In Japan, right-hand or left-hand traffic. The history of the emergence of left- and right-hand traffic

Maybe someone else doesn't know.

It is difficult to find a car forum in which the dispute about the right and left hand drive did not flare up. This is due to the increase in the number of right-hand drive cars brought to Russia, and the peculiarity of their operation on right-hand traffic.

The division into right and left sides of the movement began even before the appearance of the first car. Historians are still arguing among themselves which movement in Europe was the original. During the existence of the Roman Empire, horsemen rode on the left so that the right hand in which they held weapons was ready to instantly strike an enemy riding towards them. Evidence has been found that the Romans had Left side traffic: in 1998, a Roman quarry was excavated in the UK in the Swindon area, near which the left track was broken more than the right, and also two rider riding on the left side.

Mounting a horse in the Middle Ages was more convenient when driving on the left, since the sword did not interfere with the landing. However, there is an argument against this argument - the convenience of riding on the left or right lane when riding varies depending on the method of riding, and there were not so many warriors compared to the rest of the population. After people stopped taking weapons with them on the road, traffic began to gradually change to the right-hand side. This was explained by the fact that most people are right-handed, and with the advantage of the right hand in strength and dexterity, many things are more comfortable to do while moving on the right side of the road.

When walking (without weapons), while driving a horse and cart, it is more convenient to keep to the right side. On this side, it is more convenient for a person to be close to oncoming traffic in order to stop to talk with oncoming people, and it is easier to hold the reins with the right hand. Knights in tournaments also rode on the right - they held a shield in their left hand, and a spear was placed on the back of a horse, but there is an argument against this argument - the tournaments were just demonstrative "shows" and to real life were not related.

Depending on the type of horse-drawn carriage, the convenience of right- and left-hand traffic varies: it is preferable for single-seat carriages with a seat for the coachman in front to ride on the right side, since when traveling with another carriage, the coachman needs to pull the reins more strongly with his right hand. Crews with a postilion (a coachman driving a team sitting on one of the horses) also adhered to the right side - the postilion always sits on the left horse to make it easier for him to board and control with his right hand. Multi-seat and open carriages drove on the left side of the road - so the driver could not accidentally hit a passenger or a passer-by walking along the sidewalk with a whip.

In Russia, even under Peter I, right-hand traffic was accepted as the norm, carts and sleighs drove around, as a rule, keeping to the right side, and in 1752, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna issued an official decree on the introduction of right-hand traffic on the streets of Russian cities of carriages and cabs. Among Western countries, for the first time a law on the side of movement was issued in England - it was a bill of 1756, according to which traffic on London Bridge should be on the left side, and in the case of "driving into an oncoming lane", a fine of 1 pound of silver was levied. And only after 20 years the British government issued the historic "Road Act", which spelled out the introduction of left-hand traffic. By the way, the same movement was adopted on the Manchester-Liverpool iron line that opened in 1830. According to one assumption, England took it from maritime regulations, since it was an island state, and the only connection with the rest of the countries was shipping - a ship passed through them another ship that approached it from the right.

It is Great Britain that is considered the “parent” of left-hand traffic, this example was adopted by its colonies (India, Pakistan, Australia) and other countries of the world. During the Great French Revolution in 1789, Napoleon issued an order for the military to move on the right side of the road, and subsequently the side of traffic and military columns was determined political views countries: the countries - allies of Napoleon (Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Italy, Spain) established the right-hand traffic, and the enemy countries (Britain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary) - the left-hand traffic. In Austria in different cities movement was on different sides, and then this country stretched to the right. In Japan, the second largest country with left-hand traffic, it was adopted in 1859 under the influence of Queen Victoria's ambassador, Sir Rutherford Alcock.

After the end of the Japanese occupation in 1946 South Korea and North Korea changed from left-hand traffic to right-hand traffic. Czechoslovakia, formerly part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, switched to right-hand traffic in 1938. Sweden, on the other hand, became one of the last countries to change the direction of movement; for this, in 1963, the State Commission to switch to right-hand traffic. Its tasks included the development and implementation, and the right-hand traffic was officially fixed in 1967. On this solemn day, September 3, at exactly 4:50 am, all cars and other vehicles had to stop, change lanes to the opposite one and resume traffic at 5:00 am. To ensure safety during this change, the authorities briefly introduced a speed limit.

