1 subject structure and functions of modern philosophy. Essence, subject and structure of philosophy

SUBJECT, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

1. The subject of philosophy. Religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world.

2. Philosophy as a worldview. The fundamental question of philosophy.

3. Structure and functions of philosophy.

1. The subject of philosophy. Religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world.F ilosophy in translation from ancient Greek means "love of wisdom." In ancient times, when there were no separate sciences, philosophy included all the knowledge of a person about himself and the world around him. She studied everything in existence. As knowledge was accumulated, independent sciences emerged from philosophy: mathematics, astronomy, medicine, social Sciences. But philosophy did not break up into separate sciences. It still studies everything that exists - nature, society, man - but only at the level of generalizations and the most important conclusions. Private sciences study individual objects of nature and society, while philosophy draws a general picture of the world. Philosophy studies the most general principles and laws by which the world is arranged.

Philosophy takes special place in the system of sciences. It is the top of the pyramid of sciences, uniting and summarizing all knowledge about the world: natural sciences, social sciences, and the humanities. Any fundamental science at the level of its most important conclusions and generalizations passes into philosophy.

At the same time, philosophy is not the sum of the conclusions of particular sciences. She has her own subject of study. Therefore, it develops independently, although it interacts with particular sciences. Philosophical ideas, as a rule, are ahead of the development of other sciences, because the overall picture is created before individual details are specified.

Thus, the object of philosophy is the whole world, everything that exists. The subject of philosophy- these are the most common problems of the development of nature, society and man.

It is customary to distinguish between religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world. The religious picture of the world is based on belief in the supernatural. It is dogmatic and changes little over time. The scientific picture of the world is based on experience, proof. She is constantly changing. The philosophical picture of the world, as well as the scientific one, is rationally substantiated and based on experience. But it differs from the scientific picture of the world in greater generality. According to many, philosophy is not a science, but a special form of worldview, a special form of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.

2. Philosophy as a worldview, the main question of philosophy. outlook is a system of general ideas of a person about the world as a whole, about nature and society, about himself and his place in this world. Ordinary worldview is formed in everyday life experience. The scientific worldview is formed by the whole complex of sciences. But the theoretical basis of any worldview is philosophy, because. it answers the most common questions. Among them, the main question stands out, on the solution of which the solution of all the others depends.

According to a number of philosophers, the main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness. Man knows two main types of reality - material and non-material (spiritual, ideal). Matter is an objective reality, i.e. everything that really exists independently of the will and consciousness of people. The inner world of human consciousness is a subjective reality - thoughts, images, feelings. Unlike material objects, thoughts do not have physical characteristics, do not obey material laws.

Already in ancient times, people raised the question: what is primary - matter or consciousness? In solving the main question, all philosophers were divided into materialists and idealists. Materialists consider matter to be primary, while idealists consider consciousness or some other non-material force that generates matter and controls material processes.

There are two main types of idealism: 1) Objective idealists consider any spiritual principle that is outside the person (objective) to be primary. Religion is a kind of objective idealism. 2) Subjective idealists consider the consciousness of the person (subject) himself to be the primary reality. The extreme option - solipsism - is a doctrine that recognizes human consciousness as the only reality.

Materialism and idealism together are examples of the principle called "monism" and according to which the basis of being is some kind of first principle: material or spiritual. There is also dualism - this is a principle whose supporters recognize two equal foundations of being, or two equivalent types of reality. For example, they recognize the eternal parallel coexistence of material and non-material reality.

The main question of philosophy has a second side: is the world cognizable? This is also a question about the relationship between matter and consciousness, but not in the sense that it is primary, but in how material reality is reflected in consciousness. Is a person capable of having reliable knowledge about the world? Can we know the world as it is in itself. Is it possible to explain the essence, or do we always only describe only the phenomena given to us in experience in sensations? Some believe that the world is cognizable, that a person is able to receive reliable knowledge. Others believe that the world is unknowable, that a person can never be sure of the truth of his knowledge. Agnosticism is philosophy which denies the cognizability of the world, recognizing the fundamental impossibility of cognizing objective reality through the subjective experience of a person.

Structure and functions of philosophy.

Structure philosophical knowledge:

1) History of philosophy.

2) Ontology (the doctrine of being) is a branch of philosophy that studies the most general principles and characteristics of being.

3) Epistemology (theory of knowledge) is a branch of philosophy that studies the general patterns of human cognitive activity.

4) Social philosophy - a branch of philosophy that studies society.

5) Philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man.

6) Axiology - the doctrine of values.

7) Ethics is the science of morality.

8) Aesthetics is the science of beauty.

9) Logic is the science of thinking.

Functions of Philosophy:

1. Worldview function. Philosophy helps to form a holistic worldview that a person needs in any activity, including everyday life. To have a philosophical worldview means to have the most profound and comprehensive understanding of the world, to understand the fundamental laws and relationships. Broad philosophical knowledge helps a person to analyze emerging problems and accept right decisions. Philosophical knowledge also helps to form strong life principles, beliefs that give strength to overcome difficulties.

2. Methodological function. Philosophy formulates a system of concepts, principles, laws and methods of cognition that are used in all sciences and in everyday thinking, i.e. are universal methods of knowledge.

3. Critical function. Philosophy criticizes delusions, prejudices that hinder the knowledge of truth.

4. Axiological function. Philosophy is involved in the formation of a system of values accepted by individuals and society as a whole. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is the “conscience of the epoch”, which, like a mirror, reflects the society's spiritual search for ideals, guidelines, and values.

5. Practical function. Philosophy formulates the general goals of the practical transformation of nature and society. The history of philosophy knows many examples when philosophical ideas did not remain only in the minds of people or on the pages of books, but were embodied in practice, changing the life of society and the course of history. So in due time the philosophical ideas of the Enlightenment became the ideological preparation for the Great french revolution and the Wars of Independence in the United States, and later led to the formation of the modern image of Europe and America. The philosophy of Marxism became the basis of political theory, which was embodied in the activities of communist parties in various countries and radically changed the course of the history of the twentieth century.

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

1. 1 The emergence of philosophy.

