The Chinese Qin Dynasty was in power for only a decade and a half. However, it was she, and above all the first ruler of this name - Qin Shi Huang, who was destined to go down in history as a unifier of disparate Chinese kingdoms into a single centralized empire that laid the foundations for the socio-economic and administrative-political development of China for many centuries to come.
Prerequisites for the Emergence of Empire in Ancient China
During the fifth and third centuries, the ancient kingdoms in China were constantly at war with each other for supremacy. Under these conditions, their future could only be ensured by the unification of disparate entities into a single strong state, capable of protecting its own borders from external enemies and capturing slaves and new lands in neighboring territories. Due to the ongoing hostility of the Chinese principalities, such an unification could only be carried out by force under the auspices of the strongest of them, which eventually happened.
Time period from 255 to 222 years. BC entered the history of China as the period of Zhangguo - "fighting (or fighting) kingdoms." The strongest of them was the principality of Qin (the territory of modern Shanxi province). Its ruler, Ying Zheng, ascended the throne at the age of twelve, but quickly proved himself to be a strong and cruel ruler. Until he came of age, the state of Qin was ruled by Lu Bu-wei, an influential merchant and courtier. However, as soon as the ruler of Qin was twenty-one years old, he immediately took power in own hands, ruthlessly cracking down on Lü Bu-wei, who tried to overthrow him.
As a result of many years of struggle, by 221 BC, Ying Zheng managed to subjugate all the "warring kingdoms" one after another: Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi. Standing at the head of a huge power, Ying Zheng took a new title for himself and his descendants - "huangdi", which meant "emperor".
Qin Shi Huang - the first emperor of China
The Qin Empire stretched over a vast territory - from Sichuan and Guangdong to South Manchuria. Having ascended the throne under the name of Qin Shi Huang, "the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty", Ying Zheng, first of all destroyed the independent public entities in the lands under his control. The state was divided into thirty-six regions, each of which was also a military district. At the head of each region he put two rulers - civil and military.
The power of the aristocracy was severely limited. The former aristocratic titles were abolished - now the criterion of nobility was the level of wealth and service to the state. The bureaucrats of the cumbersome state apparatus on the ground were now under the control of the central administration, this was facilitated by the introduction of the institution of inspectors to monitor their activities.
Qin Shi Huang carried out a number of other reforms for which the Qin dynasty became famous: he unified the monetary system, introduced a single system of weight, capacity and length throughout the country, compiled a code of laws, and established a single writing system for the whole country.
In addition, he officially legalized the right to free trade in land, which led to an unprecedented enrichment of the nobility along with the massive ruin of free community members. A significant increase in taxation and labor conscription, as well as new extremely strict laws providing for collective responsibility, led to the widespread slave trade. The new nobility - rich artisans, large usurers and merchants - strongly supported the reforms that the Qin dynasty carried out, but the former aristocracy was extremely unhappy with them. Confucians, expressing the sentiments of the latter, began to openly criticize the activities of the government and predict the imminent death of the empire. As a result, by order of Qin Shi Huang, the Confucians were subjected to severe repression.
Construction activities in the Qin Empire
During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, a large-scale construction of a network of irrigation facilities and roads was carried out, covering the entire country. In 214-213 BC, the construction of the most grandiose fortification - the Great Wall of China - began to protect the northern borders of the empire from nomads.
In addition, in the second half of the last century, archaeologists discovered the majestic tomb of Qin Shi Huang. A whole "terracotta army" was immured in a huge crypt - six thousand life-size figures of soldiers and war horses, "guarding" the emperor's eternal rest.
Religion in the Qin Empire
The era when the Qin dynasty was in power in China was the time of full domination of religion. All strata of society believed in a supernatural order of the world. According to the views that arose long before the Qin Empire, the existence of the world was determined by the interaction of two cosmic principles - Yin and Yang. In close connection with this was the idea of the five world elements. The Emperor was declared to be a supernatural being descended from Heaven. It was believed that he was under the auspices of all the elements, and his celestial "equivalent" was the Sun.
Qin Shi Huang himself was distinguished by an extreme degree of religiosity, which amounted to fetishism and primitive superstitions. He often resorted to a variety of spells, witchcraft, spent a lot of time and effort searching, even equipping a large expedition to the Japanese islands for this purpose.