In the United States, initially traffic was carried out on the left side, but, according to historians, the love of freedom and the contradiction of England made them move to the right side. According to one version, the founder of the right-hand movement in America was the French General Marie Joseph Lafayette, one of the most ardent fighters for independence from the crown of Great Britain. Canada, on the other hand, lasted with left-hand traffic until the 20s of the 20th century.

And in the future, the formation of the left or right direction of traffic was determined by the proximity to certain countries - the former British colonies in Africa (Sierra Leone, Gambia, Nigeria, Ghana) changed left-hand traffic to right-hand traffic, as they were located next to the former French colonies. And the former Portuguese colony of Mozambique changed from right-hand traffic to the opposite due to its proximity to the former British colonies.

As for the location of the steering wheel, on the first cars in most cases it was on the “wrong” right side for us. And regardless of which side the cars were driving on. This was done so that the driver could better see the overtaken car. In addition, with this arrangement of the steering wheel, the driver could get out of the car directly onto the sidewalk, and not onto the roadway. By the way, the first mass-produced car with a “correct” steering wheel was the Ford T.

In some countries there are contentious issues due to the location of the steering wheel - for example, in the Bahamas, people mostly drive left-hand drive cars, since it is convenient to bring them from the USA, and in the east of our country, on the contrary, most cars are right-hand drive because of the proximity to Japan. Countries with left-hand traffic include Australia, England, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Bermuda, Cyprus, India, Ireland, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Saint Island Helena, South Africa, British Virgin Islands, US Virgin Islands, Zimbabwe and many others.

Move to the right side of the road...

For the first time visiting a country in which drivers drive on the opposite side of the road from ours, a person, whether he wants it or not, falls into a stupor. It does not just look and feel strange, but at first it seems that the whole world has turned upside down and you are in the looking glass, the difference is so great.

Have you ever wondered why this happened? How did it happen historically that some countries (most) took the right-hand model for themselves, and the remaining states built roads and drew markings according to the left-hand model? The answers to these questions will take us back in time and will probably really shock you when it turns out that modern motorists owe the scheme of movement to whips, ancient military tactics and sailors.

Today, about 66% of the population the globe moves on the right side of the road, while 72% of all roads have a right-hand traffic pattern, 28%, respectively, have a left-hand traffic pattern. Interestingly, in modern world The evolution of traffic rules is still ongoing. Traffic is preferred on the right side of the road. So, in 2009, the Pacific island state of Samoa switched to left-hand traffic, 187 thousand people were added to the right-hand drive regiment. Rumor has it that the authorities had to do this because a large number used cars with right hand drive. The New York Times wrote that in order for people to get used to the changes in the country, a two-day holiday was announced.

Previously, other countries also massively switched to the other side of the road, mainly to the right-hand version.

The most famous historical crossing was made in Sweden. Once upon a time on the roads of this Scandinavian country, oddly enough, they moved on the left side. But due to the fact that all the neighbors had a diametrically opposite view on which side of the road to drive on, the Swedes had to capitulate and accept new rules of the game. The transition was carried out on 09/03/1967. This day went down in history under the name "Day "H"".

Some other countries have made transitions to right-hand traffic or vice versa to left-hand traffic for the same reasons, mainly due to the inconvenience of communicating with neighboring countries.

But when and how did the traditions originate to move along the road exactly the way people do it now. It all started in the days of foot travelers and chariots. There are many reasons, theories and real prerequisites for this. From the assumption that people on the road, when riding with nobles on horseback, clung to the left in order not to get hit by a whip, to purely physiological prerequisites associated with the fact that most people are right-handed and even political reasons.

Righties rule the world. The right-hand theory says that right-hand traffic appeared due to the fact that it was more convenient for right-handers to control with their right hand, it was safer to beat with a whip when driving on the right side of the road. Yes, and the peasants always clung to the left of a rushing carriage or a man on a horse, so that it would be more difficult to hit them with a whip, in which case. For the same reason, jousting tournaments were held according to the right-hand traffic rules.

