The capital of the Novgorod land. Novgorod Rus: features of development. Life, religion and culture

Novgorod land is one of the main centers of formation of ancient Russia as a state. This was facilitated by the geographical position of the Novgorod lands. The modern Novgorod region is located in the European part of the Russian Federation, in its northwestern part. It borders: with the Leningrad region - in the north, with the Vologda and Tver regions - in the south and the Pskov region - in the west. The geographical position of the Novgorod land favored the rapid formation of the Novgorod Republic as an independent and independent military-political territory. The city of Novgorod was located on the water trade route, called by historians "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Trade between the feudal states of North-West Europe and Byzantium was intensively carried out along the mentioned trade route. The modern Novgorod region is located on the Priilmenskaya lowland, the Valdai Upland and the Tikhvin ridge. Rivers flow through its territory: Volkhov, Msta, Polist, Shelon and Lovat. During the Middle Ages, these rivers served as the main transport infrastructure of the Novgorod Republic. At present, the importance of the rivers of the Novgorod region for the economic activity of the region is insignificant. Of the lakes of the Novgorod region, three of the largest can be noted: Ilmen, Lake Valdai and Lake Velye.

The geographical position of the Novgorod land determines its climate as temperate continental. Precipitation on its territory falls annually up to 850 mm. The average temperature background in July is +15-18 degrees, and in January -7-10 degrees. In the period of its highest prosperity, the Novgorod Republic owned vast territories from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and from the White Sea to the Volga. This was the result of its aggressive colonial policy and ensuring its own food security. The whole point is that geographical location of the Novgorod land not conducive to the effective development of agriculture. The non-chernozem swampy soils of the Novgorod Republic limited the possibilities of cultivated agriculture, and the Novgorodians had to colonize the southwestern adjacent territories with a more favorable climate for this. Veliky Novgorod in the days of the Novgorod Republic was a completely European city both in appearance, and in the number of inhabitants, and in the way of life. The fact that there were no climatic conditions for cultural agriculture forced the Novgorodians to develop various industries and crafts on the territory of the Novgorod Republic. The manufactured products were intensively traded with neighboring states and lands, which made it possible to form a fairly rich merchant class. Trade also contributed to interstate cultural exchange and foreign policy contacts.
The special geographical position of the Novgorod land in the north-west of the ancient land gave it significant weight among the Russian feudal principalities. Novgorod controlled trade routes from North to South and from East to North-West. This made it possible for the Novgorod feudal republic to receive significant income from customs duties, develop its own trade and conduct an effective exchange of production technologies with other peoples. Aggressive neighbors in the northwest (the Swedes and the "crusaders") forced Novgorod to wage constant wars to preserve its borders. This circumstance forced an agreement with the Tatar-Mongolian Golden Horde, which allowed Novgorod to focus its efforts on repelling the invasion of the Swedes and the Livonian and Teutonic Orders in the first half of the 13th century. Historians argue that one of the factors that influenced the Golden Horde to conclude a non-aggression pact with Novgorod was the geographical location of the Novgorod lands. The Novgorod Republic, covered with impenetrable forests, and the excessive swampiness of its territory would impede the movement of mounted Tatar-Mongolian troops and convoys. Perhaps, it was precisely due to the geographical location of its lands that Novgorod remained one of the few Russian cities that were not plundered and wiped off the face of the earth during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. This allowed the Novgorodians to defeat the Swedes and the "crusaders" who were pressing from the north, thereby saving medieval Russia from the final enslavement by neighbors from the northeast. After the annexation of Novgorod to the Muscovite state at the end of the 15th century, the Novgorod Republic ceased its independent existence. The policy vector of the Russian tsars gradually changed its direction to other territories, and Veliky Novgorod turned into an ordinary provincial territorial center.

Novgorod land(or Land of Novgorod) - one of the largest territorial-state formations as part of the Old Russian state, and then the Moscow state, which existed until 1708 with a center in the city of Novgorod.

During the period of greatest development, it reached the White Sea and spread beyond the Ural Mountains in the east. Covered almost the entire modern north-west of Russia.

Administrative division

Administratively, by the end of the Middle Ages, it was divided into pyatins, which in turn were divided into halves (pyatins), volosts, uyezds (awardings), graveyards and camps, and according to the annals, this division was started in the 10th century by Princess Olga, who divided the Novgorod land into graveyards and set lessons. In The Tale of Bygone Years, a definition is given as "a great and plentiful land."

Judging from the “Tale of Bygone Years” and archaeological data, by the time Rurik arrived in 862, Novgorod was already large settlements (probably as a chain of settlements from the sources of the Volkhov and Rurik Gorodishche up to Kholopy town, opposite Krechevits), Ladoga, Izborsk and possibly Beloozero. The Scandinavians probably called this particular territory Gardariki.

The pyatin system was finally formed by the 15th century. In each pyatina there were several courts (counties), in each court (county) there were several churchyards and volosts.

Pyatina: Vodskaya, near Lake Nevo (Lake Ladoga); Obonezhskaya, to the White Sea; Bezhetskaya, to Msta; Derevskaya, to Lovat; Shelonskaya, from Lovat to Luga)

and Novgorod volosts: Zavolochye, along the Northern Dvina from Onega to Mezen, Perm - along Vychegda and up. Kama, Pechora - along the Pechora River to the Ural Range and Yugra - beyond the Ural Range.

Some territories of the region of late Novgorod colonization were not included in the five division and formed a number of volosts that were in a special position, and five cities with suburbs did not belong to any five. The position of these cities had the peculiarity that at first they were jointly owned by Novgorod: Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi (then Gorodetsk), Torzhok with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir and then Muscovites, and Rzhev, Velikiye Luki with the princes of Smolensk and then Lithuanian, when Smolensk was captured by Lithuania. Beyond the Obonezhskaya and Bezhetskaya pyatinas to the northeast there was the Zavolochye volost, or Dvina land. It was called Zavolochye, because it was behind the portage - the watershed separating the basins of the Onega and the Northern Dvina from the Volga basin. The course of the Vychegda River with its tributaries determined the position of the Perm land. Beyond the Dvina land and Perm, further to the northeast were the Pechora volost on both sides of the river of this name, and on the eastern side of the northern Ural ridge there was the volost of Yugra. On the northern shore of the White Sea was the volost Tre, or Tersky coast.

In 1348, Pskov was granted autonomy by Novgorod in terms of choosing posadniks, while Pskov recognizes the Moscow prince as its head and agrees to elect persons pleasing to the Grand Duke for the Pskov reign. Since 1399 these princes have been called Moscow governors. Vasily II seeks the right to appoint Pskov governors at his own discretion, and they take an oath not only to Pskov, but also to the Grand Duke. Under Ivan III, the Pskovians renounce the right to dismiss the princes assigned to them. Since 1510, Pskov has been the patrimony of the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vasily III.

Settlement

The settlement of the territory of the Novgorod land began in the region of the Valdai Upland from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic times, along the border of the Valdai (Ostashkovsky) glaciation, and in the north-west of the Ilmenye, in the area of ​​the future territorial center, from the Neolithic times.

At the time of Herodotus, about 25 centuries ago, the lands approximately from the Baltic to the Urals were completely or partially mastered by androphagi, neurons, melanchlens (Smolyans, Boudins, Fissagetes, Iirks, northern Scythians in the Volga-Kama region, which are often localized depending on the Issedons.

Under Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. e. these lands were controlled by the Wends, Stavans, Aorses, Alans, Borusks, royal Sarmatians and more than a dozen large and small peoples. Possibly, who continued the Roxolans, the Rosomones (guards of the ruler of Scythia and Germany), the Tkhiuds (Chud, Vasi-in-abronki, Merens, Mordens and other peoples along the Baltic-Volga route in the 4th century AD were part of the power of Germanarich. The descendants of these peoples partly entered the ethnic groups noted by medieval Russian sources.