Qin dynasty: fall
In 210 BC, while on one of his inspection trips around the country, Emperor Qin Shi Huang suddenly died (historians suggest that at that time he was fifty-one years old). His son, Er Shihuangdi, ascended the throne, trying to continue his father's policy. However, he managed to stay in power for only two years. The dissatisfaction of various segments of the population with the way the emperors of the Qin dynasty ruled, escalated into a civil war. It started with a peasant uprising led by Chen Sheng (209-208 BC). Large landowners, as well as descendants of the former, old nobility, also rebelled against the central government, while also fighting against the peasant rebels.
In 207 BC, Er Shi Huangdi was killed. A certain Zhao Gao, a noble dignitary and relative of the emperor, who led a conspiracy against him, placed his own son, Zi Ying, on the throne of the state. However, the new ruler was not destined to stay on the throne. Not more than a month later, Zi Ying and his father were killed by disgruntled nobles. They were the last men to be related by blood to Qin Shi Huang. Thus, the Qin Dynasty in China fell without even two decades of existence.
Historical Significance of the Qin Dynasty
The creation of a single strong centralized empire in China played an important role in the further historical development of the country. The political unification of lands, the legitimacy of the right to private property, the division of the population according to the property principle and the implementation of measures that support the growth of trade - all this contributed to the development of social and economic relations in the country, laid the foundation for further transformations.
However, the too harsh measures that the Qin dynasty took in order to centralize the state, the destruction of the old nobility, tax oppression, raising prices and duties that ruined small and medium-sized producers, led to a powerful outbreak of uprisings that put an end to its rule.
In the middle of the XVII century. Chinese society experienced severe shocks associated with the peasant war of 1628-1645. and a long nationwide struggle against the Manchu conquerors. The peasant war was the result of those shifts in the economy that were clearly marked in the last century of the reign of the Ming dynasty. During this period, the processes of concentration of land in the hands of the feudal lords, the dispossession of land from the peasants, their transformation into sharecroppers, whose standard of living was continuously lowered due to the enslaving conditions of rent, the growth of taxes and duties, and the increasing dependence of the peasants on usurious capital, were extremely accelerated.
As for cities, although they economic importance as centers of trade, crafts and manufactories has grown significantly, but the Minsk government and local feudal lords did not provide the slightest assistance to this development. On the contrary, they in every possible way hampered the activities of merchants and entrepreneurs - owners of manufactories and cruelly oppressed artisans and the lower strata of the urban population. This explains the unprecedentedly wide participation of townspeople in the peasant war of the 17th century, which constitutes it. distinguishing feature compared to the peasant movements of past centuries.
Peasant War 1628-1645 shook the foundations of feudalism, but the Chinese feudal lords, supported by the Manchu conquerors, managed to defeat the peasants, restore and strengthen feudal relations. The victory was not easy for the Chinese and Manchu feudal lords. The Chinese people offered them stubborn and heroic resistance.
The Manchu conquerors captured Beijing in 1644 and proclaimed the infant Manchu prince Shihzu (Nurhatsi's grandson), who ruled under the name of Shunzhi, as emperor of China, with his uncle Dorgun as regent. So a new dynasty came to power in China, calling itself Qing. After the conquest of the northern provinces, the Qing troops were sent to conquer the central and southern regions, where a long bloody war of the masses against their own and foreign oppressors flared up with renewed vigor.
War in Central in South China
In 1645-1647. hostilities unfolded in the Yangtze Valley and in southern China, in areas that were far ahead of the North in their economic development. Cities were especially numerous and rich here. It was in these areas that manufactories appeared, hired labor was widely used, and commodity relations reached a significant development in the countryside. It was here that a broad anti-Manchu front was formed, in the creation of which the cities played a large role. But this front was devoid of unity and organization. The feudal lords imposed on his fighters the slogan of the restoration of the Ming dynasty and sought to soften the anti-feudal orientation of the movement.
The feudal lords of Central and South China, many of whom had gathered in the second capital of the empire, Nanjing, proclaimed one of the Ming princes emperor. The new emperor was extremely unpopular. The situation became even more complicated when other contenders for the imperial throne appeared. As a result, warring factions emerged. At the head of the troops were placed Chinese generals, who were widely known as the cruel suppressors of the peasant war. The new Minsk government in Nanjing protected the old order and was not going to make any concessions to the people. It saw its first task in the final suppression of peasant unrest. Speaking out against the Manchu conquerors, the Ming princes and patriotic representatives of the ruling class, including former supporters of the Donglin political group, tried to keep the masses away from this struggle, without providing them with either organizational or material support.