In many countries, right-hand traffic developed spontaneously and was eventually enshrined in legislation. In the Russian Empire under Elizabeth I, right-hand traffic was officially legalized. However, even earlier in Russia, when two horse-drawn carriages passed, they pressed against the right side of the road.

In England, a little later, its own law "Road Act" was adopted, with which its own type of traffic was introduced - left-handed. Following the mistress of the seas, all her colonies and lands subject to them became left-handed on the roads. Great Britain seriously influenced the popularization of left-hand traffic.

England itself in antiquity was probably influenced by the Ancient Roman Empire. After the conquest of Foggy Albion, the Romans, who used to drive on the left side of the road, spread this tradition in the conquered territory.

Distribution of right-hand traffic historically attributed to Napoleon and his military expansion in Europe. The political factor played its role. The countries that supported the Emperor of France: Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, began to drive on the right side of the road. Those countries that were their political opponents, England, Austria-Hungary, Portugal, remained on the left side.

Also, the political factor played a role in the case of the newly independent United States of America. After gaining independence from Great Britain, the Americans hurried to switch to right-hand traffic so that nothing reminds of the past.

The same thing was done in Korea after the end of the Japanese occupation in 1946.

Speaking of Japan. With this island nation, too, not everything is so simple. There are two theories about how the Japanese began to drive on the left. First, historical: the samurai fastened scabbards and swords on the left side, so when moving, in order not to hurt passers-by, they moved along the left side of the road. The second theory is political: allegedly in 1859, the British ambassador convinced the Tokyo authorities to accept left-hand traffic.

These are the historical facts that told us interesting story about the origins of different traffic on the roads of the world.

It is not a secret for avid travelers that in many states the traffic vector on the roads differs from the way they are used to. Before traveling abroad, it is important to remember which countries drive on the left hand side, especially if you plan to rent a car.

Reasons for choosing a direction

There is practically no historical evidence of how our ancestors moved. Apparently, this topic seemed obvious, so the chroniclers and the townsfolk did not consider it important to make notes on this. Legislatively, the rules of conduct on transport routes of the state were first regulated only in the 18th century.

On the this moment 28% of the world's highways are oriented to the left, 34% of the world's population moves along them. The reasons why these territories have retained their traditional ways of regulating traffic are as follows:

• Historically they have been colonies or dependencies of Great Britain and Japan;
• Wagons were used as the main transport, on which the coachman sat on the roof.

The list of regions was actively changed after the United Kingdom lost its status of "an empire where the sun never sets" and the end of the Second World War. The last country to switch to a new orientation in 2009 was the Independent State of Samoa.

Complete list for 2018:

1. Australia and New Zealand, including external territories and states in free association (Cocos, Norfolk, Christmas, Tokelau, Cook, Niue);
2. Continental Southeast Africa (Kenya, Mozambique, Zambia, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Tonga, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Botswana, Malawi);
3. Bangladesh;
4. Botswana;
5. Brunei;
6. Butane;
7. Great Britain;
8. Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom (Anguilla, Bermuda, Saint Helena and Ascension, Cayman, Montserrat, Maine, Pitcairn, Turks and Caicos, Falklands);
9. British and American Virgin Islands;
10. East Timor;
11. Guyana;
12. Hong Kong;
13. India;
14. Indonesia;
15. Ireland;
16. Independent countries of the Caribbean;
17. Cyprus;
18. Mauritius;
19. Macau;
20. Malaysia;
21. Maldives;
22. Malta;
23. Micronesia (Kiribati, Solomons, Tuvalu);
24. Nauru;
25. Nepal;
26. Channel Islands;
27. Pakistan;
28. Papua New Guinea;
29. Samoa;
30. Seychelles;
31. Singapore;
32. Suriname;
33. Thailand;
34. Fiji;
35. Sri Lanka;
36. Jamaica;
37. Japan.

Traditions of movement

Road driving methods ordinary people depended in antiquity purely for convenience because the population density was low. Peasants and artisans carried loads on their right shoulders and walked in such a way as not to hurt each other, while warriors preferred opposite side, to be able to protect himself from enemies by drawing his sword from the scabbard on his left thigh.

With the advent Vehicle the driving rules have changed. Carriages with one horse and a driver on the front goats were more convenient to manage working hand, as stronger, and at the same time maintain maneuverability on the left.