In the initial part of The Tale of Bygone Years in the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, there is an opinion of a medieval chronicler about the more ancient settlement of peoples:

Also here are the main actions of the epic "Tale of Slovena and Rus and the city of Slovensk" and the epic about Sadko.

Archaeologically and by studying toponymy, it is assumed that there are migratory so-called Nostratic communities here, of which several thousand years ago, Indo-Europeans (Indo-European languages ​​in particular - the future Slavs and Balts) and Finno-Ugric peoples stood out in the area south of Priilmenye. This polyethnicity is also confirmed by ethnogenetics and genogeography.

It is traditionally believed that the Krivichi tribes came here in the 6th century, and in the 8th century, in the process of the Slavic settlement of the East European Plain, the tribe of the Ilmen Slovenes came. Finno-Ugric tribes lived on the same territory, leaving a memory of themselves in the names of numerous rivers and lakes, although the interpretation of the Finno-Ugric toponyms exclusively as pre-Slavic is probably erroneous and is questioned by many researchers.

The time of the Slavic settlement is dated, as a rule, according to the type of mound groups and individual mounds located in this territory. Pskov long mounds are traditionally associated with the Krivichi, and mounds in the form of a hill with Slovenes. There is also the so-called Kurgan hypothesis, based on which various assumptions are possible about the ways of settling this territory.

Archaeological studies in Staraya Ladoga and Rurik's Settlement show the presence among the inhabitants of these first large settlements, including Scandinavians, traditionally called Varangians in ancient Russian (medieval) literary sources.

Demography

Archaeologically and by studying toponymy, it is assumed that there are migratory hypothetical so-called Nostratic communities here, of which several thousand years ago, Indo-Europeans (Indo-European languages ​​in particular - the future Slavs and Balts) and Finno-Ugric peoples stood out in the district south of Priilmenye. This polyethnicity is also confirmed by ethnogenetics and genogeography.

In addition to the Slavic population, a significant part of the Novgorod land was inhabited by various Finno-Ugric tribes, who were at different levels of culture and had different relations to Novgorod. The Vodskaya Pyatina, along with the Slavs, was inhabited by Vodya and Izhora, who have long been in close connection with Novgorod. Em, who lived in southern Finland, was usually at enmity with the Novgorodians and leaned more towards the Swedes, while the neighboring Karelians usually sided with Novgorod. From time immemorial, Novgorod has come into conflict with the miracle that inhabited Livonia and Estonia; with this miracle, the Novgorodians are constantly fighting, which later turns into a struggle between the Novgorodians and the Livonian knights. Zavolochye was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, often called the Zavolotsk Chud; later, Novgorod colonists rushed to this region. The Tersky coast was inhabited by Lapps. Further in the northeast lived Permyaks and Zyryans.

The center of the Slavic settlements was the vicinity of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River, Ilmen Slovenes lived here.

Story

Ancient period (before 882)

Novgorod land was one of the centers of formation of the Russian state. It was in the Novgorod land that the Rurik dynasty began to reign, and a state formation arose, the so-called Novgorod Rus, from which it is customary to begin the history of Russian statehood.

As part of Kievan Rus (882-1136)

After 882, the center of the Russian land gradually shifted to Kyiv, but the Novgorod land retained its autonomy. In the 10th century, Ladoga was attacked by the Norwegian Jarl Eric. In 980, the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the Baptist), at the head of the Varangian squad, overthrew the Kyiv prince Yaropolk, in 1015-1019 the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise overthrew the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk the Accursed.

In 1020 and 1067 Novgorod land was attacked by Polotsk Izyaslavichs. At this time, the governor - the son of the Kyiv prince - had even greater powers. In 1088, Vsevolod Yaroslavich sent his young grandson Mstislav (son of Vladimir Monomakh) to reign in Novgorod. At this time, the institute of posadniks appeared - co-rulers of the prince, who were elected by the Novgorod community.

In the second decade of the 12th century, Vladimir Monomakh took a number of measures to strengthen the position of the central government in the Novgorod land. In 1117, without taking into account the opinion of the Novgorod community, Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was placed on the throne of Novgorod. Some boyars opposed such a decision of the prince, in connection with which they were summoned to Kyiv and thrown into prison.

After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 and the deepening tendencies of fragmentation, the Novgorod prince lost the support of the central government. In 1134 Vsevolod was expelled from the city. Returning to Novgorod, he was forced to conclude a "series" with the Novgorodians, limiting his powers. On May 28, 1136, due to the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians with the actions of Prince Vsevolod, he was imprisoned, and after that he was expelled from Novgorod.

Republican period (1136-1478)

In 1136, after the expulsion of Vsevolod Mstislavich, republican rule was established on Novgorod land.

During the Mongol invasion of Russia, the Novgorod lands were not conquered. In 1236-1240. and 1241-1252. Alexander Nevsky reigned in Novgorod, in 1328-1337. - Ivan Kalita. Until 1478, the Novgorod princely table was occupied mainly by the Suzdal and Vladimir princes, then the Grand Dukes of Moscow, rarely Lithuanian, see Novgorod princes.

The Novgorod Republic was captured and its lands annexed by Tsar Ivan III of Moscow after the Battle of Shelon (1471) and the subsequent campaign against Novgorod in 1478.

As part of the centralized Russian state (since 1478)

Having conquered Novgorod in 1478, Moscow inherited its former political relations with its neighbors. The legacy of the period of independence was the preservation of diplomatic practice, in which the northwestern neighbors of Novgorod - Sweden and Livonia - maintained diplomatic relations with Moscow through the Novgorod governors of the Grand Duke.

In territorial terms, Novgorod land in the era of the Muscovite kingdom (XVI-XVII centuries) was divided into 5 pyatins: Vodskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya and Bezhetskaya. The smallest units of administrative division at that time were churchyards, which determined the geographical location of the villages, the population and their taxable property were counted.

Reign of Basil III

On March 21, 1499, the son of Tsar Ivan III, Vasily, was declared the Grand Duke of Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502, the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir and All Russia was an autocrat, that is, he became co-ruler of Ivan III, and after the death of Ivan III on October 27, 1505, he became the sole monarch.

Reign of Ivan the Terrible

• Russo-Swedish War 1590-1595
• Oprichnina, Novgorod pogrom
• ingrianland

Time of Troubles. Swedish occupation.

In 1609, in Vyborg, the government of Vasily Shuisky concluded the Vyborg Treaty with Sweden, according to which the Korelsky district was transferred to the Swedish crown in exchange for military assistance.

In 1610, Ivan Odoevsky was appointed governor of Novgorod.

In 1610, Tsar Vasily Shuisky was overthrown and Moscow swore allegiance to Prince Vladislav. A new government was formed in Moscow, which began to take the oath to the prince and other cities of the Moscow state. I. M. Saltykov was sent to Novgorod to take the oath and to protect himself from the Swedes who appeared at that time in the north and from gangs of thieves. The Novgorodians, and probably at their head, Odoevsky, who was constantly on good terms with the Metropolitan of Novgorod Isidore, who had great influence on the Novgorodians, and, apparently, himself enjoyed respect and love among the Novgorodians, agreed not earlier to let Saltykov in and swear allegiance to the prince than they will receive a list from Moscow with an approved cross-kissing letter; but even after receiving the letter, they swore allegiance only after they took a promise from Saltykov that he would not bring the Poles with him into the city.

Soon a strong movement against the Poles arose in Moscow and throughout Russia; At the head of the militia, which set itself the task of expelling the Poles from Russia, was Prokopiy Lyapunov, who, together with some other persons, formed a provisional government, which, having taken control of the country, began to send out the governor to the cities.