The Manchu Eight-Banner troops and the Chinese detachments in the service of the Manchus were divided into three parts: one, led by Wu San-gui, went to the South-West to pursue the rebels, others were sent to the East to conquer Shandong, large forces were also concentrated in the metropolitan area, in Beijing.
In 1645, the united forces of the Manchu troops, approaching from Henan and Shandong, besieged and took the strong Guide fortress, and then moved to the Huai River. The area of the Great Canal was defended by the small army of the Minsk commander Shi Ke-fa, which was unable to hold back the avalanche of enemy hordes. Shi Ke-fa, forced to retreat, took refuge behind the walls of Yangzhou. The entire population of this large trade and craft city took part in its defense.
When the Qing soldiers broke into the city, fighting continued in the streets. The Manchus, embittered by the stubborn resistance of the besieged, staged a cruel massacre in the city, which lasted ten days. The victors robbed and killed the civilian population: the streets and yards were littered with mountains of corpses. The city was turned into ruins The heroic defense of Yangzhou is covered with legends. The massacre of the victors with the townspeople became the subject of widely known in China notes of the eyewitness of the events Wang Xiu-chu "Ten Days in Yangzhou".
After the fall of Yangzhou, the Qing troops moved further south to the Yangtze River. At night, by torchlight, they crossed the Yangtze and rushed to Nanjing.
Nanjing at that time was not only the largest center of trade, where water and land roads crossed, but also an important handicraft center, famous for the skillful products of its craftsmen and manufactories. In terms of population, Nanjing was one of the largest cities in the world. There were weapons in Pankin, there were also soldiers, but the feudal lords did not want to defend the city. The new emperor was not popular among the townspeople and feared them no less than the Manchus. At the news of the approach of the enemy, he fled with his court. The townspeople vainly demanded the organization of defense. Most of the feudal lords and wealthy merchants went outside the city gates and met the Manchus on their knees. They preferred to submit to the Manchus, but not to act together with the people. May 25, 1645 Nanjing surrendered to the invaders without resistance. This did not prevent the Manchus from committing robberies and murders here as well. Following Nanjing, the large and rich city of Hangzhou fell. Great feudal lords and Minsk princes treacherously disrupted the heroic struggle of the people.
In the region along the middle reaches of the Yangtze and in Sichuan, the Manchus met with prolonged and stubborn resistance. The defense forces here consisted of rebels - peasants and soldiers. These troops were led by the former rebel leaders and some Minsk commanders who entered into an agreement with them.
Insurgents from the armies of Li Tzu-cheng and other detachments united in South Hubei with units of the former government troops, local formations, detachments of militiamen who had come from the southern provinces, and warriors of the Man tribes.
Under the banner of Li Guo, Li Tzu-cheng's comrade-in-arms, a 200,000-strong army gathered here, which, relying on the support of the local population, guarded the Yangtze coast for a long distance. This army, known as the "Thirteen Divisions", during the years 1646-1647. successfully defended the approaches to Hunan.
In Sichuan, where the Manchus tried to invade in 1646, they also met with a rebuff. The power in this province was held by the rebels led by Li Tzu-cheng's comrade-in-arms Zhang Hsien-chung. At first, the Manchu attempts to strike at the rebel troops from Shaanxi failed, but they soon managed to break into the territory of Sichuan. Zhang Hsien-zhong died, and his army was pushed back by superior enemy forces to the south. After that, detachments of Sichuan rebels entered Guizhou and Yunnan, where they created their own state.
Defense of the Southeastern and Southern Provinces
The Manchu conquerors and their allies among the Chinese feudal lords had to overcome the stubborn resistance of the Chinese people also in the southeastern and southern provinces. The driving force and organizers of the resistance here were mainly the townspeople. The broad peasant masses also took part in the movement. The liberation struggle of the Chinese people was not only anti-Manchu, but also anti-feudal.
The feudal lords of southeastern China tried to lead and subdue this patriotic movement, trying in every possible way at the same time to limit its scope and scope, preventing the mass influx of peasants into the ranks of the troops. Therefore, the composition of the military detachments was very heterogeneous, and the detachments themselves often did not enjoy the support of the local population. No one called on the peasants to come out against the conquerors, and in some areas they remained, as it were, aloof from the war, actively joining the struggle only when the conquest had already become a fait accompli.
But while the conquerors continued their offensive against the south of China, an anti-Manchu popular movement flared up in their rear. In many villages, self-defense detachments were created, which guarded their villages day and night. Detachments of the peasant militia were not limited to the defense of their native places. They took part in long campaigns and battles with the Manchus, they also played a prominent role in the defense of cities.