This mode of transport was common in France, and during the reign of Napoleon, left-hand traffic spread to all regions of his conquests.

How has the direction influenced vehicle design?

Due to differences in behavior on the track, depending on the orientation, different countries use cars in which the steering wheel is on the side farthest from the curb. At the same time, the location of the control levers remains the same in all models.

However, for the convenience of specialized machines, this rule may be violated. For example, at the official transport of postal employees, the driver's seat was on the side closest to the sidewalk so that the postman delivers letters and parcels without leaving the car. So in the USSR, since 1968, the Moskvich 434P was produced with a right-hand drive.

Another important aspect related to the direction traffic is crossing the border in states with opposite accepted rules movement. In such cases, there may be a simple shift on the track if the road is narrow, as between Laos and Thailand, or a large-scale labyrinth of tracks if it is a large-scale siding, such as between Macau and China.

Why does England drive on the left?

Since there is no written evidence of how roads were driven in antiquity, researchers are turning to archeological methods. At an old quarry near Swindon, in Wiltshire, traces of a Roman era street were found, the degree of subsidence of which indicated left-hand traffic.

Also, historians associate this direction of traffic in the UK with traditional carts, including a cab, on which a right-handed driver sat on the roof and, accordingly, held a whip in his strongest hand.

First legislative act, which regulated the rules of movement around the city, became a law in 1756, which obliged vehicles to drive on the left side of London Bridge, while violators were expected to be fined a whole silver pound. Later, in 1776, the "Road Act" was passed, extending the rule to all the streets of England.

Since it was the British who became the first railway power, many countries still have similar traffic in the subway and at railway stations with reverse rules for cars.

What kind of traffic in Russia is right-hand or left-hand?

For a long time, there were no rules in Russia that would tell people exactly how they should drive the carts so as not to collide with each other. In 1752, the first Russian Empress Elizabeth ordered the drivers move along the right side streets within cities.

And so it happened, throughout Russian Federation received right-hand traffic . However, in major cities can be found separate sections, which change the direction of the flow of cars, which, as a rule, is associated with the convenience of interchange in a particular place.

Examples of such places are:

• Leskova Street in the Bibirevskiy district of Moscow;
• Embankment of the Fontanka River in St. Petersburg;
• Semyonovskaya and Mordotsveva streets in Vladivostok (August 2012 - March 2013).

It is interesting to see how political and economic reasons influenced which countries drive on the left and which drive on the right. One simple point, on which people cannot agree and come to a unified decision, creates differences in economic trends, sets major tasks for architects and administrations of cities and regions.

Video: on what part of the road do they move in different countries?

In this video, Oleg Govorunov will tell you why in different countries It is customary to move on different sides of the roads:

If there were no England, there would be no "right" rudder. The legitimacy of this statement in automotive circles has been arguing for decades.

AiF.ru tried to figure out why the left-hand traffic pattern took root in the UK and how it affected other countries of the world.

Why is it customary in England to drive on the left side of the road?

There are two main versions that explain why in the middle of the 18th century England opted for left-hand traffic.

• Roman version

AT Ancient Rome kept moving to the left. This approach was explained by the fact that the legionnaires kept their weapons in right hand. And therefore, in the event of an unexpected meeting with the enemy, it was more profitable for them to be on the left side of the road. The enemy thus fell directly on the chopping hand. After the Romans conquered the British Isles in 45 AD, "leftism" could spread to England. This version is supported by the results of archaeological expeditions. In 1998, a Roman quarry was excavated in the county of Wiltshire in the southwest of England, near which the left track was broken more than the right.

• Marine version

Previously, the British could only reach Europe by water. Therefore, maritime traditions have firmly entered the culture of this people. In the old days, English ships had to bypass the oncoming ship on the left side. Subsequently, this custom could spread to the roads.

In modern international rules of navigation, right-hand traffic is fixed.

Photo: Shutterstock.com

How did English "leftism" spread all over the world?

Most left-handed countries have chosen this particular traffic pattern due to the following circumstances:

• colonial factor.

Great Britain in the middle of the last century was an empire over which the sun never set. Majority former colonies scattered around the world, after gaining independence, they decided to keep their usual left-hand traffic.