2. Philosophy of Ancient India.

3. Philosophy of Ancient China.

4. Philosophy of the pre-Socratic period in ancient Greece.

5. Ancient Greek philosophy of the classical period: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.

6. Philosophy of the Hellenistic period.

The emergence of philosophy.

There are three historical types of worldview - mythology, religion and philosophy. Prior to the emergence of philosophy, the religious and mythological worldview dominated the public mind. Its features are: 1) belief in the supernatural, erasing the boundaries of the possible and impossible, 2) misunderstanding of the differences between nature and man, anthropomorphism, i.e. transfer to nature of human properties, zoomorphism - transfer to society of the properties of the animal world; 3) syncretism, i.e. integrity, interweaving of religious, artistic and moral ideas. 4) pralogicality, i.e. underdevelopment of logic, the use of sensual images, rather than abstract concepts.

Philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, almost simultaneously in the countries of the West and East (India, China, Greece). Prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy: the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, the emergence of commodity-money relations, the decomposition of tribal relations, the emergence of the first states, a critical attitude towards power and traditional religions. The material life of society became more complicated and gave rise to the need for scientific knowledge. Religious and mythological ideas did not satisfy the increased needs of society. Unlike religion and mythology, philosophy sought rational explanation phenomena of nature and social practice.

Philosophy of Ancient India.

The oldest religion in India is Brahmanism, whose sacred books were the Vedas and the Upanishads. Brahmanism is based on the belief that the root cause of the whole world is an immaterial force - Brahman. Brahmanism fixed the division of society into castes. Under the influence of criticism of Brahmanism, six classical religious and philosophical teachings arose: Vedanta, Samkhya, yoga, nyaya, vaisheshika, mimamsa. Three non-classical teachings also arose: Charvaka (Lokayata), Jainism, Buddhism. The philosophical ideas of ancient Indian philosophy were expounded in the books Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita.

The main principles and ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: 1) Most of the teachings were idealistic, i.e. assuming one or another non-material beginning of the world, recognizing the spiritual basis of being. The Charvaka doctrine was materialistic, according to which the first principle includes four elements: water, air, fire and earth. 2) a dialectical idea appeared about the struggle of opposites - being and non-being, order and chaos (sat and asat), one and many. 3) The idea of reincarnation, i.e. transmigration of souls into the bodies of other living beings. Samsara is an endless chain of rebirths. Karma is the sum of good and evil deeds of a person, on which rebirth depends. 4) The principle of ahimsa - no harm to living things, environmentalism (respect for nature). 5) altruism, i.e. recognition of the priority of the interests and needs of others (the opposite of selfishness).

Essence of Buddhism: 1) Life is filled with suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) there is a way to get rid of suffering - the middle eightfold path: doing moral standards, asceticism, meditation. This path helps to break the chain of rebirth and reach nirvana, this is a state of consciousness in which all desires fade away.

Philosophy of Ancient China.

In China, the most influential religious and philosophical teachings were Mohism, Legalism, Taoism (the philosopher Lao Tzu), and from the 2nd century. before. AD Confucianism became the state ideology. The oldest religious and philosophical books are Shi Ching (Canon of Poems) and I Ching (Book of Changes). In the "Book of Changes" there was a transition from mythology to philosophy, dialectical ideas appeared: the idea of variability and the idea of the struggle of opposites. It was believed that two spirits were born from the primitive chaos, which streamlined the world: the male spirit Yang began to rule the sky, and female spirit Yin is earth. In the book "Canon of Poems" a cult of heaven was established. Heaven (tian) is the divine principle that gave birth to humanity and controls it.

In Taoism, the main concept - Tao - is the beginning of the world, incorporeal, endless, always moving.

The main book of Confucius is "Lun Yu". The core of Confucianism is ethics, distributing responsibilities, requiring to strictly follow the rules, observe etiquette, rituals, and traditions. Confucianism formed the ideal of the perfect man. A “noble husband” must be kind, honest, courageous, respect elders in age and status, fulfill duties, observe Golden Rule ethics. Confucianism consolidated social inequality, collectivism and suppressed individuality.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE NEW TIME.

1. General characteristics of philosophy in the 17th-18th centuries.

2. Philosophy of the French Enlightenment.

3. German classical philosophy. I. Kant.

4. Philosophy of Hegel.

5. Philosophy of L. Feuerbach.

6. Philosophical irrationalism. A. Schopenhauer.

Philosophy of F. Nietzsche (1844-1900).

Nietzsche's philosophy is based on the concept of life as a biological phenomenon and as highest value. Valuable is everything that serves to elevate life, to improve it. Nietzsche agrees with Schopenhauer that the driving force behind the development of life is the will, but not the will to live, but the will to power. On this basis - on the presence of the will to power - people are not equal, they are divided into strong and weak, into a race of masters and a race of slaves. The first are born to command, and by their nature do not know how to obey. The second is more convenient to obey someone else's will. The master race has become the highest achievement of evolution, in which life and the will to power reach their maximum strength.

If in society, as in nature, the strongest would win, then humanity would improve. But man came out of the animal world, and evolution ceased. In society, the weakest wins. The race of slaves, devoid of fortitude, came up with an excuse for their weakness in the form of morality, religion, law. Morality and religion teach compassion, help the weak. The law protects the weak from the strong. Slaves win by numbers, forcing the strong to fulfill their norms. Their morality is revenge on the strong, legitimized envy. In nature, the weak perish and progress is made. In society, the weak are helped and there is regression. As a result, human development has stopped in an insignificant state.

But Nietzsche hopes that artificial barriers will not stop the evolution of life. Nature once made a leap, the monkey became a man. But man is only a transitional stage. There will be a new leap - and a new one will appear species- superman, "blue-eyed blond beast." He will cast aside morality and law as unnecessary fetters. He will not obey anyone - neither God, nor the state, nor other people. Superman appreciates beauty, health, strives for the sublime, improves himself. The Superman appreciates life, its joys, but is not afraid of suffering, because. struggle and suffering temper the will. The Superman respects the strong, but does not sympathize with the weak. He will build a new society where beauty and strength will take the place of compassion and pity.