One of the most active forces in the anti-Manchu movement was the urban population. The cities of China were the first to experience the burden of the new yoke and the intensified feudal reaction, while it was they who concentrated the new, most advanced forms of economy and were centers of culture. It is not surprising that the cities offered fierce resistance to the conquerors even when they had neither experienced military leaders nor professional soldiers. However, the struggle of the townspeople was hampered by the fact that local authorities often turned out to be open or secret supporters of the Manchus and either interfered with the defense of the city or immediately surrendered it to the enemy.
The Manchu dynasty subsequently made great efforts to ensure that the Chinese people forgot about their liberation anti-Manchu struggle of the 17th century. But, despite these efforts, literary and historical works have survived that tell about the heroic defense of many cities from hordes of conquerors. One of these works says that in Jiangying, the townspeople, outraged by the violence and arbitrariness of the Manchu authorities, overthrew them and organized their own administration. When the news of the uprising in Jiangying spread to neighboring villages, detachments of peasant self-defense came to the aid of the rebels. Jiangyin held out for about three months. When the Manchus broke into the city, they committed a massacre and robbery that lasted several days. Contemporaries of these events believed that up to 100 thousand people died in Jiangying, and about 75 thousand more in the surrounding villages. The city of Jiading also fought against the invaders for more than two months.
The conquerors met stubborn resistance throughout the vast territory - from Yangzhou, on the Grand Canal, to the southern outskirts of the country. Wealthy Chinese merchants of the southeastern coastal regions - owners of merchant ships, manufacturing enterprises and vast estates - also took part in the anti-Manchu liberation struggle. The organization of these large merchants placed at the disposal of the anti-Manchu camp about 3,000 well-equipped ships. The elected foreman of the merchant association, Cheng Chih-long, whom the Ming government had previously persecuted as a sea robber, and later pardoned him for his obedience and even rewarded him with a high rank, began to play a prominent role in organizing the anti-Manchu struggle.
At the beginning of 1646, the people's militia and the fleet under the command of Zheng Chih-long inflicted a severe defeat on the Manchus in Zhejiang and drove them back across the Jiantang River. An immediate threat arose for the Manchu authorities in Nanjing, but the militias failed to use their success and did not continue the offensive. At the head of one of the detachments of the people's militia at that time was the famous scientist and artist Huang Dao-zhou. His army, which at first consisted of a small group of volunteers and students, quickly increased the number of its fighters and was able to inflict several strong blows on the Manchus. But, despite the successes achieved, Huang Tao-chou did not receive support from either the Ming emperors or even from Zheng Chih-long, and at the end of 1646 he suffered a cruel defeat.
For eight months, the Manchus gathered troops and brought up artillery, after which they invaded Zhejiang a second time. Since Zheng Chih-long's fleet prevented them from forcing the river, they went upstream, crossed at the headwaters of the Jiantang, approached the city of Shaoxing, and took it after a six-day siege. War broke out throughout the province; the cannons of the Manchus smashed the groans of the besieged cities. Having conquered Zhejiang, the united army of the Manchus and Chinese traitors moved in the autumn of 1646 through the mountain passes to the province of Fujian. The prince of Minsk, proclaimed emperor here, fled, and the feudal lords and officials submitted to the conquerors without resistance. Cheng Chih-long started secret negotiations with the Manchu authorities. The Manchus lured him to their place as supposedly an honored guest, treacherously arrested him and sent him to Beijing. He died in a distant exile.
The conquerors met a serious rebuff in Jiangxi. Parts of the insurgents from the troops of Li Tzu-cheng retreated from the Yangtze. Joining with the local militia, they defended Ganzhou for two months. When the Manchus took this city, they slaughtered up to 100 thousand inhabitants, took about 10 thousand women into slavery, and burned the city.
Suffering huge losses, overcoming the stubborn resistance of the Chinese people, the conquerors penetrated farther south and entered Guangdong. In this province, two pretenders to the Ming imperial throne waged an internecine war; this made it easier for the Manchus to succeed. In January 1647 Canton fell; then the conquerors entered the province of Guangxi and in April approached Guilin. The defense of this city was led by the scientist and writer Qu Shih-si, a high-ranking official who had been associated with the Donglin group in the past. He entered the fight against the Manchus under the flag of one of the offspring of the Minsk House, proclaimed emperor in the South. Qu Shi-si, who converted to Christianity, used his connections with the Europeans to buy cannons from them. As a result of the measures taken, the defense of the city was so strengthened that the Manchus had to lift the siege of Guilin.