In the summer of 1611, the Swedish general Jacob Delagardie approached Novgorod with his army. He entered into negotiations with the Novgorod authorities. He asked the governor whether they were enemies or friends of the Swedes, and whether they wanted to comply with the Vyborg Treaty, concluded with Sweden under Tsar Vasily Shuisky. The governors could only answer that it depended on the future king and that they had no right to answer this question.

The Lyapunov government sent governor Vasily Buturlin to Novgorod. Buturlin, having arrived in Novgorod, began to behave differently: he immediately began negotiations with Delagardie, offering the Russian crown to one of the sons of King Charles IX. Negotiations began, which dragged on, and meanwhile, Buturlin and Odoevsky had quarrels: Buturlin did not allow the cautious Odoevsky to take measures to protect the city, allowed Delagardie, under the pretext of negotiations, to cross the Volkhov and approach the suburban Kolmovsky monastery, and even allowed Novgorod trading people to supply the Swedes with various supplies.

The Swedes realized that they were presented with a very convenient opportunity to capture Novgorod, and on July 8 they launched an attack, which was repulsed only due to the fact that the Novgorodians managed to burn the suburbs surrounding Novgorod in time. However, the Novgorodians did not last long in the siege: on the night of July 16, the Swedes managed to break through to Novgorod. Resistance to them was weak, since all the military people were under the command of Buturlin, who, after a short battle, withdrew from the city, robbing the Novgorod merchants; Odoevsky and Metropolitan Isidor locked themselves in the Kremlin, but, having neither military supplies nor military men at their disposal, they had to enter into negotiations with Delagardie. An agreement was concluded, under the terms of which the Novgorodians recognized the Swedish king as their patron, and Delagardie was admitted to the Kremlin.

By the middle of 1612, the Swedes occupied the entire Novgorod land, except for Pskov and Gdov. Unsuccessful attempt to take Pskov. The Swedes stopped hostilities.

Prince Pozharsky did not have enough troops to fight simultaneously with the Poles and Swedes, so he began negotiations with the latter. In May 1612, Stepan Tatishchev, the ambassador of the "zemstvo" government, was sent from Yaroslavl to Novgorod with letters to the Metropolitan of Novgorod Isidore, the boyar Prince Ivan Odoevsky and the commander of the Swedish troops Jacob Delagardie. Metropolitan Isidor and boyar Odoevsky were asked by the government how they were doing with the Swedes? The government wrote to Delagardie that if the king of Sweden would give his brother to the state and baptize him in the Orthodox Christian faith, then they would be glad to be on the same council with the Novgorodians. Odoevsky and Delagardie replied that they would soon send their ambassadors to Yaroslavl. Returning to Yaroslavl, Tatishchev announced that there was nothing good to expect from the Swedes. Negotiations with the Swedes about the candidate Karl-Philip for the Moscow tsars became the reason for Pozharsky and Minin to convene the Zemsky Sobor. In July, the promised ambassadors arrived in Yaroslavl: Hegumen of the Vyazhitsky Monastery Gennady, Prince Fyodor Obolensky, and from all the pyatins, from the nobles and from the townspeople - one by one. On July 26, Novgorodians appeared before Pozharsky and declared that "the prince is now on the road and will soon be in Novgorod." The speech of the ambassadors ended with the proposal "to be with us in love and union under the hand of one sovereign."

Then a new embassy of Perfilius Sekerin was sent from Yaroslavl to Novgorod. He was instructed, with the assistance of the Novgorod Metropolitan Isidor, to conclude an agreement with the Swedes "so that the peasantry would have peace and quiet." It is possible that in connection with this, the question of electing a Swedish prince, recognized by Novgorod, was raised in Yaroslavl. However, the royal election in Yaroslavl did not take place.

In October 1612, Moscow was liberated and it became necessary to choose a new sovereign. From Moscow to many cities of Russia, including Novgorod, letters were sent on behalf of the liberators of Moscow - Pozharsky and Trubetskoy. At the beginning of 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held in Moscow, at which a new tsar, Mikhail Romanov, was elected.

The Swedes left Novgorod only in 1617, only a few hundred inhabitants remained in the completely devastated city. During the events of the Time of Troubles, the borders of the Novgorod land were significantly reduced due to the loss of the lands bordering with Sweden according to the Stolbovsky Peace of 1617.

As part of the Russian Empire

• Novgorod province

In 1708, the territory became part of the Ingermanland (since 1710 St. Petersburg province) and Arkhangelsk provinces, and since 1726 the Novgorod province was separated, in which there were 5 provinces: Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Belozersk and Velikolutsk.

Remarks

• The concept of "Novgorod land" sometimes, not always correctly (depending on the historical period), includes the areas of Novgorod colonization on the Northern Dvina, in Karelia and the Arctic.

• Period of political history Novgorod land, starting from the coup of 1136 and a sharp restriction on the role of the prince, until the victory of the Moscow prince Ivan III over the Novgorodians in 1478, most Soviet and modern historians are called - "Novgorod feudal republic".

During the Middle Ages, there were 15 principalities on the territory of Russia, but their number increased to 50 as a result of feudal fragmentation. However, 3 of them, the largest, played a special role. These were Galicia-Volynsk, Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod. It is possible to learn something more or less reliably about the latter only from the ninth century. The date of the official founding of Novgorod is considered to be 859, but historians note that the city itself appeared much earlier, it is simply not possible to establish the exact time.

The fact is that all the buildings at that time were completely wooden. Consequently, they easily burned and rotted, little was left of them. And the activities of people who lived on the same land in later centuries almost completely buried the hopes of archaeologists to reliably establish something about those times. In addition, many written references to the principality of Novgorod disappeared due to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. A huge number of documents simply perished in the fire.

However, from what has been established, it becomes clear that the Novgorod principality got acquainted with statehood quite early. And local historians even suggest that Rurik was here. But no confirmation has yet been found, only speculation.

The earliest records concern the sons of Svyatoslav, Oleg and Yaropolk. A struggle for power broke out between them. As a result of fierce battles, Yaropolk defeated his brother, became the Grand Duke, capturing Kyiv. He chose posadniks to govern Novgorod. Who were killed by the younger brother, Vladimir, who fled to the Varangians, from where he returned with a mercenary army, received power first in Novgorod, and then in Kyiv. And it was his son, Yaroslav the Wise, who refused to pay tribute to Kyiv. Vladimir, who was gathering a squad to deal with this problem, suddenly died. The power was seized by Svyatopolk the Accursed, who fought rather cruelly for power, not choosing methods. But in the end, Yaroslav won, largely with the support of the people, who were afraid of a more cruel prince. Now Yaroslav became the Grand Duke, and he began to send his sons to Novgorod.

Even a brief retelling of a relatively short time period relating to events from the 9th to the 11th centuries clearly shows that the Novgorod principality managed to get used to both the frequent change of princes and the constant struggle for power between them. It is noticeable that the majority sought to seize the throne, ultimately in Kyiv. Staying in Novgorod was often considered as an intermediate option. What affected a certain perception of princely power by the people: firstly, as temporary, and secondly, inextricably linked with the war, squads and campaigns.

At the same time, Novgorod was a fairly large city, where a kind of democracy gradually began to form with elements of the oligarchy. This became especially noticeable during the period of feudal fragmentation, when the prince was forced to sign a letter (agreement), on the basis of which he could legally be in the city. At the same time, his powers were severely limited. In particular, the prince could not declare war or make peace, independently trade, distribute land, grant privileges to someone. He did not even have the right to hunt in the wrong place or keep a squad in the city itself: the latter was due to the fear that power would be seized by force.

In fact, the figure of the prince was reduced to the role of a military leader, a commander who was obliged to defend the city and received certain privileges in connection with this. But his position remained often precarious. In order to gather people, except for his own squad, for example, for a military campaign, the prince could turn to the inhabitants at the people's assembly, which remained the highest authority. But he had no right to order.