The merit of Nietzsche is that he drew attention to the weaknesses and vices of man. His dream of a superman is a belief in man's ability to improve himself. Nietzsche's philosophy combines love and contempt for people. Therefore, some consider it an example of humanism, and some - the basis of fascism.

3. Positivism. Supporters of this philosophical direction believed that science should only describe the facts of experience. The positivists have criticized philosophy (both idealistic and materialistic) for making assumptions that cannot be tested by experience. They called this philosophy metaphysics. Scientific philosophy should unite the conclusions of particular sciences, but not go beyond them.

Stages of development of positivism (varieties):

1) "first" positivism(O.Comte, G.Spencer) (30-40s of the 19th century).

2) empiriocriticism- subjective-idealistic doctrine of the late XIX century. (E. Mach, R. Avenarius). They believed that a person cannot know how the outside world works, he knows only his own sensations. The world for a person is a set of sensations, elements of the world. Therefore, thinking should be limited to describing the person's own sensations. They called it the principle of economy of thought.

3) neo-positivism (logical positivism(20-30s of the XX century) , analytical philosophy(since the 50s of the twentieth century). (L. Wittgenstein, B. Russell). This direction originated in Europe, but then became the most popular philosophy in the United States. They reduced philosophy to the analysis of language, scientific terms and logic. They used the principle of verification, according to which the truth of a judgment is verified by experience. They decomposed scientific knowledge into separate atomic sentences that can be verified empirically. All other scientific judgments must be derived from atomic ones.

4) Critical rationalism (mid-twentieth century). Representatives of this trend were engaged in the philosophy of science, looking for clear criteria to separate scientific knowledge from non-scientific. For example, K. Popper introduced the principle of falsification, according to which scientific knowledge is such knowledge that can be refuted. Knowledge, which in principle cannot be refuted, is not scientific (truths of religion, philosophical metaphysics).

5) post-positivism/historical school/ (60-70s of the twentieth century). (T. Kuhn, I. Lakatos, Feyerabend, Tulmin) They studied the history of science, how scientific knowledge grew, how scientific revolutions took place.

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY

1. Formation and main features of Russian philosophy.

2. The development of revolutionary democratic ideas in Russia.

3. Russian religious philosophy.

1. Formation and main features of Russian philosophy. Russian philosophy is part of world philosophy, but at the same time, it has national characteristics. The formation of Russian philosophy began in the XI century, after the adoption of Christianity in Ancient Russia. It was influenced by: 1) pagan beliefs of the Slavic tribes, 2) Christian theology (Byzantine and Western European), 3) ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle). The main problems that interested Russian philosophers: 1) inner world man, the problem of good and evil, the meaning of life; 2) social philosophy, the problem of social justice, the philosophy of history; 3) features of the Russian national character, the role of Russia in world history (Russian idea).

Until the 18th century Russian philosophy retained mainly a religious character. The most famous representatives of the religious and philosophical thought of this period: Metropolitan Hilarion, Maxim Grek, Cyril of Turovsky, Philotheus. In the 17-18 centuries. the influence of European philosophy increased, secularization was going on, i.e. the gradual liberation of philosophy from the influence of religion. A great contribution to the development of philosophical education in Russia was made by M.V. Lomonosov. He was a supporter of deism, believed that God created the world and gave it movement, but in the future, nature develops independently according to physical laws. He argued that the scientific knowledge of nature is not contrary to religious faith.

Russian philosophy reached its peak in the 19th century. The discussion about the historical fate of Russia and its future came to the fore. In 1836, the “Philosophical Letter” by P.Ya. Chaadaev, in which he bitterly reflected on the disastrous state of Russia. He harshly criticized the path of Russia's development, pointed out its lagging behind the West. Chaadaev's letter opened a discussion in which two approaches to determining Russia's place in world history have developed. 1) Westerners argued that all peoples should follow a common path of development, that Russia should borrow experience Western Europe(Kavelin, Granovsky). 2) The Slavophiles believed that there are no general laws of development, each nation goes its own way, Russia should develop on the basis of national traditions(Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Aksakov brothers).

2. The development of revolutionary democratic ideas in Russia. Absolute monarchy, serfdom and the general backwardness of Russia provoked criticism from the most progressive thinkers. A.N. Radishchev in his work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" showed the cruel and humiliating essence of serfdom, the slavish and disenfranchised position of the people. He was a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment, defended human rights and freedoms, and sought the democratization of society. Radishchev's treatise "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality" is devoted to a comparison of the idealistic and materialistic teachings about man. He did not give an unambiguous conclusion, but recognized the admissibility of belief in immortality.

At the end of 18 - n. 19th centuries ideas of the Enlightenment penetrate into Russia. They influenced the worldview of the Decembrists and led to the emergence of plans for the revolutionary reorganization of society. Most of the Decembrists adhered to the philosophy of materialism or deism. Under the influence of the ideas of the Decembrists, the ideology of the revolutionary democrats - Herzen, Ogarev, Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky - later took shape. Herzen advocated the building of socialism in Russia on the basis of a peasant community, the enlightenment of the people, and the union of philosophy with natural science.

N.G. Chernyshevsky was a supporter of Feuerbach's anthropological materialism. In the book Anthropological Principle in Philosophy, he defended the materialistic view of man, argued that man is part of nature, obeys the laws of nature, and consciousness is a function of the brain. In the field of ethics, he was a supporter of the principle of rational egoism, according to which the desire for happiness is inherent in human nature, but in a rationally arranged society it does not contradict the interests of other people. The happiness of a person is harmoniously connected with the happiness of society. In the field of aesthetics, Chernyshevsky defended the principle of realism, arguing that art should be a reflection of life. His ideas influenced the formation of nihilism, populism and Russian Marxism.

The philosophy of populism continued the development of socialist ideas, but taking into account the special path of development of Russia. Lavrov and Mikhailovsky developed the subjective method in sociology and social philosophy. They exaggerated the role of the individual in history. Bakunin and Kropotkin were supporters of anarchism, they considered the state a force that enslaves a person.