A new upsurge in the liberation struggle in the late 1940s and early 1950s
Continuing the war in the South, the Manchus took steps to consolidate their power in the previously conquered areas. The Qing government carried out extensive confiscation of lands, which were transferred to new owners or declared state-owned. These confiscations offended the interests of many Chinese feudal lords. At the same time, measures were taken to restore tax apparatus and strengthening the entire system of feudal exploitation of peasants and artisans, undermined during the years of the peasant war. Thus, as soon as the position of the conquerors was consolidated, they revealed their intention to drive the Chinese peasant back under the old feudal yoke. The policy of the Qing government caused in 1648-1652. in the conquered territory a number of urban and peasant uprisings. The participation of military garrisons, experienced commanders from the Chinese troops disbanded by the Manchus, the support of the wealthy merchants, and in individual cases- and some Chinese feudal lords made these uprisings very dangerous for the Manchu rule.
Many districts and provinces began to be liberated from the power of the Manchus; major cities declared themselves independent. In 1648, an uprising broke out in Guangdong, the provincial authorities in Canton joined the movement and refused to submit to the Qing court. In the same year, an anti-Manchu uprising engulfed Jiangxi. A significant role in this uprising was played by Wang Te-ren, one of the former rebel leaders and associates of Li Tzu-cheng. Taoist monks were also active here.
The uprising spread to Zhejiang, where the rebels tried to capture the provincial capital, Hangzhou. In Fujian, an uprising led by a former military man disguised as a Buddhist monk has triumphed throughout the territory. Armed ships of the Chinese merchant fleet blockaded the southeast coast. The success of these uprisings awakened new energy in the Chinese armed forces operating in the provinces of Guangxi, Hunan, Guizhou and Yunnan. One of Chang Hsien-chung's followers, Li Ding-kuo, liberated from the Manchus a significant territory in Hunan, Guizhou, Chiangxi and Guangxi.
In 1651-1652. rose against the Manchus of the provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu, where the Chinese and representatives of other nationalities fought shoulder to shoulder. The Manchus were ousted from many cities in these provinces. The Muslim population of Gansu joined the uprising. The rebels took Lanzhou, destroying the representatives of the Qing sweetness. Shensi rebels besieged the city of Xi'an, where the Manchu garrison was locked up. However, Wu San-kui, who approached with large forces, forced them to lift the blockade of Xi'an. Despite this, the Qing government was forced to declare an amnesty for the participants in this uprising: it probably did not have enough military strength to put out the flames of uprisings that flared up in different places.
Especially dangerous for the Manchus was a major uprising that broke out in 1652 in the province of Shanxi, next to the capital province, especially since the rebels received a promise of support from one of the influential Mongol princes. The Manchu army sent to Shanxi from the capital was defeated. After that, the regent Dorgun took drastic measures. He managed to tear the Mongols away from the alliance with the rebels and then starve out the Shanxi.
The popular struggle against the invaders that unfolded throughout the country prompted many Chinese generals who had previously fought on the side of the Manchus to again go over to the anti-Manchu camp. As a result, by 1652, seven provinces of China, mainly in the south of the country, were, albeit briefly, cleared of the Manchus. However, with the help of concessions and promises, the Qing government again attracted part of the Chinese feudal lords to its side. The confiscation of the estates of Chinese feudal lords was stopped. In addition, the Qing managed to negotiate with the Mongol khans and strengthen their troops with the Mongol cavalry, and acquire cannons from the Europeans and enlist the support of their fleet.
After a long and bloody struggle, the Manchus once again conquered the provinces of Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangxi. The city of Nanchang stubbornly defended itself, the population after its fall was completely exterminated. The siege of Canton lasted eight months. The Manchus entered it thanks to treason and after that staged a terrible massacre in the city. The same fate befell the city of Guilin.
The Manchu conquerors were helped by the fact that the centers of resistance were distant from each other and there was usually no connection between them, as a result of which the uprisings rose at different times. In addition, the Manchus managed to win over to their side most of the Chinese feudal lords, frightened by the scope of the popular movement. Armed force and merciless terror, on the one hand, promises of concessions, on the other, they suppressed the movement in one place, after which they transferred troops to another. Part of the military operations of the Qing were entrusted to Chinese military leaders, generously rewarding them for their diligent service.