Any free man could take part in the veche. The meeting was convened by the posadnik or the thousand, whom the veche appointed, having taken away this right over time from the prince. The assembly was also considered the highest judicial body. The posadnik was the highest official who, in the absence of the prince, received ambassadors and led the armed forces under the same conditions. Tysyatsky was his right hand and assistant. The exact duration of their powers was not specified, but everyone could lose their position, losing the trust of the people. The veche had the right to remove anyone whom it appointed from the corresponding position. In general, the breadth of powers is clearly demonstrated by the fact that in Novgorod even a bishop was elected at the people's assembly.

As for the Boyar Council, it, in fact, dealt with trade issues. He also served as an advisory body. He united all influential people, headed by the prince. He was engaged in the preparation of questions that should be taken out at the meeting.

Times of feudal fragmentation

The uniqueness of the Novgorod principality was fully manifested during the period of feudal fragmentation. Historically, such a division is usually assessed negatively, and it really had an extremely negative impact on the Slavs, making them vulnerable to the Tatar-Mongol yoke. But for individual lands, this had its advantages. In particular, the geographical location of the Novgorod principality gave it some protection: it turned out to be quite far away even for nomads, as a result, less than all other lands suffered from the actions of the Mongols. The Russian princes were much better at defending the western borders. And thanks to the fragmentation, Novgorodians did not get involved in the problems of their neighbors.

Also, do not forget that the Novgorod land itself was quite large. It was comparable in size to the European states of the same period. A favorable geographical position allowed her to establish trade with the Hansa and with some other neighbors. In addition to Novgorod itself, the principality included Pskov, Yuriev, Ladoga, Torzhok and other territories, including even part of the Urals. Through Novgorod it was possible to get access to the Neva and the Baltic Sea. But not only the geographical location made the Principality so unique, but a combination of various factors, political, economic and cultural. And religious ones as well.

Life, religion and culture

With regard to such a state phenomenon as the Novgorod Principality, the description will not be complete if you do not pay attention to issues of religion, culture and life. The baptism of Novgorod took place shortly after Kyiv, from where the Byzantine priest Joachim Korsunian was sent for this purpose. But, like many Slavs, the Novgorodians did not immediately abandon pagan beliefs. It got to the point that the Christian religion, not wanting to constantly face the resistance of the flock, absorbed some traditions, combining them with Christmas (fortune telling and other rituals).

As for culture, a careful study of the chronicles shows that up to the capture of the Novgorod principality in the 15th century by Ivan III, a fairly good level of writing and education was preserved here. It also affected the fact that these lands suffered less than others from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Much knowledge was passed down from parents to children and has been preserved. Which, in turn, affected the way of life. So, Novgorodians were ardent supporters of wooden housing construction, cleanliness, certain rituals associated with nature. The revealed cultural layer is so powerful that it is still being studied.

The territory of the Novgorod principality increased gradually. The Novgorod principality began with the ancient region of the settlement of the Slavs. It was located in the basin of Lake Ilmen, as well as the rivers Volkhov, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. From the north, Novgorod land was covered by the fortress-city of Ladoga, located at the mouth of the Volkhov. Over time, the territory of the Novgorod principality increased. The principality even had its own colonies.

Novgorod Principality in the XII-XIII centuries in the north owned lands along Lake Onega, the basin of Lake Ladoga and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The outpost of the Novgorod principality in the west was the city of Yuryev (Tartu), which was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. This was the Chudskaya land. The Novgorod principality expanded very quickly to the north and east (northeast). So, lands that stretched to the Urals and even beyond the Urals went to the Novgorod principality.

Novgorod itself occupied a territory that had five ends (districts). The entire territory of the Novgorod Principality was divided into five regions in accordance with the five districts of the city. These areas were also called pyatinas. So, to the north-west of Novgorod was the Vodskaya Pyatina. It spread towards the Gulf of Finland and covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe. The Shelon Pyatina spread to the southwest on both sides of the Shelon River. Between the rivers Msta and Lovat, southeast of Novgorod, there was Derevskaya Pyatina. On both sides of Lake Onega to the northeast to the White Sea, there was the Obonezh Pyatina. Beyond the Derevskaya and Obonezhskaya pyatinas, to the southeast, was the Bezhetskaya pyatina.

In addition to the indicated five pyatins, the Novgorod principality included Novgorod volosts. One of them was the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which was located in the area of ​​the Northern Dvina. Another volost of the Novgorod Principality was Perm land, which was located along the Vychegda, as well as along its tributaries. The principality of Novgorod included land on both sides of the Pechora. It was the region of Pechora. Yugra was located to the east of the Northern Urals. Within the Onega and Ladoga lakes was the land of Korela, which was also part of the Novgorod principality. The Kola Peninsula (Tersky Coast) was also part of the Novgorod Principality.

The basis of the Novgorod economy was agriculture. The land and the peasants working on it provided the main income for the landowners. These were the boyars and, of course, the Orthodox clergy. Among the large landowners were merchants.

On the lands of the Novgorod pyatins, the arable system prevailed. In the extreme northern regions, the undercut was preserved. Lands at these latitudes cannot be called fertile. Therefore, part of the bread was imported from other Russian lands, most often from the Ryazan principality and the Rostov-Suzdal land. The problem of providing bread was especially relevant in lean years, which were not uncommon here.

It was not only the earth that fed. The population was engaged in hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, salt mining in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, iron ore mining in Vodskaya Pyatina. Trade and crafts were widely developed in Novgorod. Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, shoemakers, tanners, felters, bridge workers and other artisans worked there. Novgorod carpenters were even sent to Kyiv, where they carried out very important orders.

Trade routes from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin, as well as from Western countries to Eastern Europe passed through Novgorod. Novgorod merchants in the 10th century sailed on their ships along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." At the same time, they reached the shores of Byzantium. The Novgorod state had very close trade and economic ties with the states of Europe. Among them was Gotland, a large trading center of North-Western Europe. In Novgorod there was a whole trading colony - the Gothic court. It was surrounded by a high wall, behind which there were barns and houses with foreign merchants living in them.

In the second half of the 12th century, trade relations between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) were strengthened. All measures were taken to ensure that foreign merchants feel completely safe. Another merchant colony and a new German trading yard were built. The life of the trading colonies was regulated by a special charter ("Skra").

Novgorodians supplied linen, hemp, linen, lard, wax and the like to the market. Metals, cloth, weapons and other goods went to Novgorod from abroad. Goods went through Novgorod from the countries of the West to the countries of the East and in the opposite direction. Novgorod acted as an intermediary in such trade. Goods from the East were delivered to Novgorod along the Volga, from where they were sent to Western countries.

Trade within the vast Novgorod Republic developed successfully. Novgorodians also traded with the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, where Novgorod bought primarily bread. Novgorod merchants were united in societies (like guilds). The most powerful was the trading company "Ivanovskoye hundred". Members of society had great privileges. From among its midst, the trading society again chose the elders according to the number of districts of the city. Each starosta, together with the thousandth, was in charge of all commercial affairs, as well as the merchant court in Novgorod. The head of the trade established measures of weight, measures of length, etc., supervised the observance of accepted and legalized rules for conducting trade. The dominant class in the Novgorod Republic were large landowners - boyars, clergy, merchants. Some of them owned lands that stretched for hundreds of miles. For example, the boyar family Boretsky owned lands that stretched over vast territories along the Northern Dvina and the White Sea. Merchants who owned large areas of land were called "living people". Landowners received their main income in the form of dues. The landowner's own farm was not very large. Slaves worked on it.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they constituted the urban patriciate and controlled the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The political system that developed in Novgorod was distinguished by its originality. Initially, Kyiv sent governor-princes to Novgorod, who were subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kyiv and acted in accordance with instructions from Kyiv. The prince-viceroy appointed posadniks and thousands. However, over time, the boyars and large landowners more and more evaded submission to the prince. So, in 1136, this resulted in a rebellion against Prince Vsevolod. The annals say that "the vadish of Prince Vsevolod in the episcopal court with his wife and children, with his mother-in-law and the guard guard day and night 30 a husband for a day with weapons." It ended with the fact that Prince Vsevolod was sent to Pskov. And in Novgorod, a people's assembly, the veche, was formed.

