic armaments were preserved until the emperor Theodosius (346-395). At the same time, the Roman military historian Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius (end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century) complains that defensive weapons gradually disappeared from the army, especially for light infantry.

The Byzantine army was divided into several classes according to the types of weapons: heavy cavalry, or cataphracts, light cavalry, heavy infantry and light infantry, artillery, which was not numerous and was used mainly during the siege and storming of cities.

Simultaneously with the professional army, there were personal squads of generals and private individuals, called bucellaria. Vigilantes were recruited from the barbarians more often only for the duration of a military campaign, since the maintenance of such a detachment was quite expensive. To protect the emperor and empress, there were guards - tagmas. They were divided into horse tagmas (scholas, escuvites, arithms, ikanats) and foot tagmas - numbers and walls. In addition, there were also hired foreign guards - etheria - and palace guards: kuvikularii, candidates and wiggles.

Eteria - commanded by an etheriarch, a detachment of several thousand heavily armed infantrymen. Byzantine historians Michael Psellus, Nicephorus Bryennius, Anna Komnena refer to etheria either as “those who wear swords on their shoulders”, or as “armed with axes”, meaning, respectively, the Anglo-Saxon and Varangian-Russian parts of it. In terms of armament and methods of combat, it was a very good heavy infantry.

The shock part of the army was made up of warriors-riders - cataphracts, whose spear attacks often decided the outcome of the battle. Their weapons are spears, swords, daggers, clubs, shields. The body of a warrior was protected by chain mail, over which they put on a klibanion shell - metal or armor made of thick leather, equipped with pterygiums - leather stripes on the shoulders. The lower part of the shell, which was called cremasmata, protected the stomach and thighs. The rider's arms and legs were protected from injury by halkotube leggings and panikelia bracers that covered the arm from the elbow to the hand, as well as leather gloves. During excavations of a large palace in Constantinople, face masks were found worn by cataphract warriors. In addition, the armor protected the horse. Sometimes some cataphract warriors were armed with bows and darts instead of spears. “The Byzantine cataphracts bore little resemblance to the Western European knightly militia, they were quite disciplined, organized into permanent units, and even had (this was a common feature of the Byzantine army) uniform elements: cloaks and bunches horse hair on helmets of a certain color, indicating the warrior's belonging to one or another unit. (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996).

The light cavalry were armed with shields, spears and bows with arrows. The offensive weapons of the heavy infantry were swords, and the defensive weapons were shields and chain mail. The light infantry were armed with bows and arrows, javelins and slings. Often, weapons were provided to soldiers at the expense of the treasury.

Judging by the information presented by Emperor Leo VI in his treatise "Tactics" (beginning of the 10th century), the main offensive weapons of heavily armed warriors, both on foot and on horseback, were long spears and swords. The protective armament of heavily armed foot soldiers (hoplites) consisted of a round or oval shield with a metal umbon covered with thick rawhide, a round helmet with a high crest and earpieces, a chain mail shirt, sometimes equipped with a hood, and lamellar armor made of interconnected metal plates. .

The main part of the Byzantine army was made up of light infantry. The body of the foot soldier was protected by soft armor, which was made of multi-layered felt. Infantrymen initially used round shields for protection, which gradually gave way to elongated almond-shaped ones, which made it possible to cover almost the entire figure of a warrior. Slings, darts and daggers served as offensive weapons for lightly armed infantrymen, they also used powerful composite bows and arrows.

The Byzantine Empire reached its peak in the early period under Justinian I. During this period, the empire not only successfully repelled the onslaught of barbarian tribes, but also began to pursue a broad policy of conquest in the West. The Byzantines conquered North Africa from the Vandals, Italy from the Ostrogoths, and part of Spain from the Visigoths. For some time, the Roman Empire was restored to its former borders. However, under the successors of Justinian, most of these conquests were again lost. The future emperor Justinian was born into the family of a poor Illyrian peasant, and his wife and faithful assistant Theodora was previously a circus actress and courtesan. Her extraordinary beauty and the mind subdued Justinian, and he made Theodora his wife and empress. Theodora, according to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea (between 490 and 507 - after 562), was "small in stature, beautifully built and graceful, with an amazingly beautiful oblong matte face, witty, cheerful, slanderous and intelligent." (Procopius of Caesarea. Secret History. / Translated by S. P. Kondratiev. // VDI. 1938. No. 4).

In the 7th century The Byzantines invented a special combustible mixture, which they called "Greek fire." It was a truly terrible weapon. The fire even spread through the water and spread from ship to ship.

Justinian was an intelligent and energetic ruler, a tireless reformer who dreamed of the revival of the Great Roman Empire. And at the same time, although he gave the impression of a generous, accessible and easy-to-handle person, he was merciless to opponents, two-faced and insidious. During his reign, a cruel persecution of pagans and heretics began, whose property was taken away to the treasury, they were also forbidden to enter public service. “It is fair,” wrote Justinian, “to deprive earthly goods of one who wrongly worships God.” (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996), strengthened his power with iron and blood. He literally drowned the largest Nika uprising in Constantinople in blood. By the way, Theodora's determination played a big role in this. He dealt ruthlessly with the recalcitrant nobility, taking the property of the condemned to the treasury. Justinian became famous for his legislative and administrative activities. He owns the famous code of civil laws "Code of Justinian", which formed the basis of the legal systems of many states.