Fight on the coast. The final conquest of China by the Manchus
In the 1950s, the leading role in the anti-Manchu war began to be played by the population of the southeastern coast and islands, led by Zheng Cheng-gun, son of Zheng Chi-long. After the capture of his father, Zheng Cheng-gun went to sea and began to recruit volunteers for the struggle on the islands. Often attacking the coast, he caused considerable anxiety to the Manchus.
In 1652, after Zheng Cheng-gun had succeeded in equipping a strong fleet with the help of Chinese merchants who lived in the southeastern provinces and islands, he moved on to more active operations. On the mainland, he received support from detachments still fighting in the rear of the Manchus. This gave him the opportunity to liberate the city of Amoy and most of Fujian.
After the occupation of Chongmingdao Island, Zheng Cheng-gun's fleet began to dominate the Yangtze and the Grand Canal. The territory of the Manchu empire was in danger of being cut into two parts. Zheng Cheng-gun tried to carry out this bold plan. In 1654, 800 ships of his fleet sailed up the Yangtze and, landing cavalry and infantry, blocked Nanjing. But the assault was prevented by the threat of the Manchu commander to completely exterminate the entire Chinese population of the city. Having inflicted great damage on the enemy, the Chinese fleet again went to sea. In 1659, the attempt to capture Pankina was repeated. This time, the Manchus could oppose the naval forces of Zheng Cheng-gun with their own fleet. Zheng utterly defeated the Manchus and sank all their ships. However, this time he also had to abandon his intention to take Nanking, since the Manchus erected powerful fortifications here.
The main base of the liberation war was the coast and the island of Taiwan, where the Chinese inflicted a severe defeat on the Dutch, who captured Taiwan back in 1622. In February 1662, the Dutch governor was forced to sign a capitulation and leave the island. Zheng Cheng-gun transferred all his troops to Taiwan, with the exception of the garrisons left in Amoy and Kinming. Here, the fighters for the independence of China created their own independent Chinese state and carried out reforms aimed at improving agriculture, crafts and trade. Fighters of the anti-Manchu movement arrived in Taiwan from the continent. The new state threatened Manchu rule in China. Despite the war with the Dutch over Taiwan, Zheng Cheng-gun maintained trade relations with foreigners. A lively trade exchange began between the ports of Taiwan, the islands and the continent.
By that time, the Qings had begun to restore their power in the south of the country, but they were afraid of the rebellious provinces and therefore preferred to transfer them to the possession of the most prominent Chinese traitor commanders - formally as the governors of the emperor. Thus, Wu San-gui received Yunnan and part of Guizhou, the conqueror of Guilin Shang Ke-si - Guangdong, Weng Ching-chung - Fujian.
Wu San-gui set about conquering the provinces granted to him. His army invaded Guizhou and Yunnan and fought for a long time against the former associates of Chang Hsien-chung and other rebel detachments.
The military successes of Zheng Cheng-gun in the coastal regions of the country caused a new uprising against the Manchus in the southwest. The last of the Minsk princes returned from Burma, where he had previously fled, and became the head of the local troops. However, the rebels could not resist the superior forces of the enemy. Wu San-gui once again suppressed the anti-Manchu resistance in Yunnan, took in 1662 as a player and executed the last ruler from the Ming dynasty.
In 1662, Zheng Cheng-gun, the ruler of Taiwan, suddenly died and his son Zheng Ching became the head of the state he founded. The Manchus took into account the danger that the existence of an independent Chinese state in the southeast represented for them, and prepared for a decisive struggle. The Qing government ordered the destruction of settlements in the coastal strip between Shandong and Guangdong, the introduction of strong garrisons into port cities and the transfer of significant military forces here. The Dutch provided significant assistance. The combined Dutch and Manchurian fleet acted against the successors of Zheng Cheng-gun. Qing troops occupied Amoy and other points. But they managed to take over the island of Taiwan only in 1683, after more than 20 years of fierce war.
While the war was going on at sea, great events were also taking place on land.
Wu San-gui, having received control of Yunnan and Guizhou, gained great influence in the south of China. When the Qing court decided to limit the power of its largest Chinese vassals, Wu San-gui, in 1673, in agreement with the governors of Guangdong and Fujian, opposed the power of the Qings. At the same time, an anti-Manchu conspiracy was being prepared in Peking itself. It was attended by Chinese feudal lords who had previously united with the Manchus, including Wu San-gui's son, who was an honorary hostage at the Qing court. The captured Chinese, who had been enslaved by the Manchus, were also drawn into the conspiracy. The murder of the Manchu emperor and his most prominent nobles was to be carried out with the help of these Chinese slaves who served at the court. While Wu San-kui and the other two princes raised their troops in the south against the Manchus, the conspiracy in Peking was discovered and its participants were executed. But the fight against the Manchus in the southern provinces - in Hunan and Sichuan dragged on for a long time. The Qing suppressed this uprising only in 1681.