The posadnik or the tysyatsky announced the meeting of the people's assembly on the trading side in the Yaroslavl courtyard. Everyone was summoned by the ringing of the veche bell. In addition, birgochis and Podveiskys were sent to different parts of the city, who invited (clicked) the people to the veche meeting. Only men participated in the decision-making. Any free person (male) could take part in the work of the veche.

The powers of the veche were wide and weighty. The veche elected a posadnik, a thousand (previously they were appointed prince), bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried the posadniks, thousand, sotskys for crimes, concluded agreements with foreign powers. Veche invited the prince to rule. It also "showed him the way" when he did not justify his hopes.

Veche was the legislative power in the Novgorod Republic. The decisions made at the meeting had to be implemented. This was the responsibility of the executive in power. The head of the executive power was the posadnik and the thousand. The posadnik was elected at the veche. The term of his office was not determined in advance. But the veche could withdraw it at any time. The posadnik was the highest official in the republic. He controlled the activities of the prince, ensured that the activities of the Novgorod authorities were consistent with the decisions of the veche. The supreme court of the republic was in the hands of the townsman. He had the right to remove and appoint officials. The prince headed the armed forces. The posadnik went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. In fact, the posadnik headed not only the executive branch, but also the veche. He received foreign ambassadors. If the prince was absent, then the armed forces were subordinate to the posadnik. As for the thousandth, he was an assistant to the posadnik. He commanded separate detachments during the war. In peacetime, the tysyatsky was responsible for the state of trade affairs and the merchant court.

The clergy in Novgorod were headed by a bishop. Since 1165, the archbishop became the head of the Novgorod clergy. He was the largest of the Novgorod landowners. The ecclesiastical court was in charge of the archbishop. The archbishop was a kind of foreign minister - he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and other countries.

Thus, after 1136, when Prince Vsevolod was expelled, the Novgorodians elected a prince at a veche. Most often he was invited to reign. But this reign was severely limited. The prince did not even have the right to buy this or that piece of land with his own money. All his actions were observed by the posadnik and his people. The duties and rights of the invited prince were stipulated in the contract, which was concluded between the veche and the prince. This agreement was called "next". Under the treaty, the prince had no administrative power. In fact, he was supposed to act as commander-in-chief. At the same time, he personally could not declare war or make peace. The prince for his service was allocated funds for his "feeding". In practice, it looked like this - the prince was allocated an area (volost), where he collected tribute, which was used for these purposes. Most often, Novgorodians invited the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who were considered the most powerful among the Russian princes, to reign. When the princes tried to break the established order, they received a fitting rebuff. The danger to the liberties of the Novgorod Republic from the Suzdal princes passed after in 1216 the Suzdal troops suffered a complete defeat from the Novgorod detachments on the Lipitsa River. We can assume that since that time Novgorod land has become a feudal boyar republic.

In the XIV century, Pskov spun off from Novgorod. But in both cities, the veche order lasted until they were annexed to the Moscow principality. One should not think that an idyll was realized in Novgorod, when the power belongs to the people. There can be no democracy (power of the people) in principle. Now there is not a single country in the world that could say that the power in it belongs to the people. Yes, the people take part in the elections. And that is where the power of the people ends. So it was then, in Novgorod. The real power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. The cream of society created a council of gentlemen. It included former administrators (posadniks and thousand star osts of the Novgorod districts-ends), as well as current posadnik and thousand. The Novgorod archbishop headed the council of gentlemen. In his chambers, a council gathered when it was necessary to decide matters. At the meeting, ready-made decisions were made, which were developed by the council of gentlemen. Of course, there were cases when the veche did not agree with the decisions proposed by the Council of Masters. But there were not so many such cases.

Novgorod land

Novgorod the Great and its territory. The political system of Novgorod the Great, i.e. the oldest city in its land, was closely associated with the location of the city. It was located on both banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its source from Lake Ilmen. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or settlements, which were independent societies, and then merged into an urban community. Traces of this independent existence of the constituent parts of Novgorod were preserved later in the distribution of the city to the ends. Volkhov divides Novgorod into two halves: on the right - along the eastern bank of the river and on the left - along the western bank; the first one was called Trading, because it was the main city market, bargaining; the second was called Sofia since the end of the 10th century, after the adoption of Christianity by Novgorod, the cathedral church of St. Sofia. Both sides were connected by a large Volkhov bridge, located not far from the market. Adjacent to the market was a square called Yaroslav's yard, because Yaroslav's farmstead was once located here when he reigned in Novgorod during the life of his father. This square was dominated by degree, a platform from which Novgorod dignitaries addressed speeches to the people who gathered at the veche. Near the degree there was a veche tower, on which a veche bell hung, and below it was placed a veche office. Trade side to the south. Slavensky end got its name from the oldest Novgorod village, which became part of Novgorod, glorious. The city market and Yaroslav's yard were located at the Slavensky end. On the Sofia side, immediately after crossing the Volkhov bridge, there was detinets, a walled place where the cathedral church of St. Sofia. The Sofia side was divided into three ends: Nerevsky to North, Zagorodsky to the west and Goncharsky, or Lyudin, to the south, closer to the lake. The names of the ends of Goncharsky and Plotnitsky indicate the craft character of the ancient settlements from which the ends of Novgorod were formed.

Novgorod, with its five ends, was the political center of a vast territory that was drawn to it. This territory consisted of parts of two categories: from Pyatin and volosts, or lands; the combination of those and others constituted the region, or land, of St. Sofia. According to the Novgorod monuments, before the fall of Novgorod and Pyatina they were called lands, and in more ancient times - rows. The patches were as follows: in the northwest of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers, a patch extended towards the Gulf of Finland Votskaya, which got its name from the Finnish tribe that lived here Vodi or That's; on the NE to the right of Volkhov went far to the White Sea on both sides of Lake Onega Obonezhskaya; to the southeast between the rivers Mstoy and Lovat stretched five Derevskaya; to the SW between the rivers Lovatyu and Luga, on both sides of the Shelon River, was Shelonskaya pyatina; on departure behind the patches of Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya, the patch extended far to the E and SE Bezhetskaya, which got its name from the village of Bezhichi, which was once one of its administrative centers (in the present Tver province). Initially, the pyatins consisted of the most ancient and closest possessions to Novgorod. More distant and later acquired possessions were not included in the fifth division and formed a number of special volosts who had a device somewhat different from Pyatin. So, the cities of Volok-Lamsky and Torzhok with their districts did not belong to any five. Behind the five patches of Obonezhskaya and Bezhetskaya, the volost extended to the NE Zavolochye, or Dvina land. It was called Zavolochye, because it was behind the portage, behind the vast watershed separating the basins of the Onega and the Northern Dvina from the Volga basin. The course of the Vychegda River with its tributaries determined the position Perm land. Beyond the Dvina land and Perm further to the northeast were volosts Pechora along the Pechora River and on the other side of the northern Ural ridge, the volost Yugra. On the northern coast of the White Sea there was a parish Ter, or Tersky coast. These were the main volosts of Novgorod, which were not included in the fifth division. They were early acquired by Novgorod: for example, already in the 11th century. Novgorodians went to Pechora for tribute for the Dvina, and in the 13th century they collected tribute on the Tersky coast.

