Portable value types. Metaphor as a type of figurative meaning

Polysemy (Greek poly - many + sēma - sign) is a phenomenon of lexical polysemy of words.
Polysemantic words (polysemantics) are words that have several LZs. In a polysemantic word, one meaning is connected with another in meaning. The word companion in the NRS has several meanings related to each other: 1) a person who travels with someone: My companions turned out to be pleasant conversationalists; 2) something that accompanies something: Rock salt is a companion of oil; 3) a celestial body revolving around the planet: the Moon is a satellite of the Earth; 4) a spacecraft launched into orbit using rocket devices.
Polysemy is opposed to the phenomenon of monosemy.
Monosemia (Greek monos - one + sēma - sign) is a phenomenon of lexical unambiguity of words.
Single-valued words (monosemantics) are words with one LZ. For example: a coat of arms is a distinctive sign of a state or city, which is depicted on flags, coins, seals (coat of arms, coat of arms; many coats of arms, coats of arms).
There are more polysemantic words in the language than unambiguous ones. In explanatory dictionaries, individual meanings of polysemantic words are distinguished by numbers.
The polysemy of the word poses the problem of the typology of the LZ word.
The types of LZ words are diverse. One of the first DL typologies was developed by V.V. Vinogradov.
Allocate according to different parameters: basic and derivative; direct and figurative; free and related, etc. LZ words.
Direct and figurative LZ words. Types of transfer of word meanings.
Primary meanings are considered direct, nominative, because they are directly directed at the phenomena of reality, they name objects, actions, signs (house, book, stone, iron, goes, stands, etc.).
Secondary meanings are portable, because they are based on the transfer of the name from one phenomenon to another. For example: a residential building and a house in the meaning of "family" (we are familiar with houses, that is, our families visit each other), stone house and a stone heart (i.e. hard, hard, “like a stone”, similar to a stone), a person goes and time goes (i.e. flows, moves).
Nominative, direct meanings usually do not contain an assessment of the phenomenon, while figurative ones often turn out to contain an assessment of the corresponding phenomena (cf.: a stone house and a stone heart, a steel bar and a steel character, spoiled milk and sour mood, etc.).
Often the names of animals are used in a figurative sense: a fox - a cunning one, a donkey or a ram - a stupid one, a bear or an elephant - a clumsy one, a lion - a brave, courageous person.
The direct and figurative meanings of words differ in context: a bird's wing is an airplane wing, a girl's hat is a nail's hat.
Figurative meanings over time can become direct in polysemantic words: the spout of a teapot, a door handle, a table leg.
Types of word meaning transfer
The transfer of the name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. There are several types of figurative, figurative use of words.
Metaphor (from other Greek metaphora) - the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their similarity: the filling of the statement, the leg of the chair, the worm of doubt, a bitter smile, green ones (about dollars), a bright mind, the eye of a needle, etc. .
Renaming objects based on their relationship in space or time is called metonymy (Greek metonymia - “renaming”).
So, for example, in the phrase I ate three plates (I.A. Krylov), the word plate denotes two phenomena at the same time - a meal and a plate. Like a metaphor, metonymy is an “imposition” on the figurative meaning of a word of its direct meaning - with the only difference that both components are connected by relations not of similarity, but of contiguity.
Phenomena brought into connection by means of metonymy and forming a “subject pair” can relate to each other as (types of metonymy):
thing and material: Not on silver, but on gold (A.S. Griboyedov);
contents and containing: A flooded stove cracks (A.S. Pushkin);
property carrier and property: The courage of the city takes (proverb);
creation and creator: A man ... Belinsky and Gogol will be carried from the market (N.A. Nekrasov);
whole and part: Hey, beard! but how to get from here to Plyushkin (N.V. Gogol), etc.
The last type of metonymic transfer is singled out specifically and is called synecdoche (Greek synecdoche - “correlation”, “co-understanding”, “co-implying”), i.e. naming the whole through a part and vice versa.
The polysemy of a word or polysemy is the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word. The polysemy of a word arises in the process of the historical development of a language, when a word, due to semantic transfers, along with the designation of one object or phenomenon of objective reality, begins to be used to designate another, similar to it in some features or properties. Potentially, any word of a language can acquire a new meaning when the need arises, therefore, as a rule, there are more polysemantic words in a language than single-valued ones. In Russian, for example, there are especially many polysemantic words among the vocabulary of native Russian origin or long-term use (cf., polysemantic words house, land, field, star, bread, etc.).

The semantic development of the word occurs, as a rule, in two directions:
1. by changing denotations, when a name is transferred from one object or action to another;
1. by enriching the concept and deepening the meaning of the word.

Despite the changes that occur in the semantic structure of the word, the relationship between the meanings of a polysemantic word is preserved. The presence of this connection gives grounds to consider them as the values ​​of one and the same
of the same word, but qualify as lexico-semantic variants. Any polysemantic word consists of a set of interrelated elementary lexical units or lexico-semantic variants.

The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word often manifests itself in the presence of common associative features that unite these meanings.

The system of meanings of a polysemantic word is organized hierarchically, i.e. the main (or main) and derived values ​​are distinguished. The main meanings are the least contextually determined (it is they that arise in the minds of speakers when pronouncing a word out of context), while derivatives (or figurative) are realized only in context (cf. -something or something ": look out the window, in the mirror, at the clock, etc.; derivative -" look like ": look well done).

When describing the system of meanings of a polysemantic word and their hierarchy, two types of relations of its meanings are usually distinguished - the main and particular, and the invariant and variant meanings of the word.
The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and depends on the context to the least degree. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.
2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple- eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; porcelain dish - tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.
In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) We sat on the recess of the bastion, so that we could see everything in both directions (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having a common border.
In the first sentence, the word angle is used in its direct meaning: "the place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations “in a dead corner”, “bear corner”, the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dead corner - in a remote area, a bear corner - a deaf place.
In explanatory dictionaries, the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the figurative meanings go under the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5. The meaning fixed as a figurative recently comes with the mark “trans,” for example:
Wooden, th, th. 1. Made of wood, 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. Wood oil is a cheap variety of olive oil.
Portable Value Types

Depending on the basis on which the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.
1) The transfer of meanings by any similarity between objects, phenomena. Such figurative meanings are called metaphorical. Metaphor (from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location, etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, anthropomorphism is characteristic, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a mop of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. Metaphors are common language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely , as a result of which it is known to all speakers of given language(nail head, river arm, black envy, iron will), and individual ones, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.
2) Transfer of the name from one subject to another based on the adjacency of these subjects. Such a transfer of meanings is called metonymy (from the Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and the whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; there are five mouths in the family; Kolya is a bright head.
Some characteristic signs of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...
- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh (Ch.)

Metonymy is the transfer of a name by adjacency, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which arose due to such a transfer. Unlike the transfer of the metaphorical, which necessarily implies the similarity of objects, actions, properties, metonymy is based on the juxtaposition, contiguity of objects, concepts, actions that are not similar to each other. For example, such different "objects" as an industrial enterprise and the workers of this enterprise can be called the same word plant (cf.: "a new plant is being built" and "the plant has fulfilled the plan"); in one word we call the country, the state and the government of the country, the state (cf .: "the people of France" and "France has concluded a treaty"), etc.

Depending on what kind of contiguity objects (concepts), actions are connected with, they distinguish between spatial, temporal and logical metonymy *.

1) Spatial metonymy is based on the spatial, physical arrangement of objects, phenomena. The most common case of spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (part of a room), institution, etc. on people living, working, etc. in this room, in this enterprise. Compare, for example, " multi-storey building", "spacious hut", "huge workshop", "close editorial office", "student hostel", etc., where the words house, hut, workshop, editorial office, hostel are used in the direct meaning of naming the premises, enterprise, and " the whole house went out for a subbotnik", "the huts slept", "the workshop joined the competition", "the whole editorial staff was "for", "the hostel fell into a dream", where the same words, naming people, appear in a metonymic sense. Spatial metonymy is also an example of transferring the name of a vessel, a container to its contents. So, when we say “the kettle is already boiling”, “the samovar is bubbling”, “the frying pan is hissing”, we mean, of course, not the kettle, samovar, frying pan, but what is poured into the kettle, the samovar, which is fried (stewed) in a pan .

2) With temporal metonymy, objects, phenomena are adjacent, "touch" in the time of their existence, "appearance". Such metonymy is the transfer of the name of the action (expressed by the noun) to the result - to what occurs in the process of action. For example: "publishing a book" (action) - "luxury, gift edition" (result of action); "it was difficult for the artist to depict details" (action) - "images of animals are carved on the rock" (i.e. drawings, which means the result of the action); Similar metonymic figurative meanings, which appeared on the basis of temporal adjacency, also have the words embroidery ("dress with embroidery"), set ("to have a set of tools"), cutting ("cutting was erased"), translation ("deliver the translation on time"), correspondence ("to include the writer's correspondence in the publication"), polishing ("polishing is scratched"), editing ("the text of the last edition of the story"), carving ("decorate with carvings"), chasing ("collecting Georgian coinage"), sewing ("Old Russian sewing ") and many others.

3) Logical metonymy is also very common. Logical metonymy includes:

a) transfer of the name of the vessel, capacity to the volume of what is contained in the vessel, capacity. Wed “break a cup, plate, glass, jug”, “lose a spoon”, “smoke a pot”, “tie a bag”, etc., where the words cup, plate, glass, jug, spoon, pan, bag are used in the direct meaning as the names of the container, and "try a spoonful of jam", "drink two cups (tea)", "eat a whole plate of porridge (pot of soup)", "use a bag of potatoes", etc., where the same words have a figurative metonymic meaning , naming the volume, quantity of the corresponding substance, content;

b) transferring the name of a substance, material to a product from it: "porcelain exhibition", "won gold, bronze" (i.e. gold, bronze medals), "collect ceramics", "transfer the necessary papers" (i.e. documents ), "break glass", "paint watercolors", "levitan's canvas" ("Surikov's canvas"), "walk in capron, in furs", etc.;

d) transferring the name of the action to the substance (object) or to the people with the help of which this action is carried out. For example: putty, impregnation (a substance that putty, impregnation of something), suspension, clamp (a device for hanging, clamping something), defense, attack, change (a group of people performing an action - protection, attack, change) etc.;

e) transferring the name of the action to the place where it occurs. For example: entrance, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing (place of entry, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing, i.e. the place where these actions are performed);

f) transferring the name of a property, quality to something or what or who discovers that it has this property, quality. Compare: "tactlessness, rudeness of words", "stupidity of a person", "mediocrity of the project", "tactlessness of behavior", "caustic remarks", "banality of remarks", etc. (highlighted words denote an abstract property, quality) and "to commit tactlessness" (tactless act), "to speak rudeness, stupidity" (rude, stupid words, phrases), "he is surrounded by mediocrity" (mediocre people), "to allow tactlessness" (tactless an act or a tactless remark), "allow yourself to be taunts" (biting words, remarks), "pronounce platitudes" (banal words, phrases), "they are all talents, they are all poets" (B. Ok.);

g) transferring the name of a geographical point, area to what is produced in them, cf. tsinandali, saperavi, havana, gzhel, etc.

The adjacency of objects, concepts can also cause the transfer of the name of a feature expressed by an adjective. Thus, many qualitative adjectives, in addition to the direct meaning "possessing some kind of quality", referring directly to a living being (cf. "stupid person", "treacherous enemy", "brave rider", "smart woman", etc.), They also have figurative, metonymic meanings. An illustration of the use of an adjective in a metonymic sense can be such, for example, a combination as "stupid physiognomy" (i.e., the physiognomy of a stupid person). The adjacency of the objects "man" and "physiognomy" served as the basis for the transfer of the attribute stupid from a person to a physiognomy, as if as a result of the reduction of the combination: "the physiognomy of a stupid person" - "a stupid physiognomy". Examples of metonymic use can also be given for other qualitative adjectives: "insidious smile" (smile of an insidious person), "bold answer, act" (answer, act of a brave person), "smart advice" (advice smart person) etc. Similarly, i.e. due to the transfer of the definition based on the adjacency of objects, metonymic meanings appeared for the adjectives azure - "azure morning" (i.e. morning with a clear azure sky) *, crazy - "mad house" (i.e. a house for crazy people) ** etc.

The metonymic meaning of adjectives can also appear in another way, not by transferring the definition.

Consider adjectives in such combinations as "spring holidays" (holidays that happen in the spring), "travel suit" (a suit designed for the road); "hibernation" (hibernation that one falls into in winter), "sad meeting" * (meeting that causes sadness). It cannot be said about these adjectives that in the given combinations they are a definition transferred from one adjacent subject to another, since it is quite obvious that such combinations are not an abbreviation of the combinations "spring days holidays", "travel time suit", "winter hibernation" , "meeting sad people" or the like. (Such combinations do not really exist). Therefore, about the adjectives spring, road, winter, as well as many others (cf. acorn in the combination "acorn coffee", golden in "golden glasses", "golden ring", etc.) we can say that these adjectives in a metonymic sense arose, as it were, anew, secondarily (secondarily in comparison with the same adjectives in their direct meanings) from that noun that names one of the adjacent objects, from which the direct meaning was formed in due time. Wed: "spring holidays" - holidays that take place in the spring (detention highlights related objects, concepts), "travel suit" (a suit designed for the road), "acorn coffee" (coffee made from acorns), etc.

Finally, there is another rather peculiar type of formation of the figurative, metonymic meaning of adjectives (qualitative). Let's look at the example again first. M. Zoshchenko has. story "Weak container". The weak in this title is not "done with weak hands or weak man", weak here -" one that is weakly tightened, fastened, etc. ". That is, the adjective weak turns out to be connected not with a noun, but with an adverb ("weakly"). And if we talk about adjacency, then it is found between concepts , one of which is expressed by a noun (in the given example it is "tare"), the other - by a verb or participle (in our example it is "tight", "fastened").

In a similar way, such combinations, characteristic of the language of a modern newspaper, were formed, such as "fast water", "fast track", "fast track", "fast routes" (where fast is "one that you can quickly swim, run, drive"), "quick seconds" (fast here - "one that shows a fast running, swimming, etc. athlete"). And in these cases, the contiguity of the concepts expressed by the noun ("water", "path", "second", etc.), on the one hand, and the verb or participle, on the other ("swim", "run", " shows", etc.), and the adjective quick in the metonymic sense is clearly connected by its formation with the adverb

The metonymic transfer of the name is also characteristic of verbs. It can be based on the adjacency of items (as in the previous two cases). Compare: "knock out the carpet" (the carpet absorbs the dust, which is knocked out), "pour out the statue" (they pour out the metal from which the statue is made); other examples: "boil laundry", "forge a sword (nails)", "string a necklace" (from beads, shells, etc.), "cover a snowdrift", etc. Metonymic meaning can also arise due to the adjacency of actions. For example: "the store opens (=trade begins) at 8 o'clock" (the opening of the doors serves as a signal for the start of the store).

Like metaphors, metonymies vary in their degree of prevalence and expressiveness. From this point of view, among metonymies, general language inexpressive, general poetic (general literary) expressive, general newspaper expressive (as a rule) and individual (author's) expressive ones can be distinguished.

Common language metonymies are casting, silver, porcelain, crystal (in the meaning of "products"), work (what is done), putty, impregnation (substance), protection, attack, plant, factory, change (when people are called these words), entrance, exit, crossing, crossing, turning, etc. (in the meaning of the place of action), fox, mink, hare, squirrel, etc. (as a feature, products) and much more*. Like general language metaphors, metonyms are in themselves absolutely inexpressive, sometimes they are not perceived as figurative meanings.

General poetic (general literary) expressive metonymy is azure (about a cloudless blue sky): "The last cloud of a scattered storm! You alone rush through clear azure" (P.); "Under the peaceful azure, on a bright hill stands and grows alone" (Tyutch.); transparent: "It was a sunny, transparent and cold day" (Cupr.); "The valleys turned blue in the transparent cold" (Ec.); lead: "A slave of merciless honor, he saw his end close by. In duels, hard, cold, / Meeting fatal lead" (P.); "From whose hand is the deadly lead / Tore the poet's heart to pieces ..?" (Tyutch.); blue: "Let sometimes the blue evening whisper to me that you were a song and a dream" (Ec.); "Crowds of beggars - and they were crushed on such a blue day on the porch to the sound of bells" (A.N.T.); youth: "Let youth grow cheerfully, carelessly and happily, let it have one concern: to study and develop creative forces in itself" (A.N.T.); “Before him sat youth, a little rude, straightforward, somehow offensively simple” (I. and P.) *, etc.

General newspaper metonyms include such words as white (cf. "white strada", "white Olympics"), fast ("fast track", "fast water", "quick seconds", etc.), green ("green patrol ", "green harvest"), gold (cf. "golden jump", "golden flight", "golden blade", where gold is "one that is rated with a gold medal", or "one with which a gold medal is won" ) etc.

Examples of individual (author's) metonyms: "Only the troika rushes with a ringing in snow-white oblivion" (Bl.); "I'll put you to sleep with a quiet fairy tale, I'll tell you a sleepy fairy tale" (Bl.); "And in diamond dreams, even the deceased mother-in-law seemed to him nicer" (I. and P.); "In the midst of the green silence of the surging summer, not all questions are resolved. Not all are answered" (Ac.); "From the cool wooden cleanliness of the house we reluctantly went out into the street" (V.Sol.); "After all, you can't take their menu in your mouth" (Ginryary); “And a strange stalk that is up to the shoulders in a tubular blade of grass ... extract with a silk whistle” (Matt.); "Our keys made our neighbors angry" (B.Akhm.); "The twenty-fifth leaves for battle. The twenty-sixth stepped into the fire. My seventh froze at the edge" (N. Pozd.) (about conscripts born in 1925,1926 and 1927); "It was a pleasure to dashingly and accurately draw up a sophisticated document, to answer, for example, to some star excellency" (V. Savch.).

The meaning of a word. Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.

Words that have the same lexical meaning are called unambiguous or monosemic.

These words include:

1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;

2) various thematic groups:

a) plant names (birch, poplar);

b) names of animals (minnow, jay);

c) names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock specialist, pilot).

However, most words in Russian have many meanings. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

A word that is used in more than one meaning is called polysemantic or polysemic (from the Greek poly - many, sema - sign).

For example: according to the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov's word light

1. Insignificant in weight (light foot);

2. Easy to learn, solutions (easy lesson);

3. Small, insignificant (light breeze);

4. Superficial, frivolous (light flirting);

5. Soft, accommodating (light character);

6. Laid-back, graceful (light syllable);

7. Smooth, smooth, sliding (easy gait).

One of these meanings is primary, initial, and the others are secondary, resulting from the development of the primary meaning.

The primary value is usually the direct value.

primary value- this is the main meaning of the word, directly naming the object, action, property.

In the literal sense, the word appears out of context. For example: forest "many trees growing in a large area"; in a figurative sense: a lot of “forest of hands”, not understanding anything “dark forest”, construction material"forest harvesting".

The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in form, in color, in the nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.

There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a kind of metonymy - synecdoche.

Let's consider each separately.

metaphorical transfer.

The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.

Similarity can be:

1. In form. For example, the word "beard" we call a small beard of a person - this is a direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the ledges at the keys a beard. An apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.

2. By color similarity. Gold is a yellow precious metal, "the gold of her hair" is the color of her hair.

3. By the similarity of size. A pole is a long thin pole, a pole is a long thin man.

4. By the similarity of sounds. Drum - beat the drum, drumming rain.

5. Transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping the yard, street; a device in the car that serves to clean the glass.

Metaphors are common language - such a metaphorical meaning of a word that is widely used and known to all speakers: a nail head, a Christmas tree needle.

Individually - author's are not peculiar to the national language. They are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic manner. For example, a fire of a red mountain ash, a birch tongue of a grove, a calico of the sky (S. Yesenin). The river of life began to rumble (Leonov).

metonymic transfer.

Its essence lies in the fact that the name from one subject to another is transferred on the basis of adjacency.

Adjacency is understood here as spatial adjacency, proximity of an object, temporal adjacency, etc., i.e. objects named by the same word may be completely different, but they are close in space, in time.

1. Transferring the name from the container to its contents: auditorium - a room for classes, people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (I ate a bowl of soup).

2. Material - a product from it: crystal - a type of glass, a product from it; gold - she has gold in her ears.

3. Action - the result of this action: jam - the cooking process, berries boiled in syrup.

5. Action - the object of this action: the publication of a book - an illustrated edition.

6. Action - a means or tool of action: harvesting vegetables - harvesting on the table.

7. Action - scene of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.

8. Plant - the fruit of the plant: pear, plum.

9. Animal - animal fur or meat: chicken, mink, eggs.

10. An organ of the body is a disease of this body: the stomach is seized by the stomach, the heart is naughty.

11. Scientist - his image: Ampere, Volt.

12. Locality - a product invented, made there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.

13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: it was 1918, 1941.

As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, ohm, boston, mac.

Synecdoche.

This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.

For example, "head" is a part of the human or animal body.

This name can be transferred to the whole person.

From part to whole. Headache - direct meaning.

Borya - bright head - figurative (synecdoche).

Herd of 20 heads.

Mouth - part of the face - direct meaning.

"We have 5 mouths in our family" - figurative.

A car is any mechanism, a passenger car.

From the whole Tool - any technical device (a tool on a part of labor) - a direct meaning; gun is portable.

Synecdoche, as a special type of transference, is combined with metonymy by many scientists and is considered as its variety.

Some characteristic signs of a person are often used to refer to this person, to refer to him. This use of words for colloquial speech is especially characteristic: "I am behind the little blue cap." "Hey, beard, where are you going?"

Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.

Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

Plan.

1. Native Russian vocabulary.

2. Borrowed vocabulary.

3. Old Slavonicisms, their signs and use in modern Russian.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is one of the richest in the world and contains more than a quarter of a million words.

It is believed that in the Russian language there are 90% native and 10% borrowed vocabulary.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains lexical layers of various historical eras.

The primordial vocabulary includes all the words that came into the modern Russian language from the languages ​​of their ancestors. Therefore, the original Russian vocabulary is divided into 4 layers related to different eras. Let's consider each of them.

1. Indo-European vocabulary. Until III - II centuries BC.

In the 6th-5th millennium BC. there was a single civilization, which was called Indo-European, and a single unwritten Indo-European language.

The words of this era are the most ancient. They are known not only to Slavic, but also to other families of languages: Germanic, Romance, and so on. For example, the word sky is found, in addition to Slavic, in Greek and Latin.

Vocabulary of Indo-European origin includes:

a) some words denoting kinship terms: mother, sister, brother, wife, daughter, son;

b) the name of wild and domestic animals: wolf, goat, cat, sheep, bull;

c) the name of food products and vital concepts: sky, fire, house, month, name, water, meat;

d) the name of actions and signs: to see, share, eat, be, live, carry, white, cheerful, sick, alive, evil;

e) numerals: two, three, ten;

e) prepositions: without, before.

2. Common Slavic vocabulary (Proto-Slavic). From III - II centuries. BC. according to VI AD

These are words that arose during the period of linguistic unity of the Slavs. They are usually known to all Slavic languages: Ukr. - spring, Polish - vrosna.

About 2 thousand words belong to this layer. They make up 25% of the words in our everyday communication.

These include thematic groups:

1. Name of agricultural implements: scythe, hoe, awl, sickle, harrow;

2. Product of labor, plants: rye, cereals, flour, cranberries, maple, cabbage;

3. Name of animals, birds, insects: hare, cow, fox, snake, woodpecker;

4. The name of the parts of the human body: eyebrow, head, tooth, knee, face, forehead;

5. Terms of kinship: grandson, son-in-law, mother-in-law, godfather;

6. The name of the dwelling, vital concepts: house, hut, porch, shop, oven, spring, winter, clay, iron, etc.;

7. Abstract vocabulary: thought, happiness, evil, goodness, excitement, grief.

During this period, a large number of:

Adjectives denoting features and qualities by color, size, shape: tall, long, large, black;

Verbs denoting various labor processes: cut, saw, dig, weed;

Verbs denoting actions and states: guess, warm, hold, dare, share, doze off;

Numerals: one, four, eight, one hundred, one thousand;

Pronouns: you, we, you, what, everyone;

Adverbs: inside, everywhere, yesterday, tomorrow.

Common Slavic words were the basis for the formation of many new words. For example, about 100 derivative words have been created from the verb to live in Russian.

3. East Slavic vocabulary. VI in - 14-15 century.

Around the 6th-7th century, the collapse of the common Slavic language into South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian) is attributed. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus.

East Slavic vocabulary- these are words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages ​​​​of the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are absent in other Slavic languages.

For example:

Completely (Russian) zovsim (Ukrainian) zusim (bel.);

snowfall snowfall snowfall;

Good good good good.

The East Slavic layer represents a rather diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.

During this period, many words appear on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:

Bullfinch (Russian);

Snow< снiгур (укр.);

Snyagir (white);

Compound numbers: eleven, forty, ninety;

Compound words: hook-nosed, today;

Suffix words - finch, blackberry, pantry.

4. Actually Russian vocabulary.

In the 14th century, due to the collapse Kievan Rus Old Russian language breaks up into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.

Proper Russian vocabulary- these are words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian nationality and continue to arise to the present.

Words and morphemes of primordially Russian origin served as the basis for the creation of Russian vocabulary proper. those. common Slavic, East Slavic:

1. Almost all words with suffixes: chik / schik, nick, - testimonials, - lux, - nost bricklayer, wallet, teacher, mower;

2. Many compound words: ship, plane, steel progress;

3. Words with prefixes on, before, behind and the suffix sya: look at, wake up, talk;

4. Abbreviations: JSC - joint stock company, CJSC - closed joint stock company, LLC - limited liability company, PSC - private security company.

19. Direct and figurative meanings of the word.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately evokes an idea of ​​them and in least degree context dependent. Words often appear in the direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word - this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.

Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed. Depending on the basis of which sign the meaning is transferred, there are three main types of meaning transfer: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:

ripe apple - eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of the ship (according to the location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound); and etc.

Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency:

water boils - the kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc.

Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:

dense currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

20. Stylistic use of homonyms.

Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. As you know, within homonymy, lexical and morphological homonyms are distinguished. Lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all their forms. For example: a key (from a lock) and a (cold) key.

Morphological homonymy is the homonymy of separate grammatical forms of the same word: three - a numeral and a form imperative mood rub the verb.

These are homophones, or phonetic homonyms, - words and forms of different meanings that sound the same, although they are written differently. flu - mushroom,

Homonymy also includes homographs - words that coincide in spelling, but differ in emphasis: castle - castle

21. Stylistic use of synonyms.

Synonyms - words denoting the same concept, therefore, identical or close in meaning.

Synonyms that have the same meaning but differ in stylistic coloring. Among them, two groups are distinguished: a) synonyms belonging to various functional styles: live (neutral interstyle) - live (official business style); b) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades. sensible (with positive coloring) - brainy, big-headed (rough-familiar coloring).

semantic-stylistic. They differ both in meaning and in stylistic coloring. For example: wander, wander, wander, stagger.

Synonyms perform various functions in speech.

Synonyms are used in speech to clarify thoughts: He seemed to be a little lost, as if srobel (I. S. Turgenev).

Synonyms are used to oppose concepts, which sharply highlights their difference, emphasizing the second synonym especially strongly: He actually did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground

One of the most important functions of synonyms is the replacement function, which allows you to avoid the repetition of words.

Synonyms are used to build a special stylistic figure

The stringing of synonyms may, if handled ineptly, testify to the stylistic helplessness of the author.

Inappropriate use of synonyms gives rise to a stylistic error - pleonasm ("memorable souvenir").

Two types of pleonasms: syntactic and semantic.

Syntactic appears when the grammar of the language allows you to make some auxiliary words redundant. "I know he will come" and "I know he will come." The second example is syntactically redundant. It's not a mistake.

On a positive note, pleonasm can be used to prevent loss of information (to be heard and remembered).

Also, pleonasm can serve as a means of stylistic design of an utterance and a method of poetic speech.

Pleonasm should be distinguished from tautology - the repetition of unambiguous or the same words (which can be a special stylistic device).

Synonymy creates ample opportunities for the selection of lexical means, but the search for the exact word costs the author great work. Sometimes it is not easy to determine how exactly synonyms differ, what semantic or emotionally expressive shades they express. And it is not at all easy to choose the only correct, necessary one from a multitude of words.

Word

This term has other meanings, see Word (meanings).

Word- one of the main structural units of the language, which serves to name objects, their qualities and characteristics, their interactions, as well as the naming of imaginary and abstract concepts created by the human imagination.

In search of the structure of the word, modern science has formed an independent branch called morphology. By grammatical meaning words are classified as parts of speech:

• significant words - denoting certain concepts - noun, adjective, verb, adverb

• subclasses - numerals, pronouns and interjections;

• service words - serving to link words together - union, preposition, particle, article, etc.

By lexical meaning, words are classified according to an increasing list as lexicology, semantics, word-formation, etymology and stylistics develop.

From a historical point of view, the words that make up the vocabulary of a language usually have the most various origins, and in this variety of origins, the combination of subjects terminology and etymology, which is able to restore the true origin of significant words, becomes especially promising for fundamental research.

The concept of "word" in scientific use is a fundamental concept (axiom) in linguistics. All allegorical uses of the designation of this concept are examples of the use of this concept in other areas of human activity, for which the author either cannot find an appropriate designation for his thought, or considers the introduction of a new designation unnecessary. So any allegorical use of this designation must be considered an everyday language of communication, allowing minor deviations from literacy and general education. As a rule, such a need arises when presenting subjective or emotional speech as an integral part of human life.

General concept of the word

The word is traditionally presented as the main unit of language or speech activity, or one of their main units along with some others. Since the language finds application in a wide variety of areas public life, the concept of the word and its study are not limited to the framework of linguistics alone: ​​quite naturally, the word also falls into the sphere of attention of other sciences, in which either language as a system or human speech activity is studied; accordingly, the word is considered within the framework of philosophy, psychology, logic and other areas scientific research. At the same time, due to the intuitive perception of the word as an atomic linguistic unit, it is often considered an indefinite and a priori concept; on its basis, certain theoretical constructions are carried out within the framework of the relevant sciences

The word can be considered in different ways, depending on which of the key functions of language and speech is represented in this or that case as the main one. If a this concept is examined through the prism of the function of communication, then from the appropriate point of view the word is usually seen as the smallest significant segment of the flow of speech; if the focus of the researcher is the function of generalization, then in this respect the word is represented as a method or form of consolidating knowledge (for example, about any class of objects or phenomena of the surrounding reality) obtained in the course of social practice. From the latter point of view, the word acts as a kind of abstract idea, symbol, which in various types speech or mental activity of a person replaces the above-mentioned class of objects or phenomena. In other words, in this case it is special case sign.

If, for example, the researcher considers the sound side of the word, or, in other words, the signifier in oral speech, then it can be concluded that in the process of the speaker's speech activity, it is able to act at various levels. On the one hand, there is an opinion that a sounding word is a segment of the speech flow, which is delimited from adjacent elements by pauses (although, as practice shows, the separation of words in speech by pauses does not always take place); on the other hand, there is an idea according to which the word is a kind of unit of phonological control, which is actively used in the process of speech recognition - when the listener performs internal imitation of information coming through the auditory channel. In addition, the word can also be interpreted as a minimal element of speech awareness by a native speaker (in American psycholinguistics, for example, the term “psychological unit” is used).

Different researchers also understand the semantic side of the word in different ways, that is, to put it simply, its meaning. Of the totality of concepts within which attempts are made to interpret lexical semantics and its structure, the most common are the ideas laid down at one time by the famous American philosopher C. W. Morris; according to these ideas, the meaning of a word consists of three basic components, each of which has its own specifics and is characterized by an inseparable connection with the others. Traditionally, these three components are defined as follows:

1. pragmatic component. Pragmatics is the generality of all aspects of the word, associated with questions of its practical use in a particular speech situation; among other things, the pragmatic component acts as the subject of the physiological interpretation of the word as a meta-signal.
2. semantic component. From this side, the question of the relation of the word to the object it denotes, that is, to its denotation, is considered first of all. It is customary, respectively, to talk about the subject content and subject relatedness of the word. In other words, the word is presented in this aspect as a reflection of some object, phenomenon or concept in the language, as a linguistic correlate, compared to it. At the same time, a boundary should be drawn between the semantics of the word and the semantics of the concept; in the word, the meaning is realized in specific conditions, a specific situation and a specific context, that is, it is inseparable from the dynamics of its use, while for the concept the semantic aspect of a linguistic sign is a static product of socio-historical practice, regardless of the specific linguistic forms of its consolidation.
3. syntax component. This component of the meaning of the word is directly related to its relation to other linguistic units presented in the same speech stream.

In addition, sometimes researchers consider it necessary to highlight not only the meaning of the word, but also the meaning. In this case, the meaning is understood as that component of the semantic aspect of the word, which is not unchanged and objective for all native speakers and is primarily due to certain motives for the activity of either a particular communicator or a group of them. In addition to the above, the concept of the semantic component of a word often correlates with such an independent aspect of it as emotional-affective coloring.

From the point of view of linguistics, the concept of a word does not have a single definition that would be generally accepted and would fully take into account the totality of its various aspects. The situation is also complicated by the fact that none of the existing definitions of a word can be equally successfully applied to describe languages ​​belonging to different typological classes. Within phonetics, for example, a word is often defined as a group of sounds that are united by a single stress; however, such an interpretation cannot be considered successful, since words are known that are obviously uniform, but at the same time are characterized by two stresses - and at the same time, entire sections of the speech stream can be combined under one stress, sometimes significantly exceeding the size of the word. From the point of view of morphology, as a rule, it is proposed to define a word as a “whole-shaped” unit - one that acts as a single whole in the paradigm of grammatical inflection; however, if a language has a less pronounced morphological design than the inflectional Indo-European languages ​​​​(for which such a definition is primarily intended) - for example, its grammar does not provide for adjective declension - then this criterion cannot be applied to it . From the standpoint of syntax, the word can be interpreted as the minimum significant segment of the speech flow that lends itself to substitution, or as a potential minimum of the sentence; these criteria, again, are not applicable to all languages ​​and are fundamentally unsuitable for differentiating words in languages ​​of a non-inflectional type. Finally, semantics offers a variety of definitions of the word, but in essence they, as a rule, come down to one thought: the word is proposed to be understood as the minimum segment of the speech flow that correlates with one or another fragment of the surrounding reality. Definitions of this kind are not strict, and therefore they cannot be used as a formal criterion that would allow one to single out a word. In connection with the problems described above, linguistic research often raises the global question of whether it is legitimate to single out a word as a linguistic unit; some theoretical concepts (for example, descriptive linguistics) generally refuse to use this concept.

With regard to language, the corresponding ideas (that is, the idea that a word cannot be fully defined as an integral unit, and this impossibility cannot be eliminated) are becoming more widespread in linguistics. Instead of talking about the word as a whole, researchers use interrelated and complementary concepts of "phonetic word", "morphological word", "lexeme", etc. - that is, they tie the interpretation of the word to certain levels language system. The commonality of the speech realization of all these units determines their unity in the global sense. This approach has its positive aspects: it can be used to rigorously interpret ambiguous cases or word equivalents in other languages.

The entire set of words available in a language is defined as its vocabulary, or, in other words, a thesaurus. There is an opinion that the meanings of all the words of a language are interconnected by a single semantic network, but so far it has been possible to prove the existence of such connections only in relation to narrow thematic groups - semantic fields. These or those types of words are compared to various aspects of reality or its specific characteristics, which are perceived by a person in a certain form; so, in particular, nouns correspond to objects or phenomena, adjectives - to the features, qualities of objects and their concrete being, verbs - to processes that occur between objects or phenomena of the surrounding reality, function words convey the connections and relationships that exist between objects, and etc. By combining words into units of a higher order - phrases, sentences - statements, ideas, questions, imperatives about the world observed or experienced by a person are formed.

Basic properties

Words designate specific objects and abstract concepts, express human emotions and will, name “general, abstract categories of existential relations”, etc. Thus, the word acts as the main meaningful unit of language. Like any other language, Russian as a means of communication is the language of words. From words that act separately or as components of phraseological units, sentences are formed using grammatical rules and laws, and then the text as a structural-communicative whole.

Considering the complexity and diversity of the structure of the word, modern researchers use the so-called words to characterize it. a multidimensional type of analysis, that is, they indicate the sum of a variety of linguistic properties:

• Phonetic formation and single-stress (the presence of the main stress).
• Semantic formalization (the presence of lexical, grammatical, structural meaning).
• Nominative function (the name of the phenomenon of reality and its presentation in the form of a lexical meaning).
• Reproducibility (the word exists in the language as a ready-made independent unit and is reproduced by the speaker at the moment of speech, and is not reinvented).
• Syntactic independence (the ability to be used as a separate statement; relative freedom in the arrangement of words in a sentence).
• Internal linear organization (the word consists of morphemes).
• Impermeability and indivisibility (the impossibility of breaking the unit by any elements). Exceptions: no one - no one etc.
• Whole design.
• Semantic valency (the ability to combine with other words according to certain semantic * grammatical laws).
• Lexico-grammatical relatedness.
• Materiality (the existence of a word in a sound/graphic shell).
• Informativity (amount of knowledge about the phenomenon of the world of reality).

Classification

By value

• significant (denoting some concept);
• service (serve to connect words together).

Parts of speech

Words are also divided into different parts of speech.

Origin

• Aboriginal (existed in one form or another in the ancestor language)
• Borrowed (coming from some foreign language)

Composition

• Simple
• Complex

By use

• Common
• Obsolete
  • Historicisms - obsolete due to the disappearance of the subject ( oprichnik)
  • Archaisms - replaced by another word ( mouth)
• Neologisms - little used due to novelty
• Terms are special words used by people of certain professions to refer to the concepts with which they deal.
• Argo, jargon, slang - words used in informal communication by certain social, professional and age groups
• Colloquial words - used by poorly educated people, regardless of social group
• taboo words
  • Euphemisms - words to replace the taboo
• etc.

Values

The word has grammatical and lexical meanings.

Lexical meaning is the correlation of a word with some phenomenon of objective reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers.

The lexical meaning can be unique (words with one meaning are called unambiguous: window sill, broom, neck, fraught etc.). But it can be in a word along with other lexical meanings (words with such semantics are called polysemantic: know, root, beat off etc.).

There are three main types of lexical meanings:

1. direct (nominative);
2. phraseologically related;
3. syntactically determined.

Polysemy (or polysemy) is a consequence of the transfer of the name from one subject to another. These transfers are:

1. based on similarity;
2. by adjacency;
3. by function;

The main types of portable values:

1. metaphor (the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena);
2. metonymy (the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another object on the basis of an external or internal connection between them);
3. synecdoche (the use of the name of the whole instead of the name of the part, the general instead of the particular and vice versa).

Terminology

• Antonyms are words of different sounding that express opposite, but correlative concepts with each other ( fat - thin, small - large, far - close etc.).
• Literalisms are a mistake when translating from another language, consisting in the fact that instead of the appropriate meaning of the word, the main or most famous meaning is used: cable - cable (not just cable), cardboard - a small box (not cardboard - cardboard).
• Hyponyms are words with a narrower meaning that call an object (property, attribute) as an element of a class (set): the term "dog" is a hyponym in relation to the term "beast", and the term "bulldog", in turn, is a hyponym in relation to the term "dog".
• Hypernyms are concepts that express a more general essence in relation to other concepts: the term "dog" is a hypernym in relation to the term "bulldog", and "beast" is a hypernym in relation to the term "dog".
• Quasi-synonyms are imaginary synonyms, partial synonyms are words that are close in meaning, but not interchangeable in all contexts, unlike synonyms that should be interchangeable in any context: path - path, building - house, talent - genius.
• Homographs are words and forms that are different in meaning, but are similarly depicted in writing. In pronunciation, homographs do not coincide with each other in sound ( castle - castle, flour - flour, road - road and etc.).
• Homonymy is the coincidence in sound of two or more words that have different meanings ( key source, spring and key- tool, wrench; flying- fly through the sky and flying- treat people, etc.)
• Homonyms are words that are identical in sound and spelling, the meanings of which are realized by us as completely unrelated to each other and not derivable from one another (cf .: meter- 100 centimeters, meter- verse size and meter- teacher, mentor; occasion- circumstance and occasion- part of the horse team; excerpt- durability and excerpt- quote, etc.). Homonyms coincide with each other both in sound and in writing in all (or in a number) of their inherent grammatical forms. There are full homonyms - words coincide with each other in all grammatical forms ( force- force someone to do something force- block, close with something set; drummer- an advanced worker of socialist production and drummer- part of the rifle bolt, etc.); as well as incomplete homonyms - words coincide with each other only in a number of their grammatical forms ( onion - garden plant and onion- an ancient weapon for throwing arrows, the first word has no plural, etc.).
• Homophones are words and forms of different meanings that are also pronounced the same way, but are depicted differently in writing. Homophones can be homonymous ( bone - inert, company - campaign, coccyx - coccyx, Roman - romance etc.) and homoform ( raft - fruit, carry - lead, brother - brother etc.).
• Homoforms - words of both the same and different grammatical classes, coinciding with each other in sound only in separate forms ( verse- a poem and verse subside; went from vulgar and went from go, etc.).
• Paronyms are words with different spellings that have a very close, but still not identical pronunciation (sulfurs - sirs, rout - round, soar - parade, bank - bathhouse, report - countdown, will - wakes up, etc.).
• Paronymy is a partial coincidence of two phonetic words, not reducible to homonymy and the coincidence of any independent parts of these words ( dawn - flourishing, fun - weighed, jester - joking, months - kneading etc.).
• Synonyms - words denoting the same phenomenon of reality ( to be afraid - to beware - to fear - to be afraid; wander - walk - drag - wander - go; hot - hot - burning etc.).
• Synonymy - the similarity of several words in meaning ( labor - work; indifference - indifference - indifference - apathy etc.).

Types of figurative meanings of words

Veronica

Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

METAPHOR (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: a ripe apple - an eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of the ship (by location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc.

METONYMIY (Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their proximity *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche.

SYNECDOCH (from the Greek "synekdoche" - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Wed , for example, sentences: 1) We were sitting on the corner of the bastion, so that we could see everything in both directions (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)

* Adjacent - located directly next to, having a common border.

In the first sentence, the word angle is used in its direct meaning: “the place where two sides of something converge, intersect”. And in stable combinations "in a dead corner", "bear corner" the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dead corner - in a remote area, a bear corner - a deaf place.

What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?

Kledi uwinn

to make an elephant out of moss is a figurative meaning, for example, we cannot make an elephant out of a fly, but the direct meaning is to confuse everything to turn the real into something else
With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest are figurative.

The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea of ​​them and is least dependent on the context. Words often appear in the direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.
Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed.

Depending on the basis of which sign the value is transferred, there are three main types of value transfer:
metaphor,
metonymy,
synecdoche.
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:
ripe apple - eyeball (in shape);
the nose of a person - the bow of the ship (by location);
chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color);
bird wing - aircraft wing (by function);
the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound);
and etc.
Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency:
water boils - the kettle boils;
a porcelain dish is a tasty dish;
native gold - Scythian gold
and etc.
Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:
dense currant - ripe currant;
a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family);
big head smart head
and etc.
In the process of developing figurative meanings, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context.
We sat on the corner of the bastion, so that we could see everything in both directions. - In Tarakanov, as in the most deaf bear corner, there was no place for secrets.
In the first sentence, the word ANGLE is used in the direct meaning of "a place where two sides of something converge, intersect". And in stable combinations "in a dead corner", "bear corner" the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dead corner - in a remote area, a bear corner - a deaf place.

In explanatory dictionaries, the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the figurative meanings come under numbers starting from 2. The meaning that was recently fixed as a figurative one comes with a translation mark. :
Wooden, th, th. 1. Made from wood. 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. ♦Wooden oil - a cheap variety of olive oil

Olga Fadeeva

monosemantic and polysemantic words. The direct and figurative meanings of the word Zhdanova L. A. A word can have one lexical meaning, then it is unambiguous or several (two or more) meanings such a word is called polysemantic. There are a fairly large number of single-valued words in the language, but the most frequent, commonly used words are usually polysemantic. There are many unambiguous words among the terms, names of tools, professions, animals, plants, etc. For example, the words dualism, planer, neuropathologist, roe deer, poplar, tulle, trolley bus, wattle fence are unambiguous. Polysemantic words can have from two to more than two dozen meanings (for example, the word go in the Ozhegov Dictionary has 26 meanings). If a word is polysemantic, there is a semantic connection between its meanings (not necessarily all at once). For example, for the word road in the Ozhegov's Dictionary, the following meanings are allocated: 1. A strip of land intended for movement. Asphalt road. 2. The place where you need to go or drive, the route. On the way to the house. 3. Travel, stay on the road. Tired from the road. 4. Mode of action, direction of activity. Road to success. The first three meanings have a common component of movement in space, the fourth meaning is associated with the second: both contain the meaning of direction (in the second meaning, the direction of movement in space, and in the fourth in activity, in development). In a polysemantic word, the direct (basic) meaning of the word and figurative (derivative) meanings are distinguished. The figurative meaning is the result of the transfer of the name (sound-letter means) to other phenomena of reality, which begin to be denoted by the same word. There are two types of name transfer: metaphor and metonymy. It should be noted that the question of which meaning is direct and which is figurative should be decided on a modern language cut, and not translated into the field of the history of the language. For example, the word stick in the Ozhegov Dictionary is interpreted as follows ...

Alina Bondarenko

What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?

These are two terms from word formation - the science of replenishing the vocabulary of a language at its own expense, and not by borrowing from other languages.
According to tradition, some words of a language can distinguish two or more lexical meanings related to each other in some way. This relationship is described, for example, in V. V. Vinogradov's book "The Russian language. A grammatical doctrine of the word", as well as in academic grammars, which are used in school textbooks.
It is believed that a word with one - direct - meaning, in some cases, due to the semantic transfer by the similarity of phenomena (metaphor) or by the adjacency of the functions of phenomena (metonymy), can receive an additional - figurative meaning.
So, the verb "injure" can have a direct meaning "maim, damage, destroy the tissues of the human body" (The soldier was wounded by the police with a pistol) and figuratively "hurt a person's feelings, offend, insult" (She was wounded by the words of a classmate).
Similarly, we can talk about the direct and figurative meanings of many words: "to go, poisonous, transparent, shell" and so on.
It is believed that all figurative meanings of a word arise on the basis of one - direct meaning, that is, the direct meaning is the source for all figurative ones, and figurative ones are always secondary.
I must say that the issue of figurative meanings is rather controversial: sometimes it is not possible to determine what is primary and what is secondary in the same "word". Or the transfer mechanism is incomprehensible (why is a person sometimes called the word "goat"?). Or there is no semantic connection at all between equally sounding words (the person goes / the dress suits her). In such cases, they are no longer talking about direct and figurative meaning (together they define the term "polysemy"), but about homonyms.
This is a problem of modern linguistics, which has yet to be unambiguously solved.

Kostya migrin

For example, when you say one word and mean something completely different, for example: "her face froze" here it means that the girl did not show any emotions on her face, and it does not mean that her face really froze (frozen)

Lesya Zolotukhina

The direct meaning of a word is its specific formulation, that is, what it means in the literal sense of the word, and figurative, that is, it is used with a slightly different meaning that is not natural for the surrounding world, for example, the word tail ... The direct meaning is the tail of a dog, the tail of a creature .... and the figurative tail is, for example, correcting tails, that is, correcting deuces) something like this)

Olya tomilina (Ivanova)

the direct meaning is when the word means what you say. A figurative meaning is when a word has a double meaning. For example: a teapot spout is a protruding teapot hole from where water flows, a door handle is a bracket on the door through which the door can be opened, a table leg, a book spine, a mushroom cap, a tractor caterpillar .... Here are more examples: a steel nail is a direct meaning

Nerves of steel - figurative meaning
big stone - direct meaning
big football - figurative meaning
frost will hit
go to bed with roosters
cut in the exam

Anton Maslov

The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the word table has the following main meaning: "a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

The figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc. Thus, the word table has several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of similar shape (operating table, raise the machine table). 2. Food, food (to rent a room with a table). 3. Department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs (reference desk).

Depending on the basis and on what grounds the name of one object is transferred to another, there are three types of transfer of word meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche. Some linguists also distinguish transfer by the similarity of functions.
1. Metaphor (gr. metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.
The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways:
objects may be similar in shape (a ring on a hand is a smoke ring, a ripe apple is an eyeball);
by color (gold medallion - golden curls, chocolate bar - chocolate tan);
by function (fireplace - stove and fireplace - electrical appliance for space heating, bird wing - aircraft wing);
by the nature of the sound (the dog howled - the wind howled);
similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal is the tail of a comet, the nose of a person is the nose of a ship);
similarity in the evaluation of subjects (clear day - clear style);
similarity in the impression made (black veil - black thoughts);
convergence is also possible on other grounds: green strawberries - green youth (a unifying feature is immaturity); fast running - quick mind (common feature - intensity); mountains stretch - days stretch (associative connection - length in time and space).
2. Metonymy (gr. metonymia - translation

Lyubava Egorova

The same words can be used in different ways in speech, getting different meanings. Direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished. The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.
So, the words table, black, boil have the main meanings: 1. A piece of furniture in the form of a horizontal board on high supports, legs; 2. Color of soot, coal; 3. Boil, bubbling, evaporating from strong heating (about liquids). These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant "throne", "reigning".
The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words.
Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

Olesia rich

The direct meaning of the word is the main one and reflects the direct correlation of the word with the called object, sign, action, phenomenon.
The figurative meaning of a word arises on the basis of a direct one as a result of the transfer of the name of one object (attribute, action, etc.) to another, in some way similar to it. Thus, the figurative meaning of a word reflects the connection between the word and the called phenomenon of reality not directly, but through comparison with other words. For example, the direct meaning of the word “rain” is “ precipitation in the form of drops”, and figuratively - “a stream of small particles of something, pouring in a multitude”.
One word can have several figurative meanings. So, the word “burn” has the following figurative meanings: 1) to be in a fever, in a feverish state (the patient is on fire); 2) blush from a rush of blood (cheeks burn); 3) sparkle, shine (eyes burn); 4) experience something strong feeling(to burn with love for poetry).
Over time, figurative meanings can become direct. For example, the word "nose" is now used in its direct meaning, if we are talking about the organ of smell, located on the face of a person or on the muzzle of animals, and about the front of the ship.
It is possible to determine in what meaning the word is used only in the context: a drop is a drop of water, a drop of pity; insatiable - insatiable animal, insatiable ambition; golden - golden ring, golden autumn. A figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word and is given in explanatory dictionaries marked “trans. ".
1. Here, where the vault of heaven looks so languidly at the skinny earth, - here, plunging into an iron dream, tired nature sleeps ... (F. Tyutchev). 2. The sun turns golden. Buttercup is cold. The river is silvery and naughty with water (K. Balmont).

Depending on which sign value is transferred from one object to another, the following are distinguished portable value types the words.

1) Transferring values ​​for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on similarities their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:

a) head bow, eye Apple - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;

b) nose boats, tail trains, hat nail - transfer on the basis

similarities in the arrangement of objects;

in) street cleaner (in the meaning of "cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electric position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - a transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare these examples: evil wind, indifferent nature, breath spring, "The river plays"(title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), flow running, volcano woke up and etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: cold sight, iron will, stone heart, gold character, mop hair, a ball of thoughts and etc.

Metaphors are general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of this language (hat nail, sleeve rivers, black envy, iron will and Ar-), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:

S. A. Yesenin: red rowan bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz sky, grains eye and etc.;

B. L. Pasternak: labyrinth lyre, bloody tears september, rolls lanterns and donuts roofs and etc.

2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values ​​is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:

a) material - product from this material. For example, words gold, crystal can designate products from these materials (in her ears gold; on the shelves solid crystal);

b) vessel - content vessel (ate two plates, drank a cup);

G) action - an object actions (actions aimed at edition books«-> illustrated edition books as an object);

e) action - result actions (construction monument- monumental building).

e) action - means or tool actions (putty cracks - fresh putty, fixing with Anastasia- ski fastening, transmission movements- bike gear);

and) action - place actions (exit from home - stand by exit, rest

novka traffic - bus stop);

h) animal - fur or meat animal(hunter caught fox- this is

what fur, arctic fox or fox?).

One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and the whole. For example, words face, mouth, head, hand represent the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: outsiders liam entry denied; in family five mouths; Kolya- lighthead.

Some characteristic signs of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:

- Hey beard, where are you going??

- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...

- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh(Ch.)

"Obsolete words and neologisms"

Changes in the lexical composition of the language occur constantly: some words become obsolete and leave the language, others appear - are borrowed or formed according to existing models. Those words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete; new words that have just appeared in the language are called neologisms.

Outdated vocabulary

Obsolete vocabulary includes words that are out of use, among them historicisms and archaisms are distinguished.

Historicisms are words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the objects and phenomena they designate: bursa, caftan, posadnik. Historicisms are found in the main texts about the past (both scientific and artistic).

Archaisms are words that have passed into a passive reserve due to the fact that the objects, phenomena, concepts they designate - and that exist to this day - have other names. Depending on which aspect of the word is outdated, different types of archaisms are distinguished:

lexical - the word itself is outdated, its sound-letter complex is no longer used, and the meaning is expressed by another lexical unit:

semantic - the word exists in modern Russian, but has lost one or more meanings: And in order not to dare to do wonders again, / Having caught it truly hang / And deprive the stomach very much (Pushk.). Have you read the article in Peterburgskie Vedomosti? (S.-Sch.) Arkady noticed all this, but kept his remarks to himself (Turg.).

phonetic - the sound appearance of the word has changed, which is also reflected in its spelling: He sang the faded color of life / Nearly eighteen years old (Pushk.).

derivational - the derivational structure of the word is outdated: Poison drips through its bark, / By noon it melts from the heat, / And freezes in the evening / Thick cool resin (Pushk.); The madman cries only from disaster, / And the smart one seeks means, / How I help my grief (Kry.). And our forester was Fedos Ivanov, a great literate man and knew how to sort out all things well (Lesk.).

grammatical - separate grammatical forms of the word are outdated: The farmer breathes fun / With full granaries rejoices (Beetle.)

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words can be in different stages of it. Those of them that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete.

Deprecated words are used in different functions. For example, when used to name objects and phenomena, they perform a nominative function (in scientific and historical works, etc.). In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary already performs a nominative and stylistic function - it not only denotes realities, but also creates a certain color of the era. Obsolete words can be used in artistic text to indicate the time at which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform proper stylistic functions, be expressive means, giving the text a special solemnity.

New words (neologisms)

Outdated words are opposed by neologisms (from the Greek neos ‘new’ and logos ‘word’) - new words, meanings and stable combinations of words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.

Every year, tens of thousands of new words are recorded in the media, but not all of them are included in the language. Some of them are used once in any text or in oral speech, others, being used many times by different people, are included in the vocabulary of the language and gradually lose the quality of novelty. Some neologisms, not having time to enter the main fund of vocabulary, go out of use and become obsolete words (for example, such a fate befell many neologisms of the first post-revolutionary years: zhendelegatka, general education, kerenka, businessman).

25. vocabulary enrichment

One of the laws of the historical development of language as a social phenomenon. There are three main ways to enrich the vocabulary of a language:

1) morphological way of enrichment [basic structure, morphological (affixal) word formation];

2) semantic path [expansion of the meaning of the word, narrowing of the meaning of the word, transfer of meanings (metaphorical, metonymic, functional); lexico-semantic method based on the disintegration of polysemy (the formation of homonyms, the distribution of the meanings of words over different periods: the stomach is a part of the body, the stomach (obsolete) is the animal world; the emergence of common nouns based on proper ones and vice versa: Love - love), conversion] ;

3) borrowing (necessary borrowings learned by the language at all levels; tracing)

The internal form of the word is the morphological composition of the stem, indicating the motivated connection of its sound with the given meaning. A phonetic word is an independent word together with unstressed service words and particles adjoining it.

Etymology (from the Greek ετυμος - “the real meaning of the word” and λόγος - “science”) is a branch of linguistics (more specifically, comparative historical linguistics) that studies the origin of words. Initially, among the ancients - the doctrine of the "true" ("original") meaning of the word.

“Etymology” is also called the very origin of the word (for example, “the word notebook has Greek etymology”, “offer a new etymology”, i.e. version of the origin).

De-etymologization (from de... and etymology), simplification, change in the morphological (word-building) structure of a word, when the etymological connection of this word with one or another non-derivative base is lost for the consciousness of native speakers. D. can be caused either by the fact that words with the original non-derivative stem cease to exist in the language (“important” - compare the Old Russian “vaga”), or by the fact that the given word has gone too far in its semantic development from the word with the corresponding non-derivative stem ( "large" - compare "groats").

FOLK ETYMOLOGY - a complete or partial rethinking of a word as a result of its arbitrary convergence with other similar-sounding words. So, “jacket” (English - peajacket - “jacket made of coarse cloth”) turns in Russian dialects into “spinzhak” (due to “back”), “boulevard” (French from German “Bollwerk” - “earth rampart”) - in "gulvar" (in connection with "walk"), "cooperative" in "kupirativ" (in connection with "buy"). The phenomenon of N. e. observed, of course, not only in the "folk" dialects: it played a very significant role in the constructions of the so-called. scientific etymology (section of linguistics about the origin of the words of any language). So for example. Tredyakovsky interpreted the name of the ancient people "Etruscans" as "cunning", "because these people practiced in the sciences in that time." However, the comparativists also devote considerable space in their constructions to modern economics, especially where they are under the influence of great-power tendencies and nationalist purism (see). tend to downplay the influence of other languages ​​on their language. or to exaggerate the influence of one's language. to others; in the first direction, the attitude of Russian bourgeois etymologists to the Turkic-Mongolian fund of the Russian language is characteristic, in the second - the attitude of German bourgeois etymologists (Girt) to the Romance and Eastern fund of international technical terminology. So. arr. the term N. e." is very unfortunate, having only a historical justification; however, attempts to replace it with another term (“lexical assimilation”, at the suggestion of Krushevsky) have not been successful so far.

The phenomenon of N. e. has been studied so far almost exclusively from the point of view of subjective-psychological linguistics, and few of its existing classifications are abstract, schematic. character. Meanwhile, class ideology finds a very clear expression in the phenomena of modern economics, in its orientation, and modern economics itself. easily becomes an instrument of class struggle. Wed e.g. such N. e. in the speech of a serf, as the transformation of the landowner's estate "Bellevue" into a "belmo" or the name "Tiesenhausen" into "Sinegusen". N.'s studying e. From this point of view, it will also make it possible to more accurately determine its significance in the plot structure (N. E. in sayings, signs, myths) and style (N. E. in the artistic method of realism, symbolism, imagism and futurism), both oral and written artistic literature.

27.Synonyms

System connections between the meanings of words

§ 104. The conceptual meaning of a word does not exist in isolation, but in a certain relationship with the conceptual meanings of other words, primarily words of the same "semantic field". The term semantic field denotes a larger or smaller set of words, more precisely, their meanings associated with the same fragment of reality. The words whose meanings are included in the field form a "thematic group" of more or less wide scope. Examples of such groups: words denoting time and its various segments (time, time, year, month, week, day, hour, etc., also spring, winter ... morning, evening, etc.); kinship terms (father, mother, son, brother, cousin, etc.); plant names (or narrower groups: names of trees, shrubs, mushrooms, etc.); names of temperature sensations (hot, warm, cool, cold, etc.); the names of sensory perception processes (see, hear, notice, feel, feel), thought processes (think, believe, count, guess, remember), etc. From the point of view of their internal semantic relations, words belonging to the same thematic group should be considered as a kind of relatively independent lexical microsystem.

Within the thematic group, different types of semantic links are distinguished.

The most important of them is the hierarchical connection along the genus line - the type between the designation of a wider set (a more general, generic concept), the so-called hyperonym, and the designations of subsets subordinate to it included in this set, i.e., "names of species concepts" - hyponyms . Thus, the hypernym animal is subject to the hyponyms dog, wolf, hare, etc., which together make up the “lexical paradigm” (§ 33). The given hyponyms, in turn, are hypernyms for other, more specific hyponyms. For example, a dog acts as a hypernym in relation to such hyponyms as bulldog, dachshund, mongrel, etc. The words bulldog, dog and animal can refer to the same denotation, but the substitution of these words is one-sided: a hypernym can always be used instead of its hyponym, but not vice versa. Sometimes in such hierarchical systems, not a word, but a phrase acts as a link, for example, in Russian, in the hierarchical series tree - coniferous tree - spruce.

Synonyms are words that are different in sound and spelling, but are close or identical in meaning.

Synonyms

The stylistic function of synonyms is to be a means of the most accurate expression of thought. The use of synonyms makes it possible to avoid the monotony of speech, the repetition of the same words, makes our speech more accurate and expressive.

Antonyms

Antonyms are words with the opposite lexical meaning, used to contrast phenomena, to create a contrast.

The stylistic function of antonyms is to be a means of expressing antithesis, to enhance the emotionality of speech.

Antithesis(from the Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - opposition. Proverbs, a paradox, an oxymoron are built on the antithesis.

Paradox- judgment, sharply contrary to common sense, but deep in meaning; can be a means of revealing, satirical depiction of reality, can put judgment on the brink of absurdity ("The worse, the better").

Oxymoron(from Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - stylistic device comparison of contrasting, mutually exclusive concepts ("Living Corpse").

Homonyms

Homonyms(from Greek homos - the same and onyma - name) - words that are the same in spelling or sound, but different in meaning, for example: "head", "wing", "bow", "language", "key", etc. . The word "key" can mean: a key to a lock, a wrench, a spring (spring water).

The stylistic function of homonyms is to give expression to speech, vivid emotionality; be a means of an entertaining word game, playing around with a word. Homonyms can give the statement comedy and ambiguity.

Jokes and puns are built on polysemantic words and homonyms.

Pun (from French calembour) - a stylistic turn or miniature work based on the predominantly comic use of polysemantic words or homophones. Puns can be constructed in different ways: matching homonyms, convergence of homophones, clash of homographs, rethinking of stable turns. A pun as a form of conveying a thought gives it a special expressiveness, emotionality and entertainment, enhancing the artistic effect.

In explanatory dictionaries, polysemantic words are given in one dictionary entry, and homonyms are given in different ones.

Paronyms

Paronyms- (from Greek para - near, ohyma - name) cognates similar in sound but different in meaning selective - qualifying; building - building - building).

(They refer to the same part of speech, differ either in prefixes or suffixes, which give the word a new semantic connotation; one of the paronyms may have a non-derivative, and the other a derivative basis).

Paronyms can differ both in stylistic coloring and in the scope of use.

Taby means a prohibition that occurs in the sphere of public life at different levels human development. Taboo (prohibition) among many peoples (including the Slavs) arose on the basis of mythological beliefs. So, for example, it was believed that one should not touch the body of the deceased leader, enter his house, touch his things ... You could not even talk to his widow. Moreover, the very name of the deceased leader could not be pronounced, as well as the name of the animal that served as the main object of the tribe's hunting. People believed that, having uttered certain words (usually these are words denoting death, the names of diseases, the names of gods, etc.), they will invite trouble on themselves - the wrath of spirits that cannot be contradicted (the very fact of death, for example, considered by our ancestors as a manifestation of the activity of spirits). By the way, it is quite possible that impersonal verbs (chill, feverish; dawn, dusk, etc.) are called so precisely because people were afraid to call the force that causes similar phenomena, or simply could not explain many facts of the reality around them, which led them to believe in some kind of higher being that controls the affairs of people, their actions, feelings and stands above them.

"Taboo" is not only an ethnographic concept, it can also apply to the facts of the language, because since ancient times, people believed that with the help of language (speech) it is possible to directly influence the world around them, that is, they believed in the magical function of the word.

Taboo (or prohibition) also applies to the norms of the literary language. So, for example, taboo is imposed on the use of obscene language, rude vernacular, etc.

To replace the names of things that were subject to taboo (prohibition), other words became necessary, which received the name of euphemisms in linguistics. Euphemisms are emotionally neutral words or expressions used instead of synonymous words or expressions that seem obscene, rude or tactless to the speaker. The word euphemism comes from the Greek word eufhemismos (eu - "good" and phemi - "I say"). Literally: “I speak well”, “I speak politely”.

To replace the taboo of words, other words are needed - euphemisms. Euphemisms are substitute, permitted words that are used instead of prohibited (taboo).

TERMINOLOGY, a set of terms of a certain branch of knowledge or production, as well as the doctrine of the formation, composition and functioning of terms.

Subject general theory terminologies are: the study of the formation and use of special words, with the help of which the knowledge accumulated by mankind is accumulated and transmitted; improvement of existing terminological systems; search for optimal ways to create new terms and their systems; the search for universal features inherent in the terminologies of different fields of knowledge.

A term (lat. terminus "border, limit, end") is a special word or phrase adopted in a certain professional field and used under special conditions. The term is a verbal designation of a concept included in the system of concepts of a certain area of ​​professional knowledge. Terminology (as a set of terms) is an autonomous sector of any national language, closely related to professional activities. The terms of each branch of science, technology, production form their own systems, determined, first of all, by the conceptual connections of professional knowledge in an effort to express these connections by linguistic means.

Phraseologisms

Phraseologism is a stable (non-free) phrase. Phraseologism has a stable grammatical structure, a constant lexical composition, and requires accurate reproduction in speech. As part of a phraseological unit, not individual words have meaning, but only the entire expression as a whole.

Phraseologisms are different in origin (originally Russian; borrowed; Old Slavonic origin).

Phraseological units are used in various functional styles, have a stylistic coloring. The stylistic role of phraseological units is figurativeness and expressiveness of speech.

Phraseologisms with a pronounced stylistic coloring are used as a means of speech characterization of characters; book phraseological units, which have a coloring of pathos, are used to give the text a solemn tone; stylistically reduced colloquial phraseological units contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of ease, conversationality in the text; Phraseological units can also be used to create puns in speech.

Phraseological turns also include language aphorisms (proverbs, sayings, catchwords).

A proverb is a figurative saying, which usually has an instructive (edifying) character. (Live and learn).

A proverb is a figurative allegorical expression that aptly defines any life phenomenon. (My tongue is my enemy).

Idioms- These are literary quotations belonging to various authors and widely known. (From the ship to the ball - from "Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov).

The source of phraseological units can be literary works, statements of great people

Metaphor(from Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name according to the similarity of features or functions . For example, emerald grass, wave crest, time flies, die Schlange- snake and queue, der Pfau- peacock and proud (German). Frequency transfers from the names of parts of the human body to objects. For example, table leg, bottleneck, the head- screw head and head, nail head, neck neck, neck of a bottle Das Bein- leg and leg of a chair (in German).

Metonymy(from the Greek metōnymia - renaming) - this is the transfer of a name by adjacency, based on real connections between objects. Metonymy includes: A) transfer based on the spatial contiguity of objects ( school- educational institution and school- a group of people, the town - the city and the town - the population of the city (English)); B) transfer based on the contiguity of the object and the material from which it is made (“Not that on silver – ate on gold» A.S. Griboyedov); C) on the basis of a logical and associative connection between the author and his work (“ Was reading willingly Apuleia, a Didn't read Cicero» A.S. Pushkin), etc. A variation of metonymy is inecdocha(from the Greek synekdochē - co-implicitness) - the transfer of the name on the basis of a quantitative relationship: from the whole to the part (“All flags will visit us” A.S. Pushkin).

Exercises

1. According to the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language, ed. S. I. Ozhegova (any edition), find the secondary meanings of the words:

a) window, wall, ceiling; b) take, drive, catch, call; c) left, sour, soft, green; d) moth, salt, sharp, carry. Comparing with the primary values, select direct and figurative, free and related values.

2. What is the essence of metaphorical transfer? Show this with an example wing, core, apple, smoke, shell . Complete this series with your own examples.

3. Give 6-7 examples of meaning transfers: a) from the names of parts of the human body to physical objects, b) from the names of spatial concepts to temporal ones, c) from the designation of tactile, gustatory properties to auditory and visual.

4. Define the portable value type in the following examples.

Cold - "indifferent, restrained", siren - "alarm", hat - "newspaper headline", digest - "learn", motor - "car, taxi", stilettos - "shoes with thin high heels", bloom - "good look, evaporate - "disappear, leave", rubber - "tires", zebra - "pedestrian crossing", crusts - "diploma, certificate", window - "free time between classes", corkscrew - "aerobatics", flashlight - "black eye".

5. Find different meanings of adjectives fresh, new, small . Show how the development of new meanings proceeded. Identify the differences in the types of secondary values.

6. What types of figurative meanings are presented in the following words of modern English?

Town 1) city, 2) population of the city;

Table 1) table, 2) food, 3) table, schedule, 4) company at the table;

Eye 1) eye, 2) vision, 3) look, 4) eyelet, eyelet;

Mirror 1) mirror, 2) display;

Pen 1) pen, 2) pen with a pen, 3) writer, 4) literary work;

Goose 1) goose, 2) simp;

Brain 1) brain, 2) brains (food), 3) mind, 4) electronic computer.

7. Determine the meanings of the words in the following phrases. Establish where the words are used in figurative meanings, indicate the type of transfer.

a) Bright sun - bright colors - bright talent, rye grain - grain of truth, porcelain dishes - porcelain and faience department, malicious intent - evil longing, dog's tail - train tail, bronze coin - bronze tan, break a glass - drink a glass of water , there is a dictation - pass the dictation, collect tea - drink tea.

b) A steep cliff - a steep temper - a tough scolding, Levitan's paintings - to love Levitan, a bright audience - the audience was worried, translation of the book - to translate, bear paws - spruce paws, mental work - printed works, the snow is melting - the sounds are melting in the distance.

8. What type of transfer of names is illustrated by the following examples?

Russian: Boston, Madeira, Muscovite (car), Ford, Plushkin, Othello, Don Juan, cambric, Caesar, Narzan, gold (money), plum (fruit), sole (mountains), gold (good), gold (yellow), pickle (as a product).

English: winchester (hunting gun), china (porcelain), havana (cigar), pullman (wagon), hooligan (from the name of the criminal), mauser (gun), heart (love), breast (conscience), aster (aster), town ( city ​​population), sardins (from Sardinia).

9. Use the following words in contexts so that they appear in direct and figurative, metonymic, meaning.

Banality, meanness, borrowing, listing, embroidery, rinsing, upholstery, lighting, pass, bite, stop, silk, class, rabbit, crystal, London.

10. In what cases is the adjective heavy (heavy) can have meanings in English plentiful, strong, stormy, steep, strong, dull, sleepy, gloomy ? Highlight primary and secondary, free and bound values.

11. Give 3-4 German adjectives with a spatial meaning (for example, gerade - straight). Find out what figurative meanings they have.

12. Use dictionaries to find out the different meanings of German words grün, die Feder, gehen, die Saat and corresponding Russians. What are the main values? In what ways did figurative meanings develop? Are these paths the same in Russian and German?

13. Give 5-6 meanings of the word head . Check the correctness of the given values ​​in the dictionary. Highlight terminological and phraseologically related meanings.

14. How do zoosemic transfers coincide and how do they differ in English, French and Russian?

English: bulldog (bulldog) - “stubborn”, gudgeon (minnow) - “simpleton”, fox (fox) - “cunning”, bear (bear) - “clumsy”, pig (pig) - “glutton”, monkey (monkey) - “grimacing”, serpent (snake) - “evil”, cat (cat) - “evil woman”, mole (mole) - “nearsighted”, peacock (peacock) - “conceited”, pigeon (dove) - “stupid”, puppy (puppy) - “baby”.

French: aigle (eagle) - “hero”, lion (lion) - “brave”, dindon (turkey) - “fool”, mouton (ram) - “informer”, pigeon (dove) - “simple”, renard (foxes) - "cunning", coq (rooster) - "important person", crapaud (toad) - "ugly".

Homonyms

homonymy(from the Greek homōnymia - the same name) is a sound or graphic coincidence of words of different meanings. For example, key- what unlocks locks, and key- forest stream match- marriage (matrimony) and match- match (English) la livere- pound and le livere- book (fr.) der Bauer- farmer and der Bauer- cell (in German).

As a linguistic phenomenon, homonymy is opposed to polysemy.

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