The conquest of China by the Manchus, carried out in many years of bloody struggle, led to the destruction of the country's productive forces, the extermination of the population of entire regions, and the destruction of many cities and villages. The Chinese people, weakened by the reprisals of the ruling class against the participants in the peasant war, the betrayal of the feudal lords, corruption and the internecine struggle of the princes of the Ming dynasty, could not give a proper rebuff to the conquerors. The trade and craft strata, including the wealthy merchants of the largest eastern coastal cities, although they took an active part in resisting the Manchus, were not sufficiently united and organized on a national scale to lead the struggle of the masses against the traitorous feudal lords and alien conquerors. The Chinese people for a long time remained under the rule of the Manchu conquerors, who played a negative role in the history of this great country.
2. The economic situation of China at the end of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Agricultural system
The conquest of China by the Manchus led to the strengthening of the feudal system, shaken by the great peasant war.
However, the triumph of reaction in the Qing empire was not a simple restoration of old social relations. Restoring the old order, the Qing sought at first to reconcile the propertied sections of the Chinese population with their dominion. They set new tax rates that were 30-50% lower than the tax rates of the Ming period. To encourage the cultivation of new and deserted lands during the wars, the Manchu government promised to assign these lands to the actual owners, who began to cultivate them and recognized the new Manchu power.
The Manchu conquerors left a significant part of the land in the hands of the Chinese feudal lords. However, already in the first years of their rule, they seized and declared their property large tracts of the best land, especially in northern China.
Forms of land ownership and land use in China under the Qing did not differ much from the previous ones. As before, a prominent place was occupied by state estates, possessions of the imperial family. These possessions included the territory of Manchuria (Northeast China), which became the domain of the Qing dynasty. This rich land, the southern part of which had been the indigenous territory of China since ancient times, has now become forbidden for the Chinese: their unauthorized resettlement there was strictly prohibited.
Yard. Fragment of the scroll "History of one career". Painting on silk. 1669
The best lands were also assigned to the eight-banner army and garrisons located in various cities of the country. The Manchurian soldiers, as well as the Chinese who fought on the side of the Qing, were first cut into 250 mu and more, but later each soldier began to receive a plot of 36 mu. These lands were considered the hereditary possessions of military settlers: they could be mortgaged, but not sold; their owner was considered a banner, a military unit. As for other categories of state lands, they were not subject to alienation at all.
Lands belonging to churches and schools were also considered state property; forests and mountains, reed thickets, pastures, etc. Part of the state lands in the outlying regions of the empire was transferred to the possession of large landowners.
The military settlement lands were located mainly along the borders and in the conquered territories in the West; they were processed mainly by peasant soldiers, who were essentially state serfs.
A significant share of the country's land fund was the landed property of private individuals. Such lands belonged to the feudal nobility, middle and small feudal lords, merchants, usurers, and partly peasants. They could be freely disposed of, sold and mortgaged.
After the final approval of the power of the Qing dynasty, private feudal ownership of land received, as it were, tacit recognition. The Manchu emperors refused to interfere in the rights of property owners, did not attempt to restrict the purchase and sale of land or regulate their concentration in the hands of large feudal lords. The size of private estates fluctuated sharply: some numbered hundreds and thousands of mu, others were small plots. The sources mention the rich, who owned almost a million mu of arable land.
During the peasant war of the XVII century. and anti-Manchu uprisings, large tracts of land temporarily passed into the hands of direct producers, which led to a well-known rise in agriculture, which lasted several decades. However, with the assertion of the power of the Qing, the situation of the peasants began to deteriorate rapidly. Feeling themselves the masters of the country, the conquerors strengthened the feudal land ownership, gradually restored the old taxes and duties. The state and the feudal lords, exploiting the peasants, left them such a small share of the product they produced that it could hardly ensure simple reproduction.
After the "pacification" of the country, the authorities began to take into account the land and the population, meaning to re-attach the peasants to the land. Imperial decrees demanded that all peasants who had not yet been attached to the tax levy be attributed to any possession. By a decree of 1650, volost administrators were charged with the obligation to "plant" people on the ground at the place of their registration, regardless of what locality they come from.
In the village, the administrative-police division into "tens", "hundreds" and "thousands" of households was restored; they were headed by elders and volost administrations. Ten households made up a community whose members were bound by mutual responsibility.