The attitude of Novgorod to the princes. At the beginning of our history, the Novgorod land was completely similar in structure to other regions of the Russian land. In the same way, the relations of Novgorod to the princes differed little from those in which other older cities of the regions stood. Since the first princes left it for Kiev, tribute has been imposed on Novgorod in favor of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After the death of Yaroslav, Novgorod land was attached to the Grand Duchy of Kyiv, and the Grand Duke usually sent his son or close relative there to govern, appointing a posadnik as his assistant. Until the second quarter of the XII century. in the life of the Novgorod land, no political features are imperceptible that would distinguish it from a number of other regions of the Russian land. But since the death of Vladimir Monomakh, these features have been developing more and more successfully, which later became the basis of Novgorod liberty. The successful development of this political isolation of the Novgorod land was helped partly by its geographical position, partly by its external relations. Novgorod was the political center of the region, which constituted the remote northwestern corner of what was then Russia. Such a remote position of Novgorod placed it outside the circle of Russian lands, which were the main scene of the activity of the princes and their squads. This freed Novgorod from direct pressure from the prince and his retinue and allowed the Novgorod way of life to develop more freely, on a larger scale. On the other hand, Novgorod lay close to the main river basins of our plain, to the Volga, the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, and the Volkhov connected it by water with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. Thanks to this proximity to the great trade routes of Russia, Novgorod was early drawn into versatile trade turnovers. Being on the outskirts of Russia, surrounded on several sides by hostile foreigners and, moreover, mainly engaged in foreign trade, Novgorod always needed the prince and his squad to defend its borders and trade routes. But it was precisely in the twelfth century, when the prince's tangled accounts dropped the authority of the princes, that Novgorod needed the prince and his retinue much less than it needed before and began to need it later. Then two dangerous enemies, the Livonian Order and united Lithuania, appeared on the Novgorod borders. In the XII century. there was neither one nor the other enemy: the Livonian Order was founded at the very beginning of the 13th century, and Lithuania began to unite from the end of this century. Under the influence of these favorable conditions, Novgorod's relations with the princes, and the structure of its administration, and its social system were formed.

After the death of Monomakh, Novgorodians managed to achieve important political benefits. Princely strife was accompanied by frequent changes of princes on the Novgorod table. These strife and shifts helped Novgorodians introduce two important principles into their political system, which became guarantors of their freedom: 1) selectivity of the highest administration, 2) row, i.e. treaty with princes. Frequent changes of princes in Novgorod were accompanied by changes in the personnel of the highest Novgorod administration. The prince ruled Novgorod with the assistance of assistants appointed by him or the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the posadnik and the thousand. When the prince left the city voluntarily or involuntarily, the posadnik appointed by him usually resigned his position, because the new prince usually appointed his posadnik. But in the intervals between the two reigns, the Novgorodians, remaining without a higher government, got used to electing a posadnik who corrected his position for a while and demanding that the new prince confirm him in office. Thus, by the very course of affairs, the custom of choosing a posadnik began in Novgorod. This custom begins immediately after the death of Monomakh, when, according to the chronicle, in 1126 the Novgorodians "gave posadnichestvo" to one of their fellow citizens. After the choice of the posadnik became a permanent right of the city, which the people of Novgorod greatly valued. The change in the very nature of this position is understandable, which occurred as a result of the fact that it was given not at the prince's court, but at Veche square: from the representative and guardian of the interests of the prince in front of Novgorod, the elected mayor had to turn into a representative and guardian of the interests of Novgorod before the prince. After that, another important position of the thousandth also became elective. The local bishop played an important role in the administration of Novgorod. Until the middle of the XII century. he was appointed and ordained by the Russian metropolitan with a cathedral of bishops in Kiev, therefore, under the influence of the Grand Duke. But from the second half of the 12th century, the Novgorodians themselves began to choose from the local clergy and their lord, gathering "with the whole city" at a veche and sending the chosen one to Kyiv to the metropolitan for ordination. The first such elective bishop was Abbot of one of the local monasteries Arkady, elected by the Novgorodians in 1156. Since then, the Kyiv Metropolitan has only the right to ordain a candidate sent from Novgorod. So, in the second and third quarter of the XII century. the highest Novgorod administration became elective. At the same time, the Novgorodians began to more accurately define their relationship to the princes. The strife of the princes gave Novgorod the opportunity to choose between rival princes and to impose certain obligations on his chosen one, which hampered his power. These obligations are set out in ranks, agreements with the prince, which determined the importance of the Novgorod prince in local government. Indistinct traces of these rows, held together by the kiss of the cross on the part of the prince, appear already in the first half of the 12th century. Later they are more clearly indicated in the chronicler's story. In 1218, the famous Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy, Prince of Toropetsk, who ruled it, left Novgorod. His Smolensk relative Svyatoslav Mstislavich arrived in his place. This prince demanded the replacement of the elected Novgorod posadnik Tverdislav. "For what? - asked the Novgorodians. What is his fault? “So, without guilt,” the prince replied. Then Tverdislav said, turning to the veche: "I am glad that there is no guilt on me, and you, brothers, are free both in the posadniks and in the princes." Then the veche said to the prince: “Here you are depriving your husband of his position, and yet you kissed the cross for us without fault of the husband of the position, do not deprive him of his position.” So, already at the beginning of the XIII century. the princes with the kiss of the cross sealed the well-known rights of the Novgorodians. The condition not to deprive a Novgorod dignitary of his post without guilt, i.e. without trial, is in later treaties one of the main guarantees of Novgorod liberty.

The political privileges that the Novgorodians had achieved were set out in treaty letters. The first such charters that have come down to us are not earlier than the second half of the 13th century. There are three of them: they set out the conditions under which Yaroslav of Tver ruled the Novgorod land. Two of them were written in 1265 and one - in 1270. Later treaty letters repeat only the conditions set forth in these letters of Yaroslav. Studying them, we see the foundations of the political structure of Novgorod. Novgorodians obliged the princes to kiss the cross, on which their fathers and grandfathers kissed. The main general obligation that fell on the prince was that he ruled, “kept Novgorod in the old days according to duties”, i.e. according to old customs. This means that the conditions set forth in the letters of Yaroslav were not an innovation, but a testament of antiquity. The agreements determined: 1) the judicial and administrative relations of the prince to the city, 2) the financial relations of the city to the prince, 3) the relationship of the prince to Novgorod trade. The prince was the highest judicial and government authority in Novgorod. But he performed all judicial and administrative actions not alone and not at his own discretion, but in the presence and with the consent of the elected Novgorod posadnik. For lower positions, filled not by choice, but by princely appointment, the prince elected people from Novgorod society, and not from his squad. He handed out all such positions with the consent of the posadnik. The prince could not take away a position from an elected or appointed official without a trial. Moreover, he personally performed all judicial and governmental actions in Novgorod and could not dispose of anything, living in his inheritance: “And from the Suzdal land,” we read in the contract, “Novagorod should not be ordered, nor volosts (positions) should be handed out.” In the same way, without a posadnik, the prince could not judge, he could not issue letters to anyone. So all the judicial and government activities of the prince were controlled by the representative of Novgorod. With petty suspicion, the Novgorodians determined their financial relations with the prince, his income. The prince received gift from Novgorod land, going to Novgorod, and could not take it, going from Novgorod land. Tribute was received by the prince only from Zavolochye, a conquered region that was not part of the fifth division of the Novgorod region; and the prince usually paid this tribute at the mercy of the Novgorodians. If he collected it himself, he sent two collectors to Zavolochye, who could not take the collected tribute directly to the prince's inheritance, but first brought it to Novgorod, from where it was transferred to the prince. Since the time of the Tatar invasion, the Horde was also imposed on Novgorod exit- tribute. The Tatars then instructed the collection of this exit, called black forest, i.e. general, head tax, to the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Novgorodians themselves collected black forest and handed it over to their prince, who delivered it to the Horde. In addition, the prince used well-known lands in the Novgorod land, fishing, boards, animal ruts; but he used all these lands according to precisely defined rules, at the appointed time and in conditional sizes. With the same precision, the prince's relations with Novgorod trade were determined. Trade, predominantly foreign, was the vital nerve of the city. Novgorod needed the prince not only to defend the borders, but also to ensure trade interests; he was supposed to give a free and safe way to Novgorod merchants in his principality. It was precisely determined what duties the prince should collect from each Novgorodian boat or merchant cart that was in his principality. German merchants settled early in Novgorod. In the 14th century in Novgorod there were two courts of overseas merchants: one belonged to the Hanseatic cities, the other, Gothic, to merchants from the island of Gotland. At these courtyards there were even two Catholic churches. The prince could participate in the city's trade with overseas merchants only through Novgorod intermediaries; he could not close the courts of foreign merchants, put his bailiffs to them. So the foreign trade of Novgorod was protected from arbitrariness on the part of the prince. Bound by such obligations, the prince received certain food for his military and government services to the city. Let us recall the importance of the prince, the leader of the squad, in the ancient trading cities of Russia in the 9th century: he was a hired military watchman of the city and its trade. The Novgorod prince of specific time had exactly the same meaning. Such a significance of a prince in a free city is expressed by the Pskov chronicle, which calls one Novgorod prince of the 15th century “a governor and a fed prince, about whom he had to stand and fight.” The value of the prince, as a mercenary, Novgorod tried to support by contracts until the end of his liberty. This is how Novgorod's relations with the princes were determined by treaties.