The Byzantines have always believed that culture is exactly what distinguishes them from the barbarians. The historical writings of the Byzantine historians Procopius, Psellos, Anna Komnina, and George Pachymer and others have survived to our time. From the age of eight, children began to study at a school that provided primary education. Then those wishing to receive a more complete education continued it under the guidance of a teacher paid by their parents. They studied "Homer and geometry, dialectics and other philosophical disciplines, rhetoric and arithmetic, astronomy, music and other Hellenic sciences." It was also possible to enter the University of Constantinople, which was founded by the decree of Theodosius II in 425. “The departments of Greek and Latin grammar and rhetoric, law and philosophy were established at the university. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin. The total number of teachers was determined at 31 people, of which ten Greek and ten Latin grammarians, three Latin and five Greek rhetors, two law professors and one philosopher ”(S. Valyansky, D. Kalyuzhny. From the history of education. Byzantine education).

During the reign of Emperor Justinian, Byzantine art flourished. Only in Constantinople, by his decree, 30 churches were erected and the most famous temple Hagia Sophia (Temple of Wisdom), which became a symbol of the "golden age" of Byzantium. The cathedral was designed by the Byzantine architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthimius of Thrall. From all over the country were invited to Constantinople the best masters. Delivered to decorate the temple best breeds granite and marble, from the temple of Artemis in Ephesus they broke out and brought eight columns. According to the figurative expression of the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea: “In height, it (the temple of Hagia Sophia) rises as if to the sky and, like a ship on the high waves of the sea, stands out among other buildings.” The dome of St. Sophia Cathedral, 54 m high, was "so light, so airy that it seemed that it was not held on masonry, but was suspended from the sky on a golden chain."

The interior of the cathedral was filled with light, which was reflected from the sparkling mosaics that adorned the walls of the temple.

And this was not accidental: according to the definition of Basil the Great, Archbishop of Caesarea Cappadocia, "light is the visible form of the Divine." The columns were decorated with exquisite carvings, the floors and walls were carved from multi-colored marble, silver lamps that looked like trees descended from the ceiling. “It is famous for its inexpressible beauty… One could say that this place is not illuminated by the sun from the outside, but that the brilliance is born in itself: such an amount of light spreads in this temple. The ceiling is lined with pure gold, connecting with beauty and magnificence; competing in brilliance, its brilliance defeats the brilliance of stones. On either side are two galleries; and their ceiling is a dome, and the decoration is gold. One of these galleries is designated for praying men, the other for women. Who could count the splendor of the columns and marbles with which the temple is adorned? One would think that you are in a luxurious meadow covered with flowers, ”wrote the admiring Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea. (War with the Persians. War with the Vandals. Secret History. Aletheia, St. Petersburg - 1998).

The dome of the cathedral was decorated with a large golden cross. Hagia Sophia and now serves as an adornment of the capital of Turkey - Istanbul, the former Constantinople. The cathedral houses the Hagia Sophia mosque, surrounded by four majestic minarets, and the magnificent mosaics that once adorned its walls have disappeared under a layer of plaster.

In many parts of the empire, temples were erected that resembled the Hagia Sophia. The temple covered with a dome, as it were, personified the image of the universe, the elevated vault of the church - the "heaven of heaven", and the wide and beautiful arches that supported the dome - the four cardinal points. The Byzantines loved to decorate their temples with mosaics. From particles of smalt (pieces of colored glass mass, marble and multi-colored stone), they made amazing pictures. So, the mosaic of Hagia Sophia depicts Emperor Constantine and his wife, Empress Zoya, their images embodied the idea of ​​royalty. On the mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, a solemn procession is shown: on the one hand, surrounded by courtiers, the emperor Justinian moves, he carries a precious cup as a gift to the temple; on the other - his wife Theodora, along with the ladies of the court, in her hands is a chalice (chalice for communion), which she also carries as a gift to the church. The clothes of the emperor and empress are made of expensive fabrics, decorated with gold embroidery and precious stones, crowned with jeweled imperial crowns. The figures, as it were, protrude from the sparkling golden background surrounding them, giving them solemnity and significance.

The Byzantines also decorated their houses with great love: they could see expensive fabrics, famous Byzantine silks with woven patterns that were used as curtains, precious utensils, beautiful furniture, magnificent floors. Tables were covered with especially expensive carpets. The rooms in the houses were lit with oil lamps in the form of lily flowers or a two-humped camel, a fish, the head of a terrible dragon.

Education received in Byzantium was highly valued: “No European could be considered sufficiently educated if he had not studied at least for some time in Constantinople,” wrote Pope Pius II (1405–1464).