One of the first supporters of Marxism in Russia was G.V. Plekhanov. But he believed that Russia was not yet ready to build socialism, that its economy should reach more high level within the framework of capitalism. IN AND. Lenin believed that after the revolution, Russia would be able to overcome its economic backwardness more quickly. He creatively developed the philosophy of Marxism. He gave a definition of matter, developed a theory of reflection that explains the essence of consciousness, developed a materialistic theory of knowledge, dialectics, and social philosophy. The most complete and consistent presentation of his philosophical views V.I. Lenin gave in his work "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism".

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

1. The essence of the philosophical understanding of knowledge.

2. Steps and forms in man's knowledge of the world.

3. The problem of truth in the theory of knowledge.

The object of human knowledge can be various phenomena. But the process of cognition itself is also the subject of study. It is studied by psychology, logic, physiology of higher nervous activity. The philosophical theory of knowledge (epistemology) studies the general patterns of human cognitive activity, answers the second side of the main question of philosophy: is the world cognizable?

Different philosophical directions explain the essence of knowledge in different ways. From a religious point of view, the purpose of knowledge is the revelation of divine truths. Objective idealists believe that a person must know the spiritual force that rules the world - the Absolute Idea (Hegel), the will of the world (Schopenhauer), etc. Subjective idealists believe that a person can only know his own consciousness (Hume, Kant, Mach, Avenarius). Proponents of agnosticism deny the possibility of human knowledge of the world.

From the point of view of dialectical materialistic philosophy, the task of a person is the knowledge of the material world, its objective laws, as well as self-knowledge.

Supporters of metaphysical thinking consider knowledge as a passive reflection. Dialectical materialism also presents cognition as a reflection, but active. Those. in this process, a person purposefully seeks knowledge, transforming the world around him. Cognition is an active, creative, transforming reflection of reality by a person.

A person cognizes the world, first of all, with the help of sensations, which are subjective images of the objective world. Feelings are objective in their source; they reflect the objective world. They are objective in content, because reflect the world as a whole correctly. The subjectivity of sensations lies in the fact that they arise in the mind of the subject, and therefore may differ in different people.

The process of cognition is endless, because matter is inexhaustible. At the same time, there is nothing fundamentally unknowable in the world. What remains inexplicable today may be known in the future.

The basis of knowledge is socio-historical practice - this is the material and objective activity of people aimed at transforming nature and society. The difference between practice and theory: the main goal and result of theoretical activity is the creation and modification of intangible objects (ideas, ideas, knowledge). Practical activity is aimed at changing material objects and processes. Types of practice: production practice, socio-political, scientific and experimental, household, etc. In relation to cognition, practice performs four functions:

1) as the basis of knowledge, practice provides initial information

2) how the driving force of practice generates the need for new knowledge

3) as a criterion of truth, practice makes it possible to distinguish true knowledge from error.

4) as a goal, practice is the final sphere of application of our knowledge.

Theory and practice are two sides of a single cognitive process. The defining role belongs to practice. It is the real needs of practical life that determine the emergence of new theories. But the theory is also active. When applied in practice, it transforms nature and society.

2. Steps and forms in man's knowledge of the world. Cognition is a complex dialectical process. From the description of superficial phenomena, a person proceeds to an explanation of the essence. Accordingly, this process goes through two main stages - sensory and rational cognition.

Sensory cognition is the initial stage of the process of cognition, obtaining information with the help of the sense organs. It occurs in three main forms: in the form of sensations, perceptions and ideas. Sensation is an elementary form of sensory cognition, a reflection in the mind of individual features of an object. Perception is a reflection in the mind of a holistic image of an object. Representation is a repeated reproduction of a visual image of an object, without its direct perception.

The meaning of sensory cognition: 1) the sense organs are the only channel of information coming directly from the outside world; 2) sensory knowledge is the basis for the next step - rational knowledge. Disadvantages: sensory knowledge provides superficial, disparate, contradictory information, reflects phenomena, but does not reveal the essence.

Rational knowledge is the obtaining of information with the help of the mind, in the process of logical reasoning. It occurs in three main forms: in the form of concepts, judgments and conclusions. A concept is an elementary form of thought that reflects the general and essential features of objects (words and phrases). A judgment is a form of thought in which, with the help of two or more concepts, something is affirmed or denied about something (sentence). Inference is a form of thought in which a new judgment is logically derived from two or more propositions.

The ability to think logically, abstractly, is a unique evolutionary achievement unique to humans. Rational knowledge allows you to penetrate into the essence of objects, to reveal objective laws.

Sensual and rational cognition are interrelated, they cannot be separated and opposed, as rationalists and sensualists did. With sensory knowledge, the work of the mind is already present, and rational knowledge is generally impossible without sensory knowledge.

There is also a third, not the main stage of knowledge. Intuition is the ability to comprehend the truth through its direct discretion, without substantiation by evidence. The condition of intuition is rich experience. But the very mechanism of intuitive decision is random, irrational, because associated with the unconscious part of the psyche. Intuition plays an important role in solving non-standard problems, in scientific discoveries.

3. The problem of truth in the theory of knowledge. main goal scientific knowledge is the attainment of truth. There are different approaches to the definition of truth. Proponents of pragmatism (American philosophy) consider knowledge that is useful to be true. Proponents of conventionalism consider the generally accepted knowledge that has become the result of an agreement to be true. The classic definition of truth was given by Aristotle: Truth is knowledge that corresponds to reality.

Truth is always mixed with error, i.e. unintentional acceptance for the truth of knowledge that does not correspond to reality. The criteria for truth to distinguish it from error: 1) sensual evidence (but feelings can deceive, and facts can be misinterpreted); 2) rational evidence, i.e. reliance on axioms (but axioms are valid only under certain conditions); 3) logical consistency (but logic confirms only the correctness of the form of thought, and not the content). These criteria may apply, but they are limited. The real criterion is to compare subjective knowledge with objective reality. Such a criterion is practice - the verification of knowledge in the practical activity of a person.

Truth is divided into relative and absolute. Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge about a subject. Absolute truth is all-round, exhaustive knowledge. Relative truth is a piece of absolute truth.

Truth is characterized by two principles: 1) The principle of objectivity. Any truth is objective in content, because corresponds to the object, but is subjective in form, because contained in the human mind, and can be expressed in various forms (languages). 2) The principle of concreteness. The truth depends on specific conditions. What is true in some conditions may be a delusion in others (the laws of classical, relativistic and quantum mechanics).