Control. Veche. Novgorod administration was built in connection with the definition of the relationship of the city to the prince. These relations, we saw, were determined by treaties. Thanks to these agreements, the prince gradually stepped out of the local society, losing organic ties with it. He and his retinue entered this society only mechanically, as a third-party temporary force. Thanks to this, the political center of gravity in Novgorod had to move from the princely court to veche square, into the environment of local society. That is why, despite the presence of the prince, Novgorod in specific centuries was actually a city republic. Further, in Novgorod we meet the same military system, which, even before the princes, had developed in other older cities of Russia. Novgorod was thousand- an armed regiment under the command of a thousand. This thousand was divided into hundreds- military parts of the city. Each hundred, with its elected sotsky, represented a special society that enjoyed a certain degree of self-government. In wartime it was a recruiting district, in peacetime it was a police district. But the hundred was not the smallest administrative part of the city: it was subdivided into streets, of which each with its own elective street The headman was also a special local world, which enjoyed self-government. On the other hand, hundreds formed into larger alliances - ends. Each city end consisted of two hundred. At the head of the end was the elected Konchansky the headman, who conducted the current affairs of the end under the supervision of the Konchan gathering or veche, which had administrative power. The union of the ends constituted the community of Veliky Novgorod. Thus, Novgorod represented a multi-stage combination of small and large local worlds, of which the latter were composed by adding the former. The combined will of all these allied worlds was expressed in the general council of the city. The veche was sometimes convened by the prince, more often by one of the chief city dignitaries, a posadnik or a thousand. It was not a permanent institution, it was convened when there was a need for it. There has never been a fixed time limit for its convening. The veche met at the ringing of the veche bell, usually in the square called Yaroslav's Court. It was not a representative institution in its composition, it did not consist of deputies: anyone who considered himself a full-fledged citizen fled to Veche Square. Veche usually consisted of citizens of one senior city; but sometimes residents of the younger cities of the earth appeared on it, however, only two, Ladoga and Pskov. The questions to be discussed by the veche were proposed to him by degrees senior dignitaries, a sedate posadnik or a thousand. These questions were legislative and constituent. The veche decreed new laws, invited the prince or expelled him, elected and judged the main city dignitaries, sorted out their disputes with the prince, resolved issues of war and peace, etc. At the meeting, by its very composition, there could be neither a correct discussion of the issue, nor a correct vote. The decision was drawn up by eye, or rather by ear, rather by the strength of the cries than by the majority of votes. When the veche was divided into parties, the verdict was worked out by force, through a fight: the side that overpowered was recognized by the majority (a peculiar form fields, the judgment of God). Sometimes the whole city was divided, and then two meetings were convened, one at the usual place, on the Trade side, the other on the Sofia side. As a rule, the strife ended with the fact that both vechas, moving against each other, converged on the Volkhov bridge and started a fight if the clergy did not manage to separate the opponents in time.

Posadnik and thousand. The executive bodies of the veche were two highest elected dignitaries who conducted the current affairs of administration and the court, - posadnik and thousand. While they held their positions, they were called power, i.e. standing on a degree, and upon leaving the post they entered the category of posadniks and thousandths old. It is rather difficult to distinguish between the departments of both dignitaries. It seems that the posadnik was a civilian governor of the city, and the thousandth one was a military and police officer. That is why the Germans in specific centuries called the posadnik burggrave, and the thousandth - duke. Both dignitaries received their powers from the council for an indefinite period: some ruled for a year, others for less, others for several years. It seems not earlier than the beginning of the 15th century. a fixed term was set for them to hold their posts. At least one French traveler, Lannoy, who visited Novgorod at the beginning of the 15th century, speaks of the posadnik and the thousandth that these dignitaries were replaced annually. Posadnik and tysyatsky ruled with the help of a whole staff of inferior agents subordinate to them.

council of gentlemen. Veche was a legislative institution. But by its nature, it could not correctly discuss the questions proposed to it. A special institution was needed that could preliminarily develop legislative questions and propose ready-made draft laws and decisions to the council. Such a preparatory and administrative institution was the Novgorod Council of Masters, Herrenrath, as the Germans called it, or gentlemen, as it was called in Pskov. The lords of the free city developed from the ancient boyar duma of the prince with the participation of the elders of the city. The chairman of this council in Novgorod was the local lord - the archbishop. The council consisted of the princely governor, of the sedate posadnik and the thousand, of the elders of Konchan and Sotsk, of the old posadniks and the thousand. All these members, except for the chairman, were called boyars.

Regional Administration. The regional administration was closely connected with the central administration. This connection was expressed in the fact that each fifth of the Novgorod land in the administration depended on the city end to which it was assigned. A similar relationship of parts of the territory to the ends of the city existed in the Pskov land. Here, the old suburbs have long been distributed between the ends of the city. In 1468, when many new suburbs had accumulated, it was decided at the council to also divide them by lot between the ends, two suburbs at each end. Pyatina, however, was not an integral administrative unit, did not have one local administrative center. It broke up into administrative districts, called in Moscow time halves, subdivided into counties; each county had its own special administrative center in a well-known suburb, so that the Konchan administration was the only link connecting the pyatina into one administrative whole. The suburb with its district was the same local self-governing world as the Novgorod ends and hundreds were. Its autonomy was expressed in the local suburban council. However, this evening was led by a posadnik, who was usually sent from the older city. The forms in which the political dependence of the suburbs on the older city was expressed are revealed in the story of how Pskov became an independent city. Until the middle of the 14th century it was a suburb of Novgorod. In 1348, under an agreement with Novgorod, he became independent from him, began to be called younger brother his. According to this agreement, the Novgorodians renounced the right to send a posadnik to Pskov and summon the Pskovites to Novgorod for civil and ecclesiastical court. This means that the main city appointed a posadnik to the suburbs and the highest court over the suburbs was concentrated in it. However, the dependence of the suburbs on Novgorod was always very weak: the suburbs sometimes refused to accept posadniks sent by the main city.

Classes of Novgorod society. In the composition of Novgorod society, it is necessary to distinguish between urban and rural classes. The population of Novgorod the Great consisted of boyars, living people, merchants and black people.

The boyars were at the head of the Novgorod society. It was composed of wealthy and influential Novgorod families, whose members were appointed by the princes who ruled Novgorod to the highest positions in local government. Occupying positions by appointment of the prince, which in other areas were given to princely boyars, the Novgorod nobility assimilated the meaning and title of boyars and retained this title even after, when they began to receive their government powers not from the prince, but from the local council.