The attachment of peasants to their habitat made it difficult to develop hired labor and the possibility of retreating to the crafts.
The peasants were powerless. They were dominated by the feudal state with its ramified administrative apparatus, and the not completely obsolete tribal organization (the power of the eldest in the family), and the arbitrariness of the feudal lord or his managers. The position of women was especially difficult.
The main taxes that were imposed on the peasants consisted of poll and land taxes, as well as the so-called "miscellaneous" payments and duties. Poll and land taxes, later combined together, were calculated in silver, but were levied partly in money, partly in grain and household products, which gave officials ample opportunity for abuse. Tax rates increased under all sorts of pretexts. Various labor duties were also practiced.
In addition to direct taxation, the burden of indirect taxes fell on the peasants, of which the salt tax was the most burdensome. Then there were taxes on tea, on vodka, on various property transactions, on inheritance, etc.
The peasants, who rented land from the feudal lords and were actually enslaved, were predominantly sharecroppers who gave half, and sometimes even more, of the crop to the owner of the land. In addition, they had to make gifts to the feudal lord, help him in his household, carry out his instructions, give their daughters to his harem. There were also such peasants who existed only by selling their labor power.
An important role in the countryside was played by usurious capital, closely connected with the entire system of feudal exploitation. The usurer was, as it were, an integral part of village life, his power grew simultaneously with the growing poverty of the peasant. Sticking to the peasant economy, the usurer, usually the same feudal lord and official, kept the peasant on the verge of a half-starved existence.
The consequence of the increase in feudal exploitation of the peasantry was the redistribution of landed property and holdings. The Manchu nobility, high-ranking officials, wealthy landowners and usurers expanded their possessions without any interference from the authorities. The history of Chinese society under the Qing is filled with cruel and sometimes bloody struggles caused by the seizure of land from the peasants and the ruin of many small and medium-sized feudal lords. Such landowners, as well as peasants and soldiers, endowed by the Manchu authorities with plots during the war to conquer China, by the end of the 18th century. almost completely lost their land. In one of the reports to the emperor there is a mention that by the beginning of the 50s of the XVIII century. five or six tenths of the cultivated land in the country passed to large landowners. With this redistribution of land ownership, not only private, but also state land ownership suffered. Although state lands were not subject to alienation and their sale was considered illegal, this did not prevent the conclusion of transactions for such lands. In China, various types of land sales were known: sale forever and for a period, sale of the right to lease, etc. Land holdings assigned to units of the banner troops attracted Special attention Manchu authorities. The owners of these lands mortgaged and remortgaged their plots to usurers and in the end were unable to redeem them. The Qing authorities could not allow the banner lands to pass into private hands, so they issued special decrees to annul the mortgages and return these banner lands.
Large feudal landowners, as a rule, adapted to the power of the conquerors, successfully expanded their economy on the basis of the development of commodity-money relations. Some of them forced the peasants to grow cotton and tobacco, which brought them additional income, others set aside large areas for orchards, vegetable gardens and flower beds, especially near cities. Often large landowners were also engaged in usury, trade, and owned craft workshops.
The wealth of the feudal lords was opposed by peasant poverty. All more peasants turned into sharecroppers, temporary holders, or completely lost land. The country was filled with masses of pauperized peasantry. People worked instead of cattle - as a draft force, for many of them there was not even a place on land, and they were forced to live on the water - in junks and on rafts. By the middle of the XVIII century. in most provinces, food prices have increased several times. Famine raged in the countryside, the cities were overflowing with beggars.
In the second half of the XVIII century. the pauperization of the peasantry took on even broader dimensions. Millions of peasants died from periodic hunger strikes.
Position of cities
During the Manchurian invasion, cities were especially affected: some turned into ruins, others were depopulated by plunder. True, they revived relatively quickly, but not only as centers of crafts and trade; they became strongholds of Manchu domination. The cities housed strong garrisons and police; Numerous bureaucrats lived here.
The new government took care of strengthening the fiscal and police functions not only of the old trade and craft associations (khan), but also of fellow countrymen organizations. She widely used them to register the artisan and merchant population, to tax and collect duties. Having their charters, elected foremen, money funds, their badges and banners, festivities and patrons, these organizations were, however, placed under the vigilant supervision of the authorities, which penetrated into all areas of urban life, fettered the initiative, limited the possibilities of private enterprise. The life and property of the trade and craft population were not at all secured from the arbitrariness of the city authorities.
Among the merchants and usurers