The dialectical-materialistic understanding of truth is opposed to the views of relativism and dogmatism. Proponents of relativism exaggerate the relativity of truth (every person in every separate case own truth). Supporters of dogmatism exaggerate the absoluteness of truth (every truth is eternal, unchanging, fair in any circumstances).

BASIC LAWS OF DIALECTICS

1. Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.

4. The law of negation of negation.

1.Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism. Determinism is the doctrine of universal regular relationships and interdependence of objects, processes and phenomena. Proponents of determinism believe that the world is ordered, that everything in it is interconnected, and the interconnections are natural. Proponents of the opposite doctrine - indeterminism - believe that the world is chaos, randomness prevails in it and any event can occur. At the core modern science is the principle of determinism.

Types of relationships: causal (cause and effect relationship), structural (relationship between elements of the system), functional (relationship between the properties of an object, expressed by a function), target (teleonomic) - these are relationships in which the development of the system is subordinated to a specific goal.

According to the nature of the action, connections can be necessary and accidental, essential and insignificant, general and single, temporary and stable, etc. Among the whole variety of connections, there are those that are laws. Law is a necessary, essential, general, stable connection.

Classification of laws:

1) According to the forms of movement, physical, chemical, biological, social laws are distinguished. 2) According to the nature of the action, the laws are divided into dynamic and probabilistic (statistical). Dynamic laws describe the behavior of individual objects and establish an unambiguous relationship between their states (laws of dynamics). Probabilistic (statistical) laws describe the behavior of large populations, but only probabilistic predictions are made for individual objects. These are all the laws of the microcosm (Maxwell's law on the distribution of molecules by velocities, the Heisenberg uncertainty relation). 3) According to the breadth of action, laws are private, general and universal. Private laws operate in a narrow area (Ohm's law). General laws operate either in all of nature (the law of conservation of energy), or in society (social laws), or in thinking (laws of logic). Universal laws operate both in nature and in society and in thinking.

The three basic laws of dialectics are universal. They do not directly govern objects like private or general laws. They appear as general trends many private connections and laws. The laws of dialectics fix the similarity in the development of any objects. Together they form general theory development. Knowledge of the laws of dialectics allows you to better understand the development of an object in order to manage it.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The law of unity and struggle of opposites is the core of dialectics, because it reveals the source, the driving force behind the development of any system. It answers the question: why does development happen?

Already in antiquity, people noticed that among the diverse phenomena, those stand out that form pairs, are of a polar nature, and occupy extreme positions on a certain scale. Philosophers of antiquity spoke of the opposition of good and evil, light and darkness.

Opposites are aspects of an object, process or phenomenon that are mutually exclusive and mutually presuppose each other. The properties of an object, the processes occurring in it, the forces acting on it can be opposite. The opposite are arithmetic operations. In physics, electric charges are opposite, poles magnetic field, action and reaction, order and chaos; in chemistry - analysis and synthesis, association and dissociation; in biology - heredity and variability, health and disease.

Contradiction is the interaction of opposites, their unity and struggle. They crowd out, suppress each other, but at the same time they cannot exist without each other. Each of them is itself, relative to its opposite.

There are many different opposites in the world, but among them there are those whose interaction causes changes and development of the system. In any developing system there are contradictions; unity and struggle of opposite properties, forces, processes. Contradictions can lead to the destruction of the system. But if the contradictions are resolved, then this leads to the development of the system. The absence of contradictions means stability, the equilibrium state of the system. Thus, this law states that contradictions are the cause, the source of any development.

It is a doctrine about the world as a whole, about what place a person occupies in the world, about the relationship of a person to the world, about the meaning and purpose of human life. Philosophy teaches a person to think creatively, correctly assess their capabilities and role in the world, determine the direction of activity. Kant wrote that philosophy answers the questions: what can I know?, what should I do?, what can I hope for? Philosophy is said to teach who we are, where we came from, where we are going, or what one must be in order to be human. Philosophy is a person's awareness of his being.

Philosophy contains truth, but it can also contain error, but in any case it is wisdom. It disturbs the calmness of a person, because it questions everything, makes the obvious non-obvious, rejects the usual dogmas, superstitions, rumors, but also makes a person happy, because it introduces him to wisdom. Even ancient philosophers argued that there is no greater virtue and greater happiness than being wise. Modern Philosophers Special attention they turn to the state of society and the position of a person in the world in relation to the post-industrial era and the corresponding level of scientific achievements.

Philosophy wears personal character(“my philosophy”), national character (Russian philosophy, German philosophy), outstanding achievements of philosophical thought are of universal human significance.

Philosophy as a system has a corresponding structure.

It is customary to distinguish the following elements of this system:

The doctrine of activity - praxeology;

Depending on the sphere of social reality that philosophy is specifically interested in, one can single out the philosophy of science and technology, the philosophy of morality, the philosophy of art, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of economics, the philosophy of education, etc.

Philosophy performs in society a variety of functions.

The most important of them are the following:

1. Worldview function - philosophy is a worldview and gives a person a worldview, provides a person's orientation in an increasingly complex world.

2. Methodological function - philosophy gives a person a direction in practical and cognitive activity, determines the way, the way to achieve the goal.

3. Critical function - philosophy tests all human actions for their compliance with human interests, for their humanity, points to the causes of human delusions and thereby contributes to the search for truth.

4. Cultural and creative function - philosophy brings wisdom and rationality into society, attaches to spiritual values, allows predicting, determining options for the future, and thereby contributes to the socio-historical process.

1. Philosophy, its subject, functions and structure. Philosophy and worldview.

The term "philosophy" around the VI century BC. e. introduced the famous mathematician and thinker Pythagoras. phileo- love and sophia- wisdom, i.e. Philosophy is the love of wisdom, or, as they used to say in ancient times in Russia, “love of wisdom”. The explanation and consolidation in European culture of the word "philosophy" is associated with the name of Plato (427-347 BC). Philosophers are, in his opinion, people who discover the secrets of nature and human life, teach to act and live in harmony with nature and the requirements of life itself. So, philosophy is a special kind of knowledge - it is "sophianic", wise knowledge and teachings based on it.