The second class does not appear so clearly in the Novgorod monuments. living, or living, of people. It can be seen that this class stood closer to the local boyars than to the lower strata of the population. The living people were, apparently, middle-class capitalists who did not belong to the paramount government nobility. The merchant class was called merchants. They were already standing closer to the urban common people, weakly separated from the mass of urban black people. They worked with the help of the boyars' capital, or borrowed money from the boyars, or conducted their business as clerks. black people there were small artisans and workers who took work or money for work from the upper classes, boyars and living people. Such is the composition of society in the main city. We meet the same classes in the suburbs, at least the most important ones.

In the depths of rural society, as well as urban, we see serfs. This class was very numerous in the Novgorod land, but invisible in Pskov. The free peasant population in the Novgorod land consisted of two categories: from the smerds, who cultivated the state lands of Novgorod the Great, and ladles who rented land from private owners. Ladles got their name from the usual terms of land lease in ancient Russia - to cultivate the land halfway through, from half of the harvest. However, in the Novgorod land of specific time, ladles rented land from private owners and on more favorable terms, from the third or fourth sheaf. Ladles were in the Novgorod land in a more humiliated state compared to free peasants in princely Russia, they stood in a position close to serfs. This humiliation was expressed in two conditions that the Novgorodians included in the agreements with the princes: 1) not to judge a serf and a ladle without a master, and 2) to give back the Novgorod serfs and ladles who fled to the prince's inheritance. In this respect, Pskov land differed sharply from Novgorod. In the first isorniki, as they called there peasants who rented private land, usually with a loan, steep, were free cultivators who enjoyed the right to transfer from one owner to another. There, even a promissory note did not attach the isornik to the landowner. According to Russkaya Pravda, a purchase that fled from the owner without retribution became his complete slave. According to Pskovskaya Pravda, a monument that received its final form in the second half of the 15th century, an izornik who ran away from the owner without retribution was not punished with imprisonment when he returned from the run; the owner could only, with the participation of the local authorities, sell the property abandoned by the fugitive and, thus, reward himself for the unreturned loan. If the property of the fugitive was not enough for this, the master could look for additional payments on the isornik when he returned. Peasants in princely Russia of specific centuries also had similar attitudes towards their masters. This means that in the free Novgorod land, the rural population, who worked on the master's lands, was made more dependent on the landowners than anywhere else in contemporary Russia.

Another feature of Novgorod, as well as Pskov land ownership, was the class of peasant proprietors, which we do not meet in princely Russia, where all the peasants worked either on state or private master lands. This class was called zemtsamu, or natives. These were generally small landowners. Own landowners either cultivated their lands themselves, or rented them out to peasant ladles. In terms of occupation and size of the economy, the natives did not differ in any way from the peasants; but they owned their lands on the rights of full ownership. This rural class of natives was formed mainly from the townspeople. In the Novgorod and Pskov lands, the right to land ownership was not a privilege of the highest service class. Urban dwellers acquired small rural plots as property not only for arable farming, but also for the purpose of their industrial exploitation, planting flax, hops and forest boards, catching fish and animals. Such was the composition of society in the Novgorod land.

Political life of Novgorod the Great. The forms of political life in Novgorod, as in Pskov, were of a democratic nature. All free inhabitants had equal votes at the veche, and the free classes of society did not differ sharply in political rights. But trade, which served as the basis of the national economy in these free cities, gave actual dominance to those classes that possessed commercial capital - the boyars and the living people. This dominance of the commercial aristocracy under democratic forms of government was revealed both in the administration and in the political life of Novgorod, causing a lively struggle between political parties; but at different times the nature of this struggle was not the same. In this regard, the internal political life of the city can be divided into two periods.

Until the 14th century, princes often changed in Novgorod, and these princes competed with each other, belonging to hostile princely lines. Under the influence of this frequent change of princes, local political circles were formed in Novgorod, which stood for different princes and were led by the heads of the richest boyar families in the city. One can think that these circles were formed under the influence of trade relations between the boyar houses of Novgorod and one or another Russian principality. Thus, the first period in the history of the political life of Novgorod was marked by the struggle of the princely parties, more precisely, the struggle of the Novgorod trading houses that competed with each other.

From the 14th century the frequent change of princes on the Novgorod table stops, along with this, the nature of the political life of Novgorod also changes. From the death of Yaroslav I to the Tatar invasion, the Novgorod chronicle describes up to 12 troubles in the city; of these, only two were not associated with princely changes, i.e. were not caused by the struggle of local political circles for one or another prince. From the Tatar invasion to the accession of John III to the grand prince's table, more than 20 troubles are described in the local chronicle; of these, only 4 are associated with princely changes; everyone else had a completely different source. This new source of political struggle, opening up since the 14th century, was social strife - the struggle of the lower poor classes of Novgorod society with the upper rich. Since then, Novgorod society has been divided into two hostile camps, of which in one stood best, or elders, people, as the Novgorod chronicle calls the local rich nobility, and in another people younger, or smaller, i.e. black. So since the XIV century. the struggle of trading firms in Novgorod was replaced by the struggle of social classes. This new struggle also had its roots in the political and economic structure of the city. Sharp property inequality between citizens is a very common occurrence in large trading cities, especially with republican forms of organization. In Novgorod, this inequality of property, with political equality, with democratic forms of organization, was felt especially sharply, and produced an irritating effect on the lower classes. This action was intensified by the heavy economic dependence of the lower working population on the capitalist boyars. Thanks to this, an irreconcilable antagonism against the higher classes developed in the lower classes of Novgorod society. Both of these social parties were headed by wealthy boyar families, so that even young people in Novgorod acted under the leadership of certain noble boyar houses, who became at the head of the Novgorod common people in the struggle against their boyar brethren.

So the Novgorod boyars remained the leader of local political life throughout the history of the free city. Over time, all local government fell into the hands of a few noble houses. Of these, the Novgorod veche chose posadniks and thousands; their members filled the Novgorod government council, which, in fact, gave direction to local political life.

The peculiarities of the economic situation and political life of Novgorod helped to take root in its system of important shortcomings, which prepared the easy fall of his liberty in the second half of the 15th century. These were: 1) the lack of internal social unity, the strife of the classes of Novgorod society, 2) the lack of zemstvo unity and government centralization in the Novgorod region, 3) economic dependence on the lower princely Russia, i.e. central Great Russia, from where Novgorod received grain with its non-grain-bearing region, and 4) the weakness of the military structure of the trading city, the militia of which could not stand against the princely regiments.

But in all these shortcomings one must see only the conditions for the ease with which Novgorod fell, and not the reasons for its fall itself; Novgorod would have fallen even if it had been free from these shortcomings: the fate of its liberty was decided not by this or that weak side of its system, but by a more general cause, a wider and more oppressive historical process. By the middle of the fifteenth century the formation of the Great Russian people had already been completed: it lacked only political unity. This nation had to fight for its existence in the east, south and west. She was looking for a political center around which she could gather her forces for a hard struggle. Moscow became such a center. The meeting of the specific dynastic aspirations of the Moscow princes with the political needs of the entire Great Russian population decided the fate of not only Novgorod the Great, but also other independent political worlds that still remained in Russia by the middle of the 15th century. The destruction of the peculiarity of the zemstvo units was a sacrifice demanded by the common good of the whole earth, and the Moscow sovereign was the executor of this requirement. Novgorod, with a better political system, could have waged a more stubborn struggle with Moscow, but the result of this struggle would have been the same. Novgorod would inevitably fall under the blows of Moscow. Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

O. P. Fedorova Pre-Petrine Russia. Historical portraits Novgorod land and its rulers Some historians, including V. L. Yanin, M. Kh. Aleshkovsky, suggest that Novgorod arose as an association (or federation) of three tribal settlements: Slavic, Meryan