Particularly magnificent was the palace of Vasileus - the Grand Imperial Palace, erected on the very shore of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara. The palace was a whole complex of luxurious buildings. Beautiful palaces with beautifully decorated ceremonial halls and living rooms, with open terraces and luxurious baths - all this was surrounded by gardens and fountains. Special closed crossings they led to the imperial box at the hippodrome and other buildings of the palace complex. The size and scale of the buildings were amazing. Visited Constantinople in 1348-1349. Stefan of Novgorod recorded: “There is a palace right there, called the Chamber of the Faithful Tsar Constantine.” Its walls are very high, higher than the city walls, the palace is great, it is like a city, it stands near the Hippodrome by the sea. (“The Journey of Stefan of Novgorod” in the book by I. Maleto “Anthology of the Journeys of Russian Travelers. XII-XV centuries”. M .: Nauka, 2005).

The walls and floors in the palaces were decorated with multi-colored marble and mosaics, the motives of many of them were dedicated to the military victories of Emperor Justinian over the barbarians. Not only the walls of the palace, but also the floors were decorated with magnificent mosaic compositions - here in front of us is a peasant milking a goat, a fisherman is fishing on the river bank, a beautiful girl carries a heavy jug filled with water in her hands, and a young man plays the flute.

Expensive fabrics adorned the walls, they were draped window and doorways. Thrones, stools and boxes were inlaid with precious metals and ivory. But the most magnificent room of the palace was, of course, the “Golden Throne Room”, called Chrysotriclinium, where solemn receptions of foreign ambassadors were held.

There were legends about the luxury and wealth of the Byzantine imperial palace. “In front of the throne of the emperor stood a bronze gilded tree, on the branches of which birds of different breeds, also made of gilded bronze, sat, singing according to their bird breed in different voices. The throne of the emperor was so skillfully built that one moment it seemed low, the next - higher, and after that elevated. This throne, as it were, was guarded by lions of unusual size, I don’t know, made of bronze or wood, but gilded. They beat the floor with their tails, opened their mouths and, moving their tongues, uttered a growl. At my appearance, lions roared, birds chirped, each in its own way, when, bowing before the emperor, I bowed for the third time, then, raising my head, I saw him, whom I had just seen sitting on a small dais, now sitting almost under the ceiling of the hall and dressed in other clothes. I could not understand how this happened: he must have been lifted up by a machine ..., - wrote, without hiding his admiration for the reception held in the Constantinople palace, the ambassador of the German emperor Liutprand of Cremona (Liutprand of Cremona. Anatapodosis, or Retribution). To supply the huge city with water, a whole system aqueducts and cisterns. During the reign of Justinian, the largest and most magnificent reservoir in the city was erected - this structure resembles a beautiful palace, decorated with many elegant marble columns, but located underground and filled with clear water. Water came here through special water pipes and aqueducts from springs located in the forest 19 km from the city. When the Turks captured Constantinople, they, amazed by the beauty and splendor of the reservoir, called it "A Thousand and One Columns."

The hippodrome was the center of social and cultural life of the capital. Here, with a huge gathering of people, and the hippodrome could accommodate about a hundred thousand spectators, various celebrations, public executions, chariot races, all kinds of sports competitions, animal hunting and other similar spectacles took place. The hippodrome was decorated with ancient monuments brought to the city from different places as trophies: a snake column from Delphi, an Egyptian obelisk of Thutmose III delivered by order of Constantine from Luxor. The gates to the hippodrome were decorated with magnificent bronze horses, sculpted by the greatest Greek sculptor Lysippus and subsequently taken by the crusaders to Venice. “... Along this square (hippodrome) there was a wall that had a good 15 feet in height and 10 in width; and on top of this wall were the figures of both men and women, and horses, and bulls, and camels, and bears, and lions, and many other animals, cast in copper. And all of them were so well made and so naturally sculpted that neither in pagan countries nor in the Christian world can one find such a skilled craftsman who could imagine and cast the figures so well as these were cast. (Description of the hippodrome by Robert de Clary, a member of the Fourth Crusade).

The Byzantine Empire flourished. Nevertheless, this greatness was bought at too high a price - devastating wars gradually undermined the country's economy, the population was impoverished. And the lands and wealth of the empire attracted powerful neighbors. The successors of Justinian no longer thought about conquest campaigns, they were forced only to defend the borders of the state. Soon, many of the lands conquered by Justinian in the west were lost.

The next, the 7th century, brought Byzantium some hardships - it was one of the most difficult periods in the history of the empire. Sassanid Iran fought with Byzantium for trade routes, and from the north, the blows were delivered by the Slavs. Prolonged wars with Persia and confrontation with the Slavic tribes, who poured in an unstoppable stream from behind the Danube and settled on the lands of the empire - all this led to the fact that Byzantium began to lose its possessions. By the middle of the 7th century Slavic tribes captured the Balkan provinces: Dalmatia, Istria, Macedonia, Moesia, Peloponnese and Thrace.