Philosophy- this is a theoretically developed worldview, a system of general categories, theoretical views on the world, a person’s place in it, an awareness of various forms of a person’s relationship to the world, which is based on the achievements of the sciences of nature and society and has a certain measure of logical evidence. The value of philosophy lies in the awakening of a creative, constructive comprehension by a person of himself, the world, social practice and the origins of social advancement into the future, in the "shock" of consciousness. The shock is a prologue to the awakening of the movement, to the independent spiritual life of the individual, his self-consciousness.

Structure and subject matter of philosophy. Philosophy includes the doctrine of the general principles of the existence of the universe (ontology, or metaphysics), the essence and development of Human society (social philosophy and philosophy of history), the doctrine of man and his being in the world (philosophical anthropology), the theory of knowledge (epistemology), problems of creativity, ethics, aesthetics, the theory of culture and, finally, the history of philosophy. This is how the subject of philosophy developed historically, i.e. the range of its specific sections and problems, both theoretically and practically, i.e. organizationally and pedagogically, its sections were differentiated. The subject of philosophy - not one side of existence, but everything that exists in the fullness of its content and meaning. world in general, in its most general laws, considered from the point of view of the subject-object relationship, in other words, the relationship "man - the world". Thus, philosophy explores: 1) the nature and essence of the world; 2) the nature, essence and purpose of a person; 3) the system "man - the world" as a whole and the state in which it is located.

Philosophy as a special kind of spiritual activity is directly related to the socio-historical practice of people and cognition, and therefore performs various functions.

1. worldview function. Philosophy expands and systematizes people's knowledge about the world, man, society, helps to understand the world as a single complex system. 2. fundamental function. Philosophy reveals and forms the most general concepts, patterns and principles of the real world, which are used in various fields of scientific knowledge and practical human activity. 3. methodological function. It should be understood as the development of general principles and norms of cognitive activity. Philosophy compares and evaluates the various means of this activity, indicates the most optimal of them.4. epistemological function. Thanks to the theory of philosophical knowledge, the laws of natural and social phenomena are revealed, the forms of advancement of human thinking towards truth, the ways and means of achieving it, and the results of other sciences are summarized. 5. Boolean function. Philosophy contributes to the formation

culture of human thinking, the formation of a critical, unprejudiced position in interpersonal and socio-cultural dialogues. 6. Educational function. Philosophy strives for the formation of ideological and moral-aesthetic principles and norms in human life. 7. Axiological the function of philosophy helps a person in determining the values of life, the system of moral and humanistic principles and ideals, the meaning of life. eight. Integrative i function . It consists in combining the practical, cognitive and valuable experience of people's lives. Its holistic philosophical understanding is a necessary condition for a harmonious and balanced social life. nine. critical. philosophy carries out a critical "selection" and accumulates worldview experience for transmission to subsequent generations. 10. Regulatory function. Philosophy affects the mutual consistency of specific actions and directions of human life on the basis of an understanding of the general principles and goals determined with the help of a philosophical worldview.11. predictive function. Philosophy helps in the formation of the most general ideas and knowledge about the forms and directions of development and the future state of objects and processes of the real world.

All the functions of philosophy are interconnected, and the predominant manifestation of any of them is associated with the orientation of society towards solving certain problems, the target setting of theoretical or practical activity.

Philosophy is the theoretical basis of the worldview, or its theoretical core, around which a kind of spiritual cloud of generalized everyday views of worldly wisdom is formed, which is vital important level worldview. The concept of "worldview" is broader than the concept of "philosophy". Philosophy is a form of social and individual consciousness that is constantly theoretically substantiated, has a greater degree of scientificity than just a worldview, say, at the everyday level of common sense, which is present in a person who sometimes does not even know how to write or read.

A worldview is a system of views on the world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality that surrounds him, and to himself, that is, the most generalized views on the meaning of life, on the goal human activity. In the history of mankind, a mythological worldview arose before everyone else, in which a person appears merged into one with the environment and is not separated either from nature or from his kind. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of the world into the earthly, natural and supernatural, heavenly. Philosophy differs from mythological and religious forms of worldview in that it realizes its worldview function on the basis of a critical attitude to reality, referring to the facts of logical constructions, developing epistemological and logical categories and criteria for the conscious search and selection of true views.

Ontology (the doctrine of being);

Man;

Society.

Cosmocentrism;

Theocentrism;

Anthropocentrism.

The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections:

Ontology (the doctrine of being);

Gnoseology (the doctrine of knowledge);

Man;

Society.

Basic functions: 1) synthesis of knowledge and creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) substantiation, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for cognition and human activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. To do this, he develops his own concepts, which are applied in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena. However, none of the sciences, except for F., deals with the special question of what is "necessity", "accident", etc. although he can use them in his field. Such concepts are extremely broad, general and universal. They reflect the universal connections, interactions and conditions for the existence of any things and are called categories (see glossary). Main question: The main tasks or problems relate to clarifying the relationship between human consciousness and the outside world, between thinking and the being around us.

1. The main specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in its duality, since it:

It has a lot in common with scientific knowledge - the subject, methods, logical-conceptual apparatus;

However, it is not scientific knowledge in its pure form. The main difference between philosophy and all other sciences is that philosophy is a theoretical worldview, the ultimate generalization of knowledge previously accumulated by mankind. The subject of philosophy is wider than the subject of study of any individual science, philosophy generalizes, integrates other sciences, but does not absorb them, does not include all scientific knowledge, does not stand above it. (Philosophy is a special, scientific-theoretical type of worldview. The philosophical worldview differs from the religious and mythological in that it:

Based on knowledge (and not on faith or fiction);

Reflexively (there is a focus of thought on itself);

Logical (has internal unity and system);

It relies on clear concepts and categories. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, characterized by rationality, systemicity, logic and theoretical formulation.

5. Philosophy as a worldview has gone through three main stages of its evolution:

Cosmocentrism;

Theocentrism;

Anthropocentrism.