• political factor.

During the French Revolution, a decree was issued in which all residents of the republic were ordered to move along the “common” right side of the road. When did he come to power Napoleon Bonaparte, the traffic pattern has become a policy argument. In those states that supported Napoleon - Holland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain - right-hand traffic was established. On the other hand, those who opposed France - Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Portugal - turned out to be "leftists". Subsequently, left-hand traffic in this trio of countries was preserved only in the United Kingdom.

Political friendship with Great Britain contributed to the introduction of "leftism" on the roads in Japan: in 1859 Queen Victoria's Ambassador Sir Rutherford Alcock convinced the authorities of the island state to accept the left-hand traffic.

When did right-hand traffic become established in Russia?

In Russia, the norms of right-hand traffic were established in the Middle Ages. Danish envoy under Peter I Yust Yul wrote in 1709 that "in Russian Empire everywhere in the custom, so that wagons and sledges, meeting each other, disperse, keeping to the right side. In 1752 Empress Elizabeth Petrovna consolidated this norm by law, issuing a decree on the introduction of right-hand traffic on the streets of the cities of the empire for carriages and cabbies.

Countries that have changed the movement

History knows many examples when countries switched from one traffic pattern to another. States did this for the following reasons:

• "To spite yesterday's occupiers"

The United States switched to driving on the right side of the road after declaring independence from Great Britain in 1776.

Korea switched to right-hand traffic after the end of the Japanese occupation in 1946.

• Geographic feasibility

Many former British colonies in Africa switched to right-hand traffic in the mid-1960s and early 1970s. Sierra Leone, the Gambia, Nigeria and Ghana did so for convenience: they were surrounded by “right-traveling” former French colonies.

Sweden was the last to change direction in Europe. In 1967, the so-called "H" Day took place there, when all the cars of the kingdom changed lanes. The reason for the transition to "law" lay not only in geography, but also in economics. Most of the countries where Swedish-made cars went used left-hand drive.

Swedish "H" day. Photo: commons.wikimedia.org

Samoa switched to driving on the left in 2009. It was related to large quantity used right-hand drive cars that were shipped to the country from Australia and New Zealand.

"Left" exceptions

AT right hand countries there is a place for "left" exceptions. So, on the small street of General Lemonnier (350 meters long) in Paris, they move on the left side. There is small areas with left-hand traffic in Odessa (Vysokiy Lane), in Moscow (junction at Leskova St.), in St. Petersburg (the Fontanka River Embankment) and in Vladivostok (Semyonovskaya St. on the section from Aleutskaya Street to the intersection with Okeansky Prospekt, as well as on the street. Mordovtsev).

Which move is safer?

According to experts, which side you drive on does not affect the degree of traffic safety - it's just a matter of habit.

Countries with left-hand traffic

The global ratio of right-hand and left-hand roads is 72% and 28%, with 66% of the world's drivers driving on the right side and 34% on the left.

North America

• Antigua and Barbuda
• Bahamas
• Barbados
• Jamaica

South America

• Guyana
• Suriname

• Great Britain
• Ireland
• Malta

• Bangladesh
• Brunei
• Butane
• East Timor
• Hong Kong
• India
• Indonesia
• Macau
• Malaysia
• Maldives
• Nepal
• Pakistan
• Singapore
• Thailand
• Sri Lanka
• Japan

• Botswana
• Zambia
• Zimbabwe
• Kenya
• Lesotho
• Mauritius
• Mozambique
• Namibia
• Seychelles
• Swaziland
• Tanzania
• Uganda

• Australia
• Kiribati
• Nauru
• New Zealand
• Papua New Guinea
• Samoa
• Tonga
• Fiji

Accordingly, cars are both left-hand and right-hand drive. In the first photo, a universal car for any country.

Countries with right-hand traffic are marked in red, countries with left-hand traffic are marked in blue.

History, as is often the case, is confusing and rooted in the distant past. Most people are right-handed. Pedestrians, in order to protect the property carried on the right shoulder, instinctively clung to the right side of the road. Crews and wagons were also taken to the right when passing - it is easier to pull the reins in the direction of a stronger hand. But for warriors (both mounted and on foot), on the contrary, it is better to diverge on the left side. In case of conflict striking hand with a sword closer to the enemy. As you can see, two opposite systems are already emerging.

It is known for certain that there was a left-hand traffic in the Roman Empire, apparently due to the large number of constantly moving troops. Excavations of an ancient quarry have shown that the left track is more broken than the right one. This means that cargo was taken out along it, and empty wagons were moving along the right towards the quarry.

After humanity stopped suspecting every enemy they met, right-hand traffic began to take shape on the roads.

As already mentioned, this is due to human physiology. There is historical evidence that even in the time of Peter it was customary to take to the right when driving with an oncoming carriage or sleigh. And officially, right-hand traffic was introduced in 1752 by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna.

However, in England in 1776, which turned out to be true to ancient Roman traditions, the "Road Act" was adopted, which introduced left-hand traffic.

In other countries, there was confusion and vacillation on this issue. It is generally accepted that Napoleon introduced right-hand traffic in continental Europe, extending the French rules of the road to the entire continent. True, this applied only to countries that were under his subordination. Britain, Sweden, Austria-Hungary and Portugal continued to be on the left.

Somewhere in London

It was England that became main reason distribution of left-hand traffic throughout the world. First of all, we are talking about its colonies: India, Australia and others. Japan became left-handed after the British built their first railway. By the way, our country also has Railway with left-hand traffic. This is the Moscow-Ryazan section. It was built under the guidance of British specialists.

But back to highways and the first cars. The first horseless carriages were controlled by a lever sticking out of the floor. He needed a lot of strength, so the driver sat on the left and controlled with his right hand.

The inconvenient lever was eventually replaced by wheel. You need to twist it with both hands, but for this you had to sit right behind it. But to which side is it better to move the steering wheel? At first, the steering wheel was placed closer to the edge of the road - on the right for right-hand traffic and on the left for left-hand traffic. This made it easier for the driver to get out. But there were more cars, and the main attention of the driver began to be occupied by oncoming and overtaking cars. That's why he was transplanted. First left hand drive model correct fit the driver was a 1908 Ford T.

Legendary Ford T

By the 1920s, on the vast majority of cars, the driver's seat was located on the side of the oncoming traffic. Gradually, most countries also adopted right-hand traffic: Belgium in 1899, Portugal in 1928, Spain in 1930, Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938.

Sweden corrected only in 1967. It was the last country in continental Europe to keep driving on the left. This created a lot of inconvenience when crossing the border, especially in rural areas, where it was often simply not marked. In addition, in Sweden all cars were left-hand drive. Manufacturers simply did not want to make right-hand drive cars for such a small market.

The most interesting thing is that it suited all people. In a referendum in 1955, 83% of Swedes were in favor of maintaining the current state of affairs. And only eight years later, the parliament, without asking the residents, adopted a resolution on the transition from 5 am on September 3, 1969 (Day "H") to right-hand traffic.

Central Stockholm on "H" Day

All cars simply moved to the other side of the road and began to drive according to the new rules. In the first month, the accident rate dropped to almost zero - the drivers were extremely careful. But then the number of accidents returned to the previous level. In 1968, inspired by the example of Sweden, Iceland carried out a similar operation under the same name.

Now in Europe, only four countries still have left-hand traffic: Britain, Ireland, Malta and Cyprus.

States that do not want to adapt to their neighbors are docking different formats border movements. On major highways, bizarre interchanges have to be built.

Lotus Bridge linking mainland China and Macau Autonomous Territory, a former Portuguese colony

Driving into a left-handed country with a right-handed car (and vice versa) is legal in most cases. It's much harder for the wrong car to get registered. In Australia, left-hand drive cars are simply prohibited - those who import them must definitely invest in conversions. In New Zealand, you need to get a special permit. And in Slovakia and Lithuania, right-hand drive cars are simply not registered. In our country, a few years ago, there were calls for the purchase of right-hand drive cars. This was largely due to the import of used cars from Japan. But with the growth of wealth, people began to prefer to buy new cars. And they are delivered already with the left wheel. So the problem disappeared by itself.

If your head is spinning from frequent shifts to the right and left, remember one simple rule: on the left foot, the big toe is on the right, and on right leg left;)