Soon another powerful enemy appeared - the Arab Caliphate. Byzantium lost most of its possessions in Syria and Palestine, then in Upper Mesopotamia and Egypt, and later - lands in North Africa, the Arabs even besieged Constantinople. It should be noted that the country itself was restless - many cities were ruined and deserted, internal unrest significantly undermined the country's economy.

The Basilica Cistern is one of the largest and well-preserved ancient underground reservoirs in Constantinople. It is located in the historical center of Istanbul opposite the Hagia Sophia. The construction of the cistern was started by the Greeks during the reign of Emperor Constantine I (306–337) and completed in 532 under Emperor Justinian. The dimensions of the underground structure are 145 × 65 m, the capacity is 80,000 m3 of water. The vaulted ceiling of the cistern is supported by 336 columns (12 rows of 28 columns) eight meters high, they stand at a distance of 4.8 m from each other. 4 m thick walls made of refractory brick and covered with a special waterproofing solution.

Period from the 7th to the 11th century. turned out to be difficult for the Byzantine Empire. However, the emperors of the new Macedonian dynasty, who came to power in this difficult time, managed not only to bring the country out of the crisis, but also to make the empire more cohesive and monolithic. They carried out a number of transformations in the state structure and in the army. Greek became the official language. At the end of the 9th century, starting from the reign of Basil I, the Byzantine Empire again experienced a brief flowering, the Macedonian dynasty 867-1081. provided Byzantium with one hundred and fifty years of prosperity and power. During this period, which is often called the “golden age” of Byzantine statehood, successful military campaigns against the Arabs were carried out, the borders of the empire were again extended up to the Euphrates and Tigris, Armenia and Iberia were conquered. This period is also characterized by the flourishing of culture.

After a brief heyday during the reign of the powerful Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire enters a period of decline. The reasons for the weakness of the empire in these last centuries are complex and varied. They lurked in the slowness of the socio-economic development of Byzantium, the strengthening of feudal fragmentation - the rulers of the provinces in this period had little regard for the central government. Cities gradually fell into decay, the army and navy weakened. At the same time, the still remaining power and wealth of the Byzantine Empire aroused the envy of its neighbors, and at the beginning of the 13th century. she experienced a severe shock. In 1204, the knights of the Fourth Crusade, supported by the Venetians, captured and sacked Constantinople. The Byzantine historian Nikita Choniates (mid-12th century - 1213), who was in the city at that time, described what was happening with horror: abandoned by their own people were destroyed. It is impossible to listen indifferently about the looting of the main church (Hagia Sophia). The holy lecterns, woven with jewels and of extraordinary beauty that led to amazement, were cut into pieces and divided among the soldiers along with other magnificent things. When they needed to take out of the temple sacred vessels, objects of extraordinary art and extreme rarity, silver and gold, which were lined with chairs, ambos and gates, they brought mules and horses with saddles into the vestibules of the temples. (Nikita Choniates. Nikita Choniates is a story beginning with the reign of John Comnenus. VIPDA. St. Petersburg: 186–862). One of the participants in the assault and the author of the chronicle “The Conquest of Constantinople,” Robert de Clary, amazed at the wealth of the city and the greed of the crusaders, recalls: “There were so many rich utensils made of gold and silver, and so many gold-woven fabrics, and so many rich treasures that it was a real miracle. , all this huge goodness that was demolished there. I myself think that even in the 40 richest cities in the world there was hardly as much goodness as was found in Constantinople. And the very people who were supposed to guard the good, took away the jewels of gold and everything they wanted, and so plundered the good; and each of the powerful men took either golden utensils, or golden-woven silks, or what he liked best, and then carried away. After the fall of the empire, the crusaders conquered and divided the entire empire and established their own rules in it. The powerful Byzantine Empire broke up into several independent states: the Empire of Trebizond was formed on the Black Sea coast, the Kingdom of Epirus was formed on the Balkan Peninsula, the Nicaean Empire was located in Asia Minor. The crusaders created the Latin Empire, under whose rule were the lands of Central Greece, Thrace and the Peloponnese peninsula. In 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos (1258-1282) succeeded in liberating Constantinople from the Latins and was re-proclaimed emperor in the Hagia Sophia. The deserted city was a very sad sight. Most of the palaces, temples, public buildings were ruins, which were overgrown with grass and shrubs, among these ruins the locals grazed goats and sheep. “Nothing but a plain of destruction filled with rubble and ruins,” the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Grigora later wrote (The Roman History of Nicephorus Grigora, beginning with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins / Per. M. L. Shalfeev / / VIPDA. Spb., 1862). The possessions of the empire were significantly reduced - partly as a result of invasions from the west, partly due to the unstable situation in Asia Minor, in which in the middle of the 13th century. The country was torn apart by civil unrest and strife on religious grounds.