Cosmocentrism is a philosophical worldview, which is based on the explanation of the surrounding world, natural phenomena through the power, omnipotence, infinity of external forces - the Cosmos, and according to which everything that exists depends on the Cosmos and cosmic cycles (this philosophy was characteristic of Ancient India, Ancient China, others countries of the East, as well as Ancient Greece). Theocentrism is a type of philosophical worldview, which is based on the explanation of everything that exists through the dominance of an inexplicable, supernatural force - God (was common in medieval Europe). Anthropocentrism is a type of philosophical worldview, in the center of which is the problem of man (Europe of the Renaissance, modern and modern times, modern philosophical schools).)

The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections:

Ontology (the doctrine of being);

Gnoseology (the doctrine of knowledge);

Man;

Society.

1. The main specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in its duality, since it:

It has a lot in common with scientific knowledge - the subject, methods, logical-conceptual apparatus;

Based on knowledge (and not on faith or fiction);

Reflexively (there is a focus of thought on itself);

Logical (has internal unity and system);

It relies on clear concepts and categories. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, characterized by rationality, systemicity, logic and theoretical formulation.

5. Philosophy as a worldview has gone through three main stages of its evolution:

Cosmocentrism;

Theocentrism;

Anthropocentrism.

Philosophy is the science of the universal, it is a free and universal field of human knowledge, a constant search for the new. Philosophy can be defined as the doctrine of the general principles of knowledge, being and relations between man and the world.

The main efforts of self-realized philosophical thought are directed towards finding the higher principle and meaning of being.

The Purpose of Philosophy- to captivate a person with the highest ideals, take him out of the sphere of everyday life, give his life a true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.

The understanding of the subject of philosophical knowledge has changed historically. There is no single definition of philosophy today. At the same time, in our opinion, the specificity of philosophy is most accurately expressed by the interpretation of its subject as universal in the system of relations "world-man". This system includes Various types human relations to the world: cognitive, practical, value-oriented.

It seems that these types of relationships are quite accurately identified by the German philosopher Immanul Kant(1724 - 1804) in the three questions he formulated, accumulating the problematic core of philosophy.

What can I know?- Or what are the cognitive capabilities of the human race (cognitive type of human relationship to the world).
What should I do?- In other words, what should I do to be a man and live with dignity (a practical type of a person's attitude to the world).
What can I hope for? — This is a question about values and ideals (the value type of a person's attitude to the world).

By answering these three questions, we get the answer to the integrative question: "What is a man?"

- all that exists in the fullness of its meaning and content. Philosophy is not aimed at defining external interactions and precise boundaries between parts and particles of the world, but at understanding them. intercom and unity.

Structure of philosophy

The complex structuring of the very subject of philosophy determines the branched internal structure philosophical knowledge, which consists of the following areas:

Ontology- the doctrine of being (about the origins and root causes of all things).
Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge (philosophical theory of knowledge), answering questions about what is true and reliable knowledge, what are the criteria and methods for obtaining true knowledge, what are the specifics of various forms of cognitive activity.
Axiology- the doctrine of values.
Philosophical anthropology- the doctrine of the essence of man, the meaning of human life, necessity and chance, freedom, etc.
Logics- the doctrine of the laws and forms of human thinking.
Ethics the doctrine of the laws and principles of morality.
Aesthetics - a doctrine that explores aesthetic values (beauty, ugliness, tragic, comic, base, etc.) and art as a special artistic activity.

Philosophy of religion, philosophy of culture, philosophy of science and technology, and other branches of philosophical knowledge are being formed in the 19th-20th centuries.

Philosophy includes:

the doctrine of the general principles of the existence of the universe (ontology or metaphysics);
about the essence and development of human society (social philosophy and philosophy of history);
the doctrine of man and his being in the world (philosophical anthropology);
theory of knowledge;
problems of the theory of knowledge and creativity;
ethics;
aesthetics;
theory of culture;
its own history, that is, the history of philosophy. The history of philosophy is an essential component of the subject matter of philosophy: it is part of the content of philosophy itself.

Subject of Philosophy

The term " philosophy” arose from the combination of two Greek words “phileo” - love and “sophia” - wisdom and means love of wisdom.

Philosophy as a way and form of spiritual activity originated in and, but classical form reached in . The term “philosophy” was first used to designate a special sphere of knowledge. At first, philosophy included the entire body of knowledge about the world.

The growing need for knowledge and the expansion of the scope of their application in practice stimulated an increase in their volume and diversity and led to the differentiation of knowledge, expressed in the emergence of different sciences. The decomposition of unified knowledge into separate sciences, which began as early as in , did not mean the disappearance of philosophy. On the contrary, there is a need for a special section of knowledge that can act as a means of integrating knowledge, and a way to develop the most general principles and norms of cognitive and transformative activities of people. Philosophy gradually concentrated its attention on theorizing around the most general worldview problems of nature, society and thinking, trying to answer questions about the goals and meaning of the existence of society and the individual. These questions, which arise in the historical specific conditions life, it is impossible to give answers suitable for all times and all peoples. People who pose worldview questions sought to get answers to them that corresponded to their needs and level. intellectual development. Moreover, in different historical conditions, not only the set of worldview questions changes, but also their hierarchy itself is transformed, as well as the nature of the desired answers to them. This lays the foundation for specificity in understanding the subject of philosophy and in its content.

It should be taken into account that for a long time the subject of philosophy was identified by many scientists with the subject of science in general, and the knowledge contained within the framework of individual sciences was considered as components of philosophy. This situation continued until the eighteenth century. However, various thinkers singled out those facets of the subject of philosophy that were the object of primary interest for them to the forefront of philosophizing. Often, individual thinkers limited the subject of philosophical research to only a few, which seemed to them the most essential parts. In other words, it must be borne in mind that the subject of philosophy, as well as ideas about it, is formed with the development of scientific knowledge, that is, information about it is formed in the course of the transformation of philosophy itself. For example, it is known from the history of philosophy that the subject of philosophy for the first ancient Greek philosophers was natural world, later the whole world acted in this capacity. For the Epicureans and the late Stoics, the subject matter of philosophy is mainly outlined by the range of problems relating to man in the world. Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages reduced the subject of philosophy to the relationship between man and God. In modern times, the problems of cognition and methodology come to the fore in the structure of the subject of philosophy. In the age of enlightenment, for many European philosophers, the subject of reflection again becomes a person with all his many relationships. In the XIX - XX centuries. The diversity of schools and ideas in world philosophy also corresponds to the richness of ideas about the nature of its subject. Today, the subject of philosophical reflection is the natural and social world, as well as man in it as a multidimensional and multilevel system in all the abundance of connections. Philosophy studies the most general aspects, properties, trends in the development of the world, reveals the universal principles of self-organization, existence and development of the nature of society, man and his thinking, reveals the goals and meaning of human existence in the world. At the same time, modern philosophy bases its conclusions on a generalization of data from particular sciences.

The subject of philosophy also includes consideration of questions about how philosophy itself arises, develops and transforms, how it interacts with different forms public consciousness and practices.

In other words, as subject of philosophy the whole set of the most common questions concerning the relationship between man and the world is considered, the answer to which makes it possible for a person to optimize the realization of his needs and interests.

The Purpose of Philosophy

Philosophy as a system of knowledge about the most general principles that fix a person’s attitude to the world, arises from the need of people to develop rational foundations that give integrity to the worldview, and direction to cognitive and practical efforts. This means that philosophy, while accumulating, combines, on the one hand, the most general ideas about the world as a whole, and, on the other hand, information about the most ambitious principles of attitude to the world, applied in the course of cognitive and practical activities. Starting from the previously established forms of non-philosophical, pre-philosophical and pre-philosophical worldview, subjecting them to critical rethinking, philosophy, based on a rational attitude to the world and theoretical synthesis of information about it, forms a generalized image of it in relation to the needs of ensuring people's lives. For this, philosophy needs to develop a special conceptual apparatus that forms the basis of its language, which helps to express the philosophical attitude of man to the world. However, the formation of a philosophical language, techniques and methods of philosophical knowledge is only a component of the goal of philosophy. The essence of the goal of philosophy is to teach a person to think and, on this basis, to relate to the world in a certain way. The realization of this goal by philosophy turns it into the basis for a person's understanding of the meaning and purpose of life, understanding of involvement in what is happening in the world.

Such an understanding of the purpose of philosophy and its purpose did not develop immediately. With the development of philosophy, it changed depending on the ideas about what it is. According to Plato, philosophy is the love of wisdom and the means to achieve total knowledge, and the condition proper organization personal and public life. For Aristotle, philosophy is the study of the causes and principles of the existence of things, that is, its goal is to identify and fix such causes and principles. The Stoics considered philosophy as a means of organizing the proper relationship of a person to the world, society and himself. The purpose of philosophy from here is to ensure the following of duty. The Epicureans saw philosophy as a guide to achieving happiness. Accordingly, the goal of philosophy for them was to ensure the achievement of happiness. For Thomas Aquinas, philosophy is the knowledge of truth relating to the first principle of being. And, therefore, its purpose is to reveal such truths. In the understanding of R. Descartes, philosophy is not only a condition for prudence in business, but also a source of knowledge about everything that a person knows. According to T. Hobbes, philosophy is knowledge that explains actions from causes known to us or producing bases. In understanding the goal of philosophy, they were close and saw it in the fulfillment by this discipline of the role of a means of organizing knowledge of the world and guiding practice. For I. Kant, philosophy is the science of the ultimate goals of the human mind. Accordingly, the goal of this science is seen by I. Kant in their identification.
G. V. F. Hegel considered philosophy to be a thinking consideration of objects, penetration into the rational, comprehension of the cash and the real. In other words, such penetration and comprehension is the goal of philosophy. According to M. Heidegger, philosophy is a reflection aimed at the whole and the ultimate. Consequently, the goal of philosophy is to clarify the essence of the whole and the ultimate.

In the domestic philosophy of our days, different ideas about its goals are reflected., which finds expression in the variety of definitions of the concept of “philosophy”. Some representatives of this science define it as supreme view worldview. Others identify it with worldview reflection or activity aimed at compiling ideas about the values of life. For still others, this discipline means the science of the most general laws movement and development in nature, society and thinking. The fourth define it as a doctrine, a special system of views, knowledge about the world as a whole and the principles of a person's attitude towards it. In the definitions of philosophy available in the educational literature, attention is drawn to such significant possibilities of philosophy as the ability to be the basis of world outlook, worldview, to act as a means of identifying the most general laws and principles of movement and development in nature, society and thinking, on the one hand, and to be the basis for the development and implementation of the principles of organizing the optimal life of people, on the other hand. The multiplicity of the meanings of the concept of philosophy presented in the works of philosophers testifies to the versatility of its content and the complexity of the purpose of its purpose. The concentrated content of this goal is to develop the fundamental principles of the life support practice of the social community.

A generalization of the above experience of defining philosophy gives the right to define it as follows: philosophy is a form of spiritual activity that develops, on the basis of a developing system of knowledge about the world as a whole, about the most general laws of nature, society and thinking, the fundamental principles that guide a person in his practice.

Structure of philosophy

Consideration as an implementation of the directions of its purpose provides a basis for highlighting special sections or elements of its structure in it.

Philosophy in its structure is divided into:

theory of knowledge;
metaphysics (ontology, philosophical anthropology, cosmology, theology, philosophy of existence);
logic (mathematics, logistics);
ethics;
philosophy of law;
aesthetics and philosophy of art;
natural philosophy;
philosophy of history and culture;
social and economic philosophy;
religious philosophy;
psychology.

The main parts of theoretical philosophy are:

ontology - the doctrine of being;
epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge;
dialectics - the doctrine of development
axiology (theory of values);
hermeneutics (the theory of understanding and interpretation of knowledge).

A special section in philosophy, the problems of which are included both in general theoretical (systematic philosophy) and in social philosophy, is the philosophy of science. Social philosophy includes social ontology, that is, the doctrine of the being and existence of society, philosophical anthropology, that is, the doctrine of man, and praxeology, that is, the theory of human activity. Social ontology, along with the study of the most general problems of the existence and development of society, explores the philosophical problems of economics, politics, law, science and religion.