The subject of physics. Why is the study of physics so important for mankind? Why does a person need measurements measurements - one of the most important things in

The merits of physics can hardly be overestimated. Being a science that studies the most general and fundamental laws of the world around us, it has unrecognizably changed human life. Once upon a time, the terms "" and "" were synonymous, since both disciplines were aimed at understanding the universe and the laws that govern it. But later, with the beginning of science, physics became a separate scientific direction. So what did she give to humanity? To answer this question, it is enough to look around. Thanks to the discovery and study of electricity, people enjoy artificial lighting, their lives are facilitated by countless electrical devices. Research by physicists electrical discharges led to the discovery. It is thanks to physical research that the Internet and cell phones are used all over the world. Once upon a time, scientists were sure that devices heavier than air could not fly, it seemed natural and obvious. But Montgolfier, inventors hot air balloon, and behind them the Wright brothers, who created the first one, proved the unfoundedness of these statements. It is thanks to mankind that the power of steam has been put to its service. Appearance steam engines, and with them steam locomotives and steamboats, gave a powerful impetus to. Thanks to the tamed power of steam, people got the opportunity to use mechanisms in factories and factories that not only facilitate labor, but also increase its productivity by tens, hundreds of times. Space flights would not be possible without this science. Thanks to the discovery by Isaac Newton of the law of universal gravitation, it became possible to calculate the force required to launch a spacecraft into Earth's orbit. Knowledge of the laws of celestial mechanics allows automatic interplanetary stations launched from the Earth to successfully reach other planets, overcoming millions of kilometers and accurately reaching the designated goal. It can be said without exaggeration that the knowledge gained by physicists over the centuries of the development of science is present in any field human activity. Take a look at what surrounds you now - the achievements of physics played a major role in the production of all the objects around you. In our time, this is actively developing, a truly mysterious direction has appeared in it, like quantum physics. Discoveries made in this area can unrecognizably change a person's life.

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do you need physics

In the era of industrial and technological progress, philosophy has receded into the background, not every person can clearly answer the question of what kind of science it is and what it does. People are busy with pressing problems, they are little interested in philosophical categories divorced from life. Does this mean that philosophy has lost its relevance and is no longer needed?

Philosophy is defined as a science that studies the root causes and beginnings of all things. In this sense, it is one of the most important sciences for a person, as it tries to find an answer to the question of the reason for human existence. Why does a person live, why is this life given to him? The answer to this question determines the path that a person chooses.

Being a truly comprehensive science, philosophy includes a variety of disciplines and tries to find answers to questions important for human existence - is there a God, what is good and evil, questions of old age and death, the possibility of objective knowledge of reality, etc. etc. It can be said that the natural sciences provide an answer to the question "how?", while philosophy tries to find the answer to the question "why?"

It is believed that the term "philosophy" itself was coined by Pythagoras, translated from Greek, it means "love of wisdom." It should be noted that, unlike other sciences, in philosophy no one obliges one to base one's reasoning on the experience of predecessors. Freedom, including freedom of thought, is one of the key concepts for the philosopher.

Philosophy arose independently in ancient China, ancient India and ancient Greece, from where it began to spread throughout the world. The classification of currently existing philosophical disciplines and trends is quite complex and not always unambiguous. The general philosophical disciplines include metaphilosophy, or the philosophy of philosophy. There are philosophical disciplines that explore ways of knowing: logic, theory of knowledge, philosophy of science. Theoretical philosophy includes ontology, metaphysics, philosophical anthropology, philosophy of nature, natural theology, philosophy of spirit, philosophy of consciousness, social philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophy of language. Practical philosophy, sometimes called the philosophy of life (axiology), includes ethics, aesthetics, praxeology (philosophy of activity), social philosophy, geophilosophy, philosophy of religion, law, education, history, politics, economy, technology, ecology. There are other areas of philosophy, you can get acquainted with the full list by looking at the specialized philosophical literature.

Despite the fact that new Age seems to leave little room for philosophy, its practical significance does not decrease at all - humanity is still looking for answers to the questions of life that concern it. And the way the human civilization will go in its development depends on the answer to these questions.

Richness of speech

In the writings of younger students, one can often find a text with something like this: “The forest was very beautiful. grew up there beautiful flowers and trees. It was such a beauty!” This happens because the child's vocabulary is still quite small, and he has not learned how to use synonyms. In the speech of an adult, especially written, such repetitions are considered a lexical error. Synonyms allow you to diversify speech, enrich it.

Shades of meaning

Each of the synonyms, although expressing a similar meaning, gives it its own special shade of meaning. So, in the synonymous series "unique - amazing - impressive" the word "amazing" means an object that causes surprise in the first place, "unique" - an object that is not like the others, one of a kind, and "impressive" - making a strong impression, but this impression may be something other than simple surprise, and also this object may be similar to similar ones, i.e. not be "unique".

Emotionally expressive coloring of speech

The synonymic row contains words that have different expressive and emotional meanings. So, "eyes" is a neutral word denoting the human organ of vision; "eyes" is a word belonging to book style, also denotes eyes, but, as a rule, large and beautiful. But the word "burkaly" also means big eyes, but not distinguished by beauty, rather ugly. This word carries a negative assessment and belongs to colloquial style. Another colloquial word "zenki" also means ugly eyes, but small in size.

Value Refinement

Most of the borrowed words have an analogy in Russian. They can be used to clarify the meaning of terms and other special words of foreign origin that may not be understood by a wide range of readers: “Preventive, i.e. preventive measures"

Paradoxically, synonyms can also express opposite shades of meaning. So, in Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" there is the phrase "Tatyana looks and does not see", and this is not perceived as a contradiction, because "to look" is "to direct the gaze in a certain direction", and "to see" is "to perceive and comprehend what is before your eyes. In the same way, the phrases “equal, but not identical”, “not just think, but reflect”, etc. do not cause rejection.

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Physics is a science that studies the fundamental laws of the material world, describing with the help of laws the properties and movement of matter, natural phenomena and its structure.

Why does a person need measurements

Measurement is one of the most important things in modern life. But not always

It was like this. When a primitive man killed a bear in an unequal duel, he, of course, rejoiced if he turned out to be big enough. This promised a well-fed life for him and the entire tribe for a long time. But he did not drag the bear carcass onto the scales: at that time there were no scales. There was no special need for measurements and when a person did stone ax: specifications on such axes did not exist and everything was determined by the size suitable stone which could be found. Everything was done by eye, as the master's instinct suggested.

Later, people began to live in large groups. The exchange of goods began, which later turned into trade, the first states arose. Then came the need for measurements. The royal arctic foxes had to know what the area of \u200b\u200bthe field of each peasant was. This determined how much grain he should give to the king. It was necessary to measure the harvest from each field, and when selling flaxseed meat, wine and other liquids, the volume of goods sold. When they began to build ships, it was necessary to outline the correct dimensions in advance: otherwise the ship would have sunk. And, of course, the ancient builders of pyramids, palaces and temples could not do without measurements, they still amaze us with their proportionality and beauty.

^ OLD RUSSIAN MEASURES.

The Russian people created their own system measures. Monuments of the 10th century speak not only of the existence of a system of measures in Kievan Rus, but also of state supervision over their correctness. This oversight was entrusted to the clergy. One of the statutes of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich says:

“... even from time immemorial it has been established and entrusted to be eaten by the bishops of the city and everywhere all sorts of measures and weights and scales ... to observe without dirty tricks, neither multiply nor diminish ...” (... it has long been established and instructed the bishops to observe the correctness of the measures .. .do not allow any decrease or increase them ...). This necessity of supervision was caused by the needs of trade both within the country and with the countries of the West (Byzantium, Rome, later German cities) and the East (Central Asia, Persia, India). Bazaars took place on the church square, there were chests in the church for storing contracts for trade transactions, the right scales and measures were kept in the churches, goods were stored in the cellars of the churches. Weighings were carried out in the presence of representatives of the clergy, who received a fee for this in favor of the church.

Measures of length

The oldest of them are the cubit and fathom. We do not know the exact original length of either measure; an Englishman who traveled in Russia in 1554 testifies that a Russian cubit was equal to half an English yard. According to the Trade Book compiled for Russian merchants at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, three cubits were equal to two arshins. The name "arshin" comes from the Persian word "arsh", which means cubit.

The first mention of the sazhen is found in the annals of the 11th century, compiled by the Kyiv monk Nestor.

In more later times a distance measure of a verst was established, equated to 500 sazhens. In ancient monuments, a verst is called a field and is sometimes equated to 750 sazhens. This can be explained by the existence of a shorter fathom in antiquity. Finally, a verst to 500 sazhens was established only in the 18th century.

In the era of fragmentation, Russia was not unified system measures. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Russian lands were united around Moscow. With the emergence and growth of nationwide trade and with the establishment of fees for the treasury from the entire population of the united country, the question arises of a single system of measures for the entire state. The measure of arshins, which arose during trade with the eastern peoples, is coming into use.

In the XVIII century, the measures were specified. Peter 1 by decree established the equality of a three-arshin sazhen to seven English feet. The former Russian system of measures of length, supplemented by new measures, received its final form:

Mile \u003d 7 versts (\u003d 7.47 kilometers);

Verst \u003d 500 fathoms (\u003d 1.07 kilometers);

Fathoms = 3 arshins = 7 feet (= 2.13 meters);

Arshin \u003d 16 inches \u003d 28 inches (\u003d 71.12 centimeters);

Foot = 12 inches (= 30.48 centimeters);

Inch = 10 lines (2.54 centimeters);

Line = 10 dots (2.54 mm).

When they talked about the height of a person, they only indicated how many vershoks it exceeds 2 arshins. Therefore, the words "a man 12 inches tall" meant that his height is 2 arshins 12 inches, that is, 196 cm.

Area measures

In Russkaya Pravda, a legislative monument dating back to the 11th-13th centuries, a plow is used. It was a measure of the land from which tribute was paid. There are some reasons to consider the plow equal to 8-9 hectares. As in many countries, the amount of rye needed to sow this area was often taken as a measure of the area. In the 13th-15th centuries, the main unit of area was the kad-area, for sowing each one needed about 24 pounds (that is, 400 kg.) of rye. Half of this area, called the tithe, became the main measure of the area in pre-revolutionary Russia. It was approximately 1.1 hectares. The tithe was sometimes called a box.

Another unit for measuring areas, equal to half a tithe, was called a (quarter) four. Subsequently, the size of the tithe was brought into line not with measures of volume and mass, but with measures of length. In the "Book of Sleepy Letters" as a guideline for accounting for taxes from land, a tithe is equal to 80 * 30 = 2400 square fathoms.

The tax unit of land was c o x a (this is the amount of arable land that one plowman was able to cultivate).

MEASURES OF WEIGHT (MASS) and VOLUME

The oldest Russian unit of weight was the hryvnia. It is mentioned in the treaties of the tenth century between the princes of Kyiv and the Byzantine emperors. Through complex calculations, scientists learned that the hryvnia weighed 68.22 g. The hryvnia was equal to the Arabic unit of weight rotl. Then the pound and the pood became the main units for weighing. A pound was equal to 6 hryvnias, and a pud was equal to 40 pounds. For weighing gold, spools were used, amounting to 1.96 parts of a pound (hence the proverb “small spool and expensive”). The words "pound" and "pood" come from the same Latin word "pondus" meaning heaviness. The officials who checked the scales were called "punters" or "weights". In one of Maxim Gorky's stories, in the description of the kulak's barn, we read: "There are two locks on one bolt - one is heavier than the other."

By the end of the 17th century, a system of Russian weight measures had developed in the following form:

Last \u003d 72 pounds (\u003d 1.18 tons);

Berkovets \u003d 10 pounds (\u003d 1.64 c);

Pud \u003d 40 large hryvnias (or pounds), or 80 small hryvnias, or 16 steelyards (= 16.38 kg.);

The original ancient measures of liquid - the barrel and the bucket - remain undetermined exactly. There is reason to believe that the bucket held 33 pounds of water and the barrel 10 buckets. The bucket was divided into 10 bottles.

The monetary system of the Russian people

Pieces of silver or gold of a certain weight served as monetary units for many peoples. In Kievan Rus, hryvnias of silver were such units. The Russkaya Pravda, the oldest set of Russian laws, says that a fine of 2 hryvnia is due for killing or stealing a horse, and 1 hryvnia for an ox. The hryvnia was divided into 20 nogat or 25 kunas, and the kuna was divided into 2 rezans. The name "kuna" (marten) recalls the times when there was no metal money in Russia, and instead of them furs were used, and later - leather money - quadrangular pieces of leather with stamps. Although the hryvnia as a monetary unit has long been out of use, the word "hryvnia" has survived. A coin with a denomination of 10 kopecks was called a dime. But this, of course, is not the same as the old hryvnia.

Chased Russian coins have been known since the time of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. During the Horde yoke, Russian princes were required to indicate on the issued coins the name of the Khan who ruled in the Golden Horde. But after the Battle of Kulikovo, which brought victory to the troops of Dmitry Donskoy over the hordes of Khan Mamai, the liberation of Russian coins from the Khan's names also begins. At first, these names began to be replaced by an illegible ligature of oriental letters, and then they completely disappeared from the coins.

In the annals relating to 1381, the word "money" is found for the first time. This word comes from the Hindu name of the silver coin of the tank, which the Greeks called danaka, the Tatars - tenga.

The first use of the word "ruble" refers to the XIV century. The word comes from the verb "to cut". In the XIV century, the hryvnia began to be cut in half, and a silver ingot of half a hryvnia (= 204.76 g) was called the ruble or ruble hryvnia.

In 1535, coins were issued - Novgorod with a picture of a horseman with a spear in his hands, called spear money. Chronicle from here produces the word "penny".

Further oversight of measures in Russia.

With the revival of the inner and foreign trade supervision of measures from the clergy passed to special civil authorities - the order of the large treasury. Under Ivan the Terrible, it was prescribed to weigh goods only at pudovshchiks.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, unified state or customs measures were assiduously introduced. In the 18th and 19th centuries, measures were taken to improve the system of measures and weights.

The Weights and Measures Act of 1842 ended the government's efforts to streamline the system of weights and measures that had lasted over 100 years.

D. I. Mendeleev - metrologist.

In 1892, the brilliant Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev became the head of the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures.

Leading the work of the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures, D.I. Mendeleev completely transformed the business of measurements in Russia, established research work and solved all questions about the measures that were caused by the growth of science and technology in Russia. In 1899, developed by D.I. Mendeleev new law on weights and measures.

In the first years after the revolution, the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures, continuing the traditions of Mendeleev, carried out colossal work to prepare for the introduction of the metric system in the USSR. After some restructuring and renaming, the former Main Chamber of Weights and Measures currently exists in the form of the All-Union Scientific - research institute metrology named after D.I. Mendeleev.

^ French measures

Initially, in France, and indeed throughout cultural Europe, Latin measures of weight and length were used. But feudal fragmentation made its own adjustments. Let's say that some senior had a fantasy to slightly increase the pound. None of his subjects will object, not to rebel because of such trifles. But if you count, in general, all quitrent grain, then what a benefit! It is the same with city craftsmen's workshops. It was beneficial for someone to reduce the fathom, someone to increase it. Depending on whether they sell cloth or buy. A little bit, a little bit, and here you have the Rhenish pound, and Amsterdam, and Nuremberg and Paris, etc., etc.

And with sazhens it was even worse, only in the south of France more than a dozen different units of length rotated.

True, in the glorious city of Paris in the fortress of Le Grand Chatel, since the time of Julius Caesar, a length standard has been built into the fortress wall. It was an iron curved compasses, the legs of which ended in two protrusions with parallel edges, between which all used fathoms must exactly fit. The fathom of Chatel remained the official measure of length until 1776.

At first glance, the measures of length looked like this:

Lie sea - 5, 556 km.

Lie overland = 2 miles = 3.3898 km

Mile (from lat. thousand) = 1000 touaz.

Tuaz (sazhen) \u003d 1.949 meters.

Foot (foot) = 1/6 toise = 12 inches = 32.484 cm.

Inch (finger) = 12 lines = 2.256 mm.

Line = 12 dots = 2.256 mm.

Point = 0.188 mm.

In fact, since no one canceled feudal privileges, it all concerned the city of Paris, well, the dauphine, at the very least. Somewhere in the outback, a foot could easily be defined as the size of a senior's foot, or as the average length of the feet of 16 people leaving Sunday morning.

Parisian pound = livre = 16 ounces = 289.41 gr.

Ounce (1/12 lb) = 30.588 gr.

Gran (grain) = 0.053 gr.

But the artillery pound was still equal to 491.4144 gr., That is, it simply corresponded to the Nurenbeg pound, which was used back in the 16th century by Mr. Hartmann, one of the theorists - the masters of the artillery shop. Accordingly, the value of the pound in the provinces also walked with the traditions.

The measures of liquid and loose bodies also did not differ in harmonious uniformity, because France was still a country where the population mainly grew bread and wine.

Muid of wine = about 268 liters

Network - about 156 liters

Mina = 0.5 network = about 78 liters

Mino = 0.5 mines = about 39 liters

Boisseau = about 13 liters

^ English measures

English measures, measures applied in Great Britain, USA. Canada and other countries. Some of these measures in a number of countries vary somewhat in size, therefore, below are mainly rounded metric equivalents of English measures, convenient for practical calculations.

Measures of length

Nautical mile (UK) = 10 cables = 1.8532 km

Kabeltov (Great Britain) = 185.3182 m

Cables (USA) = 185.3249 m

Statutory mile = 8 furlongs = 5280 feet = 1609.344 m

Furlong = 10 chains = 201.168 m

Chain \u003d 4 genera \u003d 100 links \u003d 20.1168 m

Rod (pol, perch) = 5.5 yards = 5.0292 m

Yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 m

Foot = 3 handam = 12 inches = 0.3048 m

Hand = 4 inches = 10.16 cm

Inch = 12 lines = 72 dots = 1000 mils = 2.54 cm

Line = 6 dots = 2.1167 mm

Point = 0.353 mm

Mil = 0.0254 mm

Measures of area

sq. mile = 640 acres = 2.59 km2

Acre = 4 ores = 4046.86 m2

Rud \u003d 40 sq. childbirth = 1011.71 m2

sq. genus (pol, perch) = 30.25 sq. yards = 25.293 m2

sq. yard = 9 sq. ft = 0.83613 m2

sq. ft = 144 sq. inches = 929.03 cm2

sq. inch = 6.4516 cm2

Mass measures

Large ton, or long = 20 handdwt = 1016.05 kg

Small or short ton (USA, Canada, etc.) = 20 centals = 907.185 kg

Handredweight = 4 quarters = 50.8 kg

Central = 100 pounds = 45.3592 kg

Quarter = 2 groans = 12.7 kg

Ston = 14 lbs = 6.35 kg

Pound = 16 ounces = 7000 grains = 453.592 g

An ounce = 16 drachmas = 437.5 grains = 28.35 g

Drachma = 1.772 g

Gran = 64.8 mg

Units of volume, capacity.

cube. yard = 27 cu. ft = 0.7646 cu. m

cube. ft = 1728 cu in = 0.02832 cu. m

cube. inch = 16.387 cu. cm

Units of volume, capacity

for liquids.

Gallon (English) = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 4.546 liters

Quart (English) = 1.136 L

Pint (English) = 0.568 L

Units of volume, capacity

for loose bodies

Bushel (English) \u003d 8 gallons (English) \u003d 36.37 liters

^ The collapse of ancient systems of measures

In I-II AD, the Romans took possession of almost all the then known world and introduced their own system of measures in all the conquered countries. But after a few centuries, Rome was conquered by the Germans and the empire created by the Romans broke up into many small states.

After that, the collapse of the introduced system of measures began. Each king, and even the duke, tried to introduce his own system of measures, and if he succeeded, then monetary units.

The collapse of the system of measures reached its highest point in the XVII-XVIII centuries, when Germany was fragmented into as many states as there are days in a year, as a result of which there were 40 different feet and cubits, 30 different centners, 24 different miles.

In France there were 18 units of length called leagues, and so on.

This caused difficulties both in trade affairs, and in the collection of taxes, and in the development of industry. After all, the units of measure that acted simultaneously were not connected with each other, they had various subdivisions into smaller ones. It was difficult for an experienced merchant to understand this, and what can we say about an illiterate peasant. Of course, merchants and officials used this to rob the people.

In Russia, in different areas, almost all measures had different meanings, therefore, before the revolution, detailed tables of measures were placed in arithmetic textbooks. In one common pre-revolutionary reference book, one could find up to 100 different feet, 46 different miles, 120 different pounds, etc.

The needs of practice forced the search for a unified system of measures. At the same time, it was clear that it was necessary to abandon the establishment between units of measurement and the dimensions of the human body. And the step of people is different and the length of their feet is not the same, and their fingers are of different widths. Therefore, it was necessary to look for new units of measurement in the surrounding nature.

The first attempts to find such units were made in ancient times in China and Egypt. The Egyptians chose the mass of 1000 grains as a unit of mass. But the grains are not the same! Therefore, the idea of one of the Chinese ministers, who proposed long before our era to choose 100 red sorghum grains arranged in a row as a unit, was also unacceptable.

Scientists put forward different ideas. Who suggested taking the measurements associated with honeycombs as the basis for measures, who the path traveled in the first second by a freely falling body, and the famous 17th-century scientist Christian Huygens suggested taking a third of the length of the pendulum, making one swing per second. This length is very close to twice the length of the Babylonian cubit.

Even before him, the Polish scientist Stanislav Pudlovsky proposed to take the length of the second pendulum as a unit of measurement.

^ Birth of the metric system of measures.

It is not surprising that when in the eighties of the XVIII century the merchants of several French cities turned to the government with a request to establish a single system of measures for the whole country, scientists immediately remembered Huygens' proposal. The adoption of this proposal was prevented by the fact that the length of the second pendulum is different in different places. the globe. It is greater at the North Pole and less at the equator.

At this time, a bourgeois revolution took place in France. The National Assembly was convened, which created a commission at the Academy of Sciences, composed of the largest French scientists of that time. The Commission had to carry out the work of creating a new system of measures.

One of the members of the commission was the famous mathematician and astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace. For his scientific research, it was very important to know the exact length of the earth's meridian. Some of the members of the commission recalled the proposal of the astronomer Mouton to take a part of the meridian equal to one 21600th part of the meridian as a unit of length. Laplace immediately supported this proposal (or perhaps he himself inspired the idea of the other members of the commission). Only one measurement was taken. For convenience, we decided to take one forty-millionth part of the earth's meridian as a unit of length. This proposal was submitted to the National Assembly and adopted by it.

All other units were coordinated with the new unit, called the meter. A square meter was taken as a unit of area, volume - cubic meter, mass - the mass of a cubic centimeter of water under certain conditions.

In 1790, the National Assembly passed a decree reforming the systems of measures. The report submitted to the National Assembly noted that there was nothing arbitrary in the reform project, except for the decimal base, and nothing local. “If the memory of these works was lost and only one result was preserved, then there would be no sign in them by which one could find out which nation started the plan for these works and carried them out,” the report said. As can be seen, the commission of the Academy sought to ensure that the new system of measures did not give any nation a reason to reject the system as French. She sought to justify the slogan: "For all times, for all peoples", which was proclaimed later.

Already in April 17956, a law on new measures was approved, a single standard was introduced for the entire Republic: a platinum ruler on which the meter is inscribed.

The commission of the Paris Academy of Sciences from the very beginning of work on the development of the new system established that the ratio of neighboring units should be 10. For each quantity (length, mass, area, volume) from the main unit of this quantity, other, larger and smaller measures are formed in the same way (for except for the names "micron", "centner", "ton"). To form the names of measures larger than the main unit, Greek words are added to the name of the latter from the front: “deca” - “ten”, “hecto” - “one hundred”, “kilo” - “thousand”, “miria” - “ten thousand” ; to form the names of measures smaller than the main unit, particles are also added in front: “deci” - “ten”, “centi” - “one hundred”, “milli” - “thousand”.

^ Archival meter.

The law of 1795, having established a time meter, indicates that the work of the commission will continue. The measuring work was completed only by the autumn of 1798 and gave the final length of the meter at 3 feet 11.296 lines instead of 3 feet 11.44 lines, which was the length of the temporary meter of 1795 (the old French foot was equal to 12 inches, an inch was 12 lines).

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of France in those years was the outstanding diplomat Talleyrand, who had previously been involved in the reform project, he proposed to convene representatives of allied with France and neutral countries to discuss a new system of measures and bring it to an international character. In 1795, delegates gathered for an international congress; it announced the completion of work on checking the determination of the length of the main standards. In the same year, the final prototypes of meters and kilograms were made. They were published in the Archives of the Republic for storage, which is why they were called archival.

The temporal meter was abolished and the archival meter was recognized as the unit of length instead. It looked like a rod, the cross section of which resembles the letter X. Archival standards only after 90 years gave way to new ones, called international ones.

^ The reasons that prevented the implementation

metric system of measures.

The people of France met the new measures without much enthusiasm. The reason for this attitude was partly the newest units of measures that did not correspond to age-old habits, as well as new names of measures that were incomprehensible to the population.

Napoleon was among those who were not enthusiastic about the new measures. By decree of 1812, along with the metric system, he introduced an "everyday" system of measures for use in trade.

The restoration of royal power in France in 1815 contributed to the oblivion of the metric system. The revolutionary origin of the metric system prevented its spread in other countries.

Since 1850, advanced scientists have begun vigorous agitation in favor of the metric system. One of the reasons for this was the international exhibitions that began at that time, which showed all the conveniences of the various national systems of measures that existed. Particularly fruitful in this direction was the activity of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and its member Boris Semenovich Jacobi. In the seventies, this activity was crowned with the actual transformation of the metric system into an international one.

^ Metric system of measures in Russia.

In Russia, scientists from the beginning of the 19th century understood the purpose of the metric system and tried to widely introduce it into practice.

In the years from 1860 to 1870, after the energetic speeches of D.I. Mendeleev, the company in favor of the metric system was led by Academician B.S. Yakobi, Professor of Mathematics A.Yu. Gadolin. Russian manufacturers and breeders also joined the scientists. The Russian Technical Society instructed a special commission chaired by Academician A.V. Gadolin to develop this question. This commission received many proposals from scientific and technical organizations that unanimously supported the proposals for the transition to the metric system.

The law on weights and measures, published in 1899, developed by D.T. Mendeleev, included paragraph No. 11:

“The international method and the kilogram, their divisions, as well as other metric measures may be used in Russia, probably with the main Russian measures, in trade and other transactions, contracts, estimates, contracts, and the like - by mutual agreement of the contracting parties, as well as in within the limits of the activities of individual state departments ... with the permission or by order of the relevant ministers ... ".

The final solution to the issue of the metric system in was received after the Great October Socialist Revolution. In 1918, the Council of People's Commissars, chaired by V.I. Lenin, issued a resolution proposing:

“To base all measurements on the international metric system of measures and weights with decimal divisions and derivatives.

Take the meter as the basis for the unit of length, and the kilogram as the basis for the unit of weight (mass). For samples of units of the metric system, take a copy of the international meter, bearing the mark No. 28, and a copy of the international kilogram, bearing the mark No. 12, made of iridescent platinum, transferred to Russia by the First International Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris in 1889 and now stored in the Main Chamber of Measures and scales in Petrograd.

From January 1, 1927, when the transition of industry and transport to the metric system was prepared, the metric system of measures became the only system of measures and weights allowed in the USSR.

^ Old Russian measures

in proverbs and sayings.

Arshin and caftan, and two for patches.
A beard the size of an inch, and words the size of a bag.
To lie - seven miles to heaven and all the forest.
They searched for a mosquito for seven miles, and a mosquito on the nose.
An arshin of a beard, but a span of mind.
He sees three arshins into the ground!
I won't give up an inch.
From thought to thought five thousand miles.
A hunter for seven miles goes to slurp jelly.
Write (talk) about other people's sins in yards, and about your own - in lowercase letters.
You are from the truth (from the service) a span, and it is from you - a fathom.
Stretch a mile, but don't be simple.
For this, you can put a pood (ruble) candle.
A grain saves a pud.
It's not bad that a bun is half a pood.
One grain of a pood brings.
Your spool of someone else's pounds is more expensive.
Ate half a pood - full for now.
You will find out how much a pood is dashing.
He does not have half a brain (mind) in his head.
The bad brings down in pounds, and the good in spools.

^ MEASURES COMPARISON TABLE

Measures of length

1 verst = 1.06679 kilometers
1 sazhen = 2.1335808 meters
1 arshin = 0.7111936 meters
1 vershok = 0.0444496 meters
1 foot = 0.304797264 meters
1 inch = 0.025399772 meters

1 kilometer = 0.9373912 versts
1 meter = 0.4686956 fathoms
1 meter = 1.40609 arshins
1 meter = 22.4974 vershoks
1 meter = 3.2808693 feet
1 meter = 39.3704320 inches

1 fathom = 7 feet
1 sazhen = 3 arshins
1 sazhen = 48 inches
1 mile = 7 versts
1 verst = 1.06679 kilometers

^ Volume and area measures

1 quarter = 26.2384491 liters
1 quarter = 209.90759 liters
1 bucket = 12.299273 liters
1 tithe = 1.09252014 hectares

1 liter = 0.03811201 quadruple
1 liter = 0.00952800 quarters
1 liter = 0.08130562 buckets
1 hectare = 0.91531493 tithes

1 barrel = 40 buckets
1 barrel = 400 bottles
1 barrel = 4000 cups

1 quarter = 8 quarters
1 quarter = 64 garnets

Measures of weight

1 pood = 16.3811229 kilograms

1 pound = 0.409528 kilogram
1 spool = 4.2659174 grams
1 share = 44.436640 milligrams

1 kilogram = 0.9373912 versts
1 kilogram = 2.44183504 pounds
1 gram = 0.23441616 spool
1 milligram = 0.02250395 shares

1 pood = 40 pounds
1 pood = 1280 lots
1 berk = 10 pounds
1 last = 2025 and 4/9 kilograms

monetary measures

Ruble \u003d 2 half a dozen
half = 50 kopecks
five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
dime = 10 kopecks

2 money = 1 kopeck
penny = 0.5 kopeck
polushka = 0.25 kopecks

Measurement in science means the identification of quantitative characteristics of the studied phenomena. The purpose of measurement is always to obtain information about the quantitative characteristics of objects, organisms or events. It is not the object itself that is measured, but only the properties or features object. In a broad sense, measurement is a special procedure by which numbers (or ordinal values) are assigned to things according to certain rules. The rules themselves consist in establishing a correspondence between certain properties of numbers and certain properties of things. The possibility of this correspondence substantiates the importance of measurement in pedagogy.

The measurement process is based on the assumption that everything that exists somehow manifests itself or acts on something. The general task of measurement is to determine the so-called modality of one indicator compared to another, measuring its "weight".

The variety of mental, physiological and social phenomena is usually called variables, since they differ in individual values for individual individuals or at different times for the same individual. From the point of view of the theory of measurement, two aspects should be distinguished: a) the quantitative side - the frequency of some manifestation, (the more often it is manifested, the higher the value of the property); b) intensity (magnitude or strength of manifestation).

Measurements can be taken at four levels. Four levels will correspond to four scales.

Scale [< лат. scala – лестница] – инструмент для измерения непрерывных свойств объекта; представляет собой числовую систему, в которой отношения между различными свойствами объектов выражены свойствами number series. A scale is a way of ordering objects of an arbitrary nature. In pedagogy, psychology, sociology and other social sciences, various scales are used to study various characteristics pedagogical and socio-psychological phenomena.

Initially, four types of numerical systems were identified, which respectively define four levels (or scales) of measurement. More precisely, three levels, but the third level is subdivided into two more sublevels. Their separation is feasible on the basis of those mathematical transformations that are allowed by each scale.

1) Name scale (nominal).

2) Order scale (rank, ordinal).

3) Metric scales: a) scale of intervals, b) scale of proportions (proportional, ratios).

The metric scale can be relative (scale of intervals) and absolute (scale of proportions). In metric scales, the scale carrier forms relations of a strict order, as, for example, in the scales of time, weights, temperature, etc.

With the absolute type of the metric scale, some absolute mark is chosen as a reference point, for example, measuring length and distance in comparison with the standard (Petya's height is 92 cm, the distance from one city to another is 100 km).

In relative scales, the reference point is tied to something else. For example, Petya is as tall as a third-grader, the length of the boa constrictor is thirty-two parrots, the reckoning in the West is tied to the birth of Christ, the zero point of Moscow time serves as a guide for the entire territory Russian Federation and Greenwich Zero Time for Moscow.

The ordinal scale does not allow you to change the distance between objects projected onto it. Fuzzy scales are associated with ordinal scales, for example, Petya is taller than Sasha. First there was this, and then this; as far as...; long time ago like... The list of students in the class book also has a kind of ordinal scale. Such scales are widely used in reasoning modeling: if BUT more than AT, a With higher BUT, hence, With higher than AT.

The difference in the levels of measurement of any quality can be illustrated by the following example. If we subdivide the students into those who coped and those who did not cope with the control work, then we get the nominal scale of those who completed the task. If it is possible to establish the degree of correctness of execution control work, then an order scale (ordinal scale) is constructed. If it is possible to measure how much and how many times the literacy of some is greater than the literacy of others, then it is possible to obtain an interval and proportional scale of literacy in the performance of control work.

Scales differ not only in their mathematical properties, but also in different ways of collecting information. Each scale uses strictly defined methods of data analysis.

Depending on the type of tasks solved with the help of scaling, either a) rating scales or b) scales for measuring social attitudes are built.

The rating scale is a methodological technique that allows you to distribute the totality of the objects under study according to the degree of expression of a property common to them. The possibility of constructing a rating scale is based on the assumption that each expert is able to directly give quantitative estimates to the objects under study. The simplest example of such a scale is the ordinary school scoring system. The rating scale has from five to eleven intervals, which can be indicated by numbers, or formulated verbally (verbally). It is believed that the psychological capabilities of a person do not allow him to classify objects in more than 11-13 positions. The main scaling procedures using a rating scale include pairwise comparison of objects, assigning them to categories, etc.

Scales for measuring social attitudes. For example, the attitude of students to the completion of a problematic task can vary from negative to creatively active (Fig. 1). Placing all intermediate values on the scale, we get:

Using the principle of scales, it is possible to build scales of polar profiles that measure several indicators at once.

The scale itself accurately defines the intermediate values of the measured variable:

7 - the sign always appears,

6 - very often, almost always,

5 - often,

4 - sometimes, neither often nor rarely,

3 - rarely,

2 - very rarely, almost never,

1 - never.

An invariant of this scale with the replacement of a one-sided scale by a two-sided one can look like this (see Fig. 2):

Scaling [< англ. scaling – определение масштаба, единицы измерения] – метод моделирования реальных процессов с помощью числовых систем. В социальных науках (педагогике, психологии, социологии и др.) шкалирование является одним из важнейших средств математического анализа изучаемого явления, а также способом организации эмпирических данных, получаемых с помощью наблюдения, изучения документов, анкетного опроса, экспериментов, тестирования. Большинство социальных объектов не могут быть строго фиксированы и не поддаются прямому измерению.

The general process of scaling consists in constructing the scale itself according to certain rules and includes two stages: a) at the stage of collecting information, the empirical system of the objects under study is studied and the type of relationship between them is fixed; b) at the stage of data analysis, a numerical system is built that models the relations of the empirical system of objects.

There are two types of tasks solved using the scaling method: a) numerical display of a set of objects using their average group assessment; b) numerical display internal characteristics individuals by fixing their attitude to any socio-pedagogical phenomenon. In the first case, the display is carried out using the rating scale, in the second case, the installation scale.

The development of a scale for measurement requires taking into account a number of conditions: compliance of the measured objects, phenomena with the measuring standard; identifying the possibility of measuring the interval between various manifestations of the measured quality or personality trait; determination of specific indicators of various manifestations of the measured phenomena.

Depending on the level of the scale, it is necessary to calculate a value to indicate the main trend. On the nominal scale, only the modal value can be indicated, i.e. the most frequently occurring value. The ordinal scale allows you to calculate the median, the value on both sides of which there is an equal number of values. The interval scale and the ratio scale make it possible to calculate the arithmetic mean. Correlation values also depend on the level of the scale.

Measurement (physics)

Measurement- a set of operations to determine the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit stored in technical means(Measuring instrument). The resulting value is called the numerical value of the measured quantity, the numerical value, together with the designation of the unit used, is called the value of the physical quantity. Measurement of a physical quantity empirically is carried out using various measuring instruments - measures, measuring instruments, measuring transducers, systems, installations, etc. The measurement of a physical quantity includes several stages: 1) comparison of the measured quantity with a unit; 2) transformation into a form convenient for use (various ways of indication).

The measurement principle is a physical phenomenon or effect underlying measurements.
Measurement method - a technique or a set of methods for comparing a measured physical quantity with its unit in accordance with the implemented measurement principle. The measurement method is usually determined by the design of measuring instruments.

The characteristic of measurement accuracy is its error. Examples of measurements

In the simplest case, by applying a ruler with divisions to any part, in fact, its size is compared with the unit stored by the ruler, and, after counting, the value of the value (length, height, thickness and other parameters of the part) is obtained.
With the help of a measuring device, the size of the value converted into the movement of the pointer is compared with the unit stored by the scale of this device, and a reading is taken.

In cases where it is impossible to perform a measurement (a quantity is not singled out as a physical one and the unit of measurement of this quantity is not defined), it is practiced to evaluate such quantities according to conditional scales, for example, the Richter scale of earthquake intensity, the Mohs scale - the scale of hardness of minerals

The science, the subject of which is all aspects of measurement, is called metrology.

Measurement classification

By types of measurements

Direct measurement - a measurement in which the desired value of a physical quantity is obtained directly.
Indirect measurement - determination of the desired value of a physical quantity based on the results of direct measurements of other physical quantities that are functionally related to the sought value.
Joint measurements are simultaneous measurements of two or more dissimilar quantities to determine the relationship between them.
Cumulative measurements are simultaneous measurements of several quantities of the same name, in which the desired values of the quantities are determined by solving a system of equations obtained by measuring these quantities in various combinations.

By measurement methods

Direct assessment method - a measurement method in which the value of a quantity is determined directly by an indicating measuring instrument
Method of comparison with a measure - a measurement method in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by the measure.
- Null measurement method - a method of comparison with a measure in which the resulting effect of the action of the measured quantity and the measure on the comparison device is brought to zero.
- The method of measurement by substitution is a method of comparison with a measure, in which the measured quantity is replaced by a measure with a known value of the quantity.
- Method of measurement by addition - a method of comparison with a measure in which the value of the measured quantity is supplemented by a measure of the same quantity in such a way that their sum equal to a predetermined value affects the comparison device
- Differential measurement method - a measurement method in which the measured quantity is compared with a homogeneous quantity having known value, slightly different from the value of the measured quantity, and at which the difference between these two quantities is measured

By appointment

Technical and metrological measurements

By accuracy

Deterministic and random

In relation to the change in the measured value

Static and dynamic

By number of measurements

Single and Multiple

According to the results of measurements

Absolute measurement - a measurement based on direct measurements of one or more basic quantities and (or) the use of the values of physical constants.
Relative measurement is the measurement of the ratio of a quantity to the same-named value, which plays the role of a unit, or the measurement of the change in the value in relation to the same-named value, taken as the initial one.

Story

Units and systems of measurement

Literature and Documentation

Literature

Kushnir F.V. Radio engineering measurements: Textbook for technical schools of communication - M .: Communication, 1980
Nefedov V. I., Khahin V. I., Bityukov V. K. Metrology and radio measurements: Textbook for universities - 2006
N.S. Basics of metrology: workshop on metrology and measurements - M.: Logos, 2007

Normative and technical documentation

RMG 29-99 GSI. Metrology. Basic terms and definitions
GOST 8.207-76 GSI. Direct measurements with multiple observations. Methods for processing the results of observations. Basic provisions