In the XV century. The Byzantine Empire met with a new, much more formidable enemy - the Ottoman Turks. In April 1453, a huge (according to various historians, from eighty to three hundred thousand people) Turkish army, led by Sultan Mehmed II, besieged the Byzantine capital. The defenders of the city fought valiantly and managed to repulse several attacks, but the forces were too unequal, the ranks of the defenders were melting, and there was no replacement for them. And already at the end of May, despite the stubborn resistance of the inhabitants of the city, Turkish troops broke into Constantinople and subjected it to a three-day pogrom. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos (1405–1453), fought alongside the city's defenders like a common soldier and died in battle. The picture of the plundered city was truly terrible. “Military happiness was already leaning towards the Turks, and one could see a spectacle full of shudder, for the Romans and Latins, who prevented those who were moving the stairs to the walls, some were cut by them, while others, closing their eyes, fell from the wall, crushing their bodies and losing their lives in a terrible way. . The Turks now began to put up the stairs without hindrance and climbed the wall like flying eagles, ”wrote the Byzantine historian Michael Duka about the last hours of the siege of Constantinople by the Turks. According to eyewitnesses, "in many places the ground could not be seen because of the many corpses." About 60,000 inhabitants were enslaved. Magnificent temples and palaces were looted and burned, and many beautiful art monuments were destroyed. On May 30, 1453, Sultan Mehmed II solemnly entered the capital and, amazed by the beauty and grandeur of Hagia Sophia, ordered the central temple of the city to be converted into a mosque. With the fall of Constantinople, the once majestic Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, striking contemporaries with its luxury, high level of culture and enlightenment. Its thousand-year history, which had such a beneficial effect on the culture of Western Europe and Ancient Russia, has ended.

To understand the reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire, one should brief digression into history. In 395, after the death of the ruler Theodosius I and the collapse of the great Roman state, its western part ceased to exist. In its place, the Byzantine Empire was formed. Before the collapse of Rome, its western half was called "Greek", since the main part of its population were Hellenes.

general information

Byzantium was a historical and cultural follower of Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries. This state included incredibly rich lands and a large number of cities located in the territories of present-day Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. Despite the corruption of the management system, unbearably high taxes, a slave-owning economy and constant court intrigues, the Byzantine economy for a long time was the most powerful in Europe.

The state traded with all the former western Roman possessions and with India. Even after the conquests of some of its territories by the Arabs, the Byzantine Empire remained very rich. However, the financial costs were high, and the well-being of the country aroused strong envy among the neighbors. But the decline in trade, which was caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, (the capital of the state) by the crusaders, as well as the onslaught of the Turks, caused the final weakening of the financial condition and the state as a whole.

Description

In this article we will tell you what are the reasons for the fall of Byzantium, what were the prerequisites for the collapse of one of the richest and most powerful empires of our civilization. No other ancient state existed for such a long time - 1120 years. The fabulous wealth of the elite, the beauty and exquisite architecture of the capital and large cities - all this took place against the background of the deep barbarism of the peoples of Europe, in which they lived during the heyday of this country.

The Byzantine Empire lasted until the middle of the sixteenth century. This powerful state had a huge cultural heritage. During its heyday, it owned vast territories in Europe, Africa and Asia. Byzantium occupied the Balkan Peninsula, almost all of Asia Minor, Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Her possessions also covered part of Armenia and Mesopotamia. Few people know that she also owned possessions in the Caucasus and the Crimean peninsula.

Story

The total area of ​​the Byzantine Empire was more than one million square kilometers with a population of approximately 35 million people. The state was so large that its emperors in the Christian world were considered the supreme overlords. Legends were told about the unthinkable riches and splendor of this state. Byzantine art flourished during the reign of Justinian. It was a golden age.

The Byzantine state included many large cities in which a literate population lived. Due to its excellent location, Byzantium was considered the largest trading and maritime power. Paths ran from it even to the most remote places at that time. The Byzantines traded with India, China, Fr. Ceylon, Ethiopia, Britain, Scandinavia. Therefore, the golden solid - currency unit this empire - has become an international currency.

And although Byzantium strengthened after the Crusades, after the massacre of the Latins, relations with the West worsened. This was the reason that the fourth crusade was already directed against her. In 1204, its capital, Constantinople, was captured. As a result, Byzantium broke up into several states, including the Latin and Achaean principalities created on the territories captured by the crusaders, the Trebizond, Nicaean and Epirus empires, which remained under the control of the Greeks. The Latins began to suppress Hellenistic culture, and the dominance of Italian merchants prevented the revival of cities. The reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire cannot be summarized briefly. They are numerous. The collapse of this once flourishing state was a huge blow to the entire Orthodox world.

Economic reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire

They can be presented point by point as follows. It was economic instability that played a decisive role in the weakening, and subsequently the death of this richest state.

Divided Society

There were not only economic, but also other internal reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire. The ruling feudal and church circles of this once flourishing state failed not only to lead their people, but also to find a common language with them. Moreover, the government proved unable to restore unity even around itself. Therefore, at that moment, when the consolidation of all the internal forces of the state was required to repulse an external enemy, enmity and split, mutual suspicion and distrust reigned everywhere in Byzantium. The attempts of the last emperor, who (according to the chroniclers) was known as a brave and honest man, to rely on the inhabitants of the capital turned out to be belated.

Presence of strong external enemies

Byzantium fell due not only to internal, but also external reasons. This was greatly facilitated by the selfish policy of the papacy and many Western European states, which left it without help at the time of the threat from the Turks. A significant role was played by the lack of goodwill of her old enemies, who were many among the Catholic prelates and sovereigns. All they dreamed of was not salvation huge empire but only about seizing her rich inheritance. This can be called the main reason for the death of the Byzantine Empire. The absence of strong and reliable allies contributed a lot to the collapse of this country. Alliances with the Slavic states located on the Balkan Peninsula were episodic and fragile. This took place both as a result of the lack of mutual trust on both sides, and as a result of internal disagreements.

Fall of the Byzantine Empire

The causes and consequences of the collapse of this once mighty civilized country are numerous. She was greatly weakened by skirmishes with the Seljuks. There were also religious reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Having converted to Orthodoxy, she lost the support of the Pope. Byzantium could have disappeared from the face of the earth even earlier, during the reign of the Seljuk Sultan Bayazid. However, Timur (the Central Asian emir) prevented this. He defeated the enemy troops, and captured Bayezid.

After the fall of such a rather powerful Armenian crusading state as Cilicia, it was the turn of Byzantium. Many dreamed of capturing it, from the bloodthirsty Ottomans to the Egyptian Mamelukes. But they were all afraid to go against the Turkish Sultan. Not a single European state started a war against him for the interests of Christianity.

Effects

After the establishment of Turkish domination over Byzantium, a stubborn and long struggle began for the Slavic and other Balkan peoples against the foreign yoke. In many countries of the Southeastern Empire, a recession followed and social development, which led to a long regression in the development of productive forces. Although the Ottomans strengthened the economic position of some of the feudal lords who collaborated with the conquerors, expanding the domestic market for them, nevertheless, the peoples of the Balkans experienced the most severe oppression, including religious. The assertion of the conquerors on Byzantine territory turned it into a springboard for Turkish aggression directed against Central and Eastern Europe, as well as against the Middle East.

Writer Sergey Vlasov tells about why this event of 555 years ago is important for modern Russia.

Turban and tiara

If we had been in the city on the eve of the Turkish assault, we would have found the defenders of the doomed Constantinople engaged in a rather strange occupation. They discussed the validity of the slogan "Better a turban than a papal tiara" until they were hoarse. This catchphrase, which can be heard in modern Russia, was first uttered by the Byzantine Luke Notaras, whose powers in 1453 roughly corresponded to the prime minister. In addition, he was an admiral and a Byzantine patriot.

As is sometimes the case with patriots, Notaras stole money from the treasury that the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, allocated for the repair of defensive walls. Later, when the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II entered the city through these very unrepaired walls, the admiral presented gold to him. He asked only one thing: to save his life big family. The Sultan accepted the money, and the admiral's family was executed in front of him. The latter was beheaded by Notaras himself.

- Did the West attempt to help Byzantium?

Yes. The defense of the city was commanded by the Genoese Giovanni Giustiniani Longo. His detachment, consisting of only 300 people, was the most combat-ready part of the defenders. Artillery was led by the German Johann Grant. By the way, the Byzantines could get into service the luminary of the then artillery - the Hungarian engineer Urban. But there was no money in the imperial treasury for the construction of his supergun. Then, offended, the Hungarian went to Mehmed II. The cannon, which fired stone cannonballs weighing 400 kilograms, was cast and became one of the reasons for the fall of Constantinople.

lazy romans

- Why did the history of Byzantium end in this way?

- The Byzantines themselves are primarily to blame for this. The empire was a country organically incapable of modernization. For example, slavery in Byzantium, which they tried to limit since the time of the first Christian emperor Constantine the Great in the 4th century, was completely abolished only in the 13th. This was done by the western barbarian crusaders who captured the city in 1204.

Many government positions in the empire were occupied by foreigners, they also took over trade. The reason, of course, was not that the insidious Catholic West was systematically destroying the economy of Orthodox Byzantium.

One of the most famous emperors, Alexei Komnenos, at the beginning of his career, tried to appoint compatriots to responsible government posts. But things were not going well: the Romans, accustomed to sybaritizing, rarely woke up before 9 am, they got down to business closer to noon ... But the nimble Italians, whom the emperor soon began to hire, began their working day at dawn.

- But from this the empire did not become less great.

- The greatness of empires is often inversely proportional to the happiness of its subjects. Emperor Justinian decided to restore the Roman Empire from Gibraltar to the Euphrates. His commanders (he himself did not take anything sharper than a fork) fought in Italy, Spain, Africa ... Rome alone was taken by storm 5 times! So what? After 30 years of glorious wars and high-profile victories, the empire was left with nothing. The economy was undermined, the treasury was empty, the best citizens died. But the conquered territories still had to be left ...

- What lessons can Russia draw from the Byzantine experience?

- Scientists name 6 reasons for the collapse of the greatest empire:

Excessively bloated and corrupt bureaucracy.

A striking stratification of society into the poor and the rich.

The impossibility for ordinary citizens to achieve justice in court.

Neglect and underfunding of the army and navy.

The indifferent attitude of the capital towards the province that feeds it.

The merging of spiritual and secular power, their unification in the person of the emperor.

How much they correspond to the current Russian realities, let everyone decide for himself.

The history of Byzantium, one of the "world" powers of the Middle Ages, a society of peculiar development and high culture, a society at the junction of the West and the East, was full of turbulent internal events, endless wars with neighbors, intense political, economic, cultural relations with many countries of Europe and the Middle East .

The political structure of Byzantium

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head. From the 7th century the head of state was often referred to as an autocrator.

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - the East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetoria of the East (lat. Praefectus praetorio Orientis) and the prefect of the praetoria of Illyricum (lat. Praefectus praetorio Illyrici). Constantinople was singled out as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople (Latin Praefectus urbis Constantinopolitanae).

For a long time, the former system of state and financial management was preserved. But from the end of the 6th century, significant reforms began, mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and the Greek culture of the country (the introduction of the positions of logothete, strategist, drungaria, etc.).

Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the approval of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop. The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry (lat. magister paeditum) and the head of the cavalry (lat. magister equitum), later these positions were combined (Magister militum); in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia) (lat. Magistri equitum et paeditum in praesenti). In addition, there was the master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strateg of Anatolika), the master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, the master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for nearly a thousand years; in historiography, from that time on, it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by vertical mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. So, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820). Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse rider in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army of the Eastern Roman Empire by 395

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, she became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability. On the other hand, a system of military command and control was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, various technical means, in particular, a system of beacons is built to notify of an attack by enemies. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance at sea. The Sassanids adopted a fully armored cavalry - cataphracts. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistas and catapults, replaced by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the theme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability. The recruiting system was changed to a typically feudal one, where the nobility was required to supply military contingents for the right to own land. In the future, the army and navy fall into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the existence of the empire they are purely mercenary formations.

In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, was able to field only a 5,000-strong army and 2,500 mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Russ and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 10th century, the ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads. After the Viking Age came to an end in the early 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and were defeated during the capture of the city.

Of great cultural importance was the period of the reign of emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexei I Komnenos (867-1081). The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the labors of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, Slavic alphabet- Glagolitic, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).

In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by unusual fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. In the collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved.

Economy

The state included rich lands with large quantity cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to a class was not a duty, but a privilege; joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the eparch. Despite a corrupt system of government, very high taxes, a slave economy and court intrigues, the Byzantine economy for a long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east.

Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the wealth of the country caused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

In the initial period of the history of the state, the basis of the economy was production and customs structure. 85-90 percent of production in all of Eurasia (with the exception of India and China) came from the Eastern Roman Empire. Absolutely everything was made in the empire: from consumer products (oil lamps, weapons, armor, the production of primitive elevators, mirrors, some other items related to cosmetics), which are now quite widely represented in all museums of the world, to unique works of art, in other areas of the world not represented at all - icon painting, painting, and so on.

Medicine in Byzantium

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire.

At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian to the end of the first millennium scientific knowledge was in a severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance. In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in Italy during the early Renaissance. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it "New Rome" (Constantinople is an unofficial name).

The new capital was located on the most important trade route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, along which grain was transported. In Rome, new contenders for the throne constantly appeared. Having defeated rivals in exhausting civil wars, Constantine wanted to create a capital, initially and completely subject to him alone. A deep ideological upheaval was called upon to serve the same goal: until recently, persecuted in Rome, Christianity was declared the state religion in the reign of Constantine. Constantinople immediately became the capital of the Christian empire.

The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western took place in 395 after the death of Theodosius I the Great. The main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek culture on its territory. Differences grew, and over the course of two centuries the state finally acquired its individual appearance.

The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, through the borders on the Danube and the Rhine, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated into Roman territory. The situation in the East was no less difficult, and a similar ending could be expected after the Visigoths won the famous battle of Adrianople in 378, the emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated all of Greece. But soon Alaric went west - to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger from their side for Byzantium was over. In 441, the Goths were replaced by the Huns. Their leader Attila started a war several times, and only by paying a large tribute it was possible to buy him off. In the battle of the peoples on the Catalaunian fields (451), Attila was defeated, and his power soon disintegrated.

In the second half of the 5th century, danger came from the Ostrogoths - Theodoric the Great ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went west, conquering Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome.

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by an unsuccessful campaign in the "promised land", the crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople without a fight, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but this rule was rather miserable. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even plundered church and private property in kind.

By the beginning of the XIV century, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. The desperate attempts of the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to enlist the military support of Western Europe were not successful. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

Religion of Byzantium

In Christianity, diverse trends fought and clashed: Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism. While in the West the popes, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), asserted the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these unrest, old national strife and separatist tendencies surfaced.

Political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict.

Since 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Bulgars began raids south of the Danube. Internal unrest reached its extreme limits, in the capital there was an intense struggle between the parties of "green" and "blue" (according to the colors of the chariot teams). Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of ​​the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West. To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans. This policy was pursued by Justinian I.

The national composition of the empire was very diverse, but starting from the 7th century, Greeks made up the majority of the population. Since then, the Byzantine emperor began to be called in Greek - "basileus". In the 9th-10th centuries, after the conquest of Bulgaria and the subjugation of the Serbs and Croats, Byzantium became, in essence, a Greek-Slavic state. Based on the religious community around Byzantium, an extensive "zone of orthodoxy (Orthodoxy)" was formed, including Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and most of Serbia.

Until the 7th century, the official language of the empire was Latin, but there was literature in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian. In 866, the "Thessalonica brothers" Cyril (c.826-869) and Methodius (c.815-885) invented the Slavic letter, which quickly spread in Bulgaria and Russia.

Despite the fact that the whole life of the state and society was permeated with religion, secular power in Byzantium was always stronger than church power. The Byzantine Empire has always been distinguished by stable statehood and strictly centralized administration.

By its political structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy, the doctrine of which was finally formed here. All power was in the hands of the emperor (basileus). He was the supreme judge foreign policy, issued laws, commanded the army, etc. His power was considered divine and was practically unlimited, however, (paradox!) It was not legally hereditary. The result of this was constant unrest and wars for power, ending in the creation of another dynasty (a simple warrior, even from the barbarians, or a peasant, thanks to his dexterity and personal abilities, could often take a high position in the state or even become an emperor. The history of Byzantium is full of such examples).

In Byzantium, a special system of relations between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, called Caesaropapism, developed (the Emperors, in essence, ruled the Church, becoming "popes." The Church became only an appendage and instrument of secular power). The power of the emperors was especially strengthened during the infamous period of "iconoclasm", when the clergy were completely subordinate to the imperial power, deprived of many privileges, the wealth of the church and monasteries were partially confiscated. As for cultural life, the result of "iconoclasm" was the complete canonization of spiritual art.

Byzantine culture

In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which were distinguished by the noble elegance of forms, figurative vision of thought, refinement of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. The direct successor of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, in terms of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. Since the 6th century, Constantinople has been turning into a glorified artistic center of the medieval world, into a "palladium of sciences and arts." It is followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica, which also became the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The process of artistic development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had epochs of ups and downs, periods of the triumph of progressive ideas and gloomy years of domination by reactionaries. There were several periods, more or less prosperous, marked by a special flourishing of art:

Time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - "golden age of Byzantium"

and the so-called Byzantine "renaissances":

The reign of the Macedonian dynasty (mid-IX - late XI century) - "Macedonian renaissance".

The reign of the Komnenos dynasty (end of the 11th - the end of the 12th centuries) - "the Komnenos' renaissance".

Late Byzantium (since 1260) - "Paleologian Renaissance".

Byzantium survived the invasion of the Crusaders (1204, IV Crusade), but with the formation and strengthening of the Ottoman Empire on its borders, its end became inevitable. The West promised help only on the condition of converting to Catholicism (the Ferraro-Florentine Union, indignantly rejected by the people).

In April 1453, Constantinople was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and two months later taken by storm. The last Emperor- Constantine XI Palaiologos - died on the fortress wall with a weapon in his hands.

Since then, Constantinople has been called Istanbul.

The fall of Byzantium was a huge blow to the Orthodox (and Christian in general) world. Disregarding politics and economics, Christian theologians saw the main reason for its death in that decline in morals and in that hypocrisy in matters of religion that flourished in Byzantium in the last centuries of its existence. So, Vladimir Solovyov wrote:

"After many delays and a long struggle with material decay, the Eastern Empire, long dead morally, was finally just before

the revival of the West, demolished from the historical field. ... Proud of their orthodoxy and piety, they did not want to understand that simple and self-evident truth that true orthodoxy and piety require that we somehow conform our lives to what we believe and what we honor - they did not want to understand that the real advantage belongs to the Christian kingdom over others only insofar as it is organized and governed in the spirit of Christ. ... Finding itself hopelessly incapable of its high purpose - to be a Christian kingdom - Byzantium lost the inner reason for its existence. For the current, ordinary tasks of state administration could, and even much better, be performed by the government of the Turkish Sultan, which, being free from internal contradictions, was more honest and stronger and, moreover, did not interfere in the religious field of Christianity, did not compose dubious dogmas and malicious heresies, but also did not defend Orthodoxy by massacre of heretics and solemn burning of heresiarchs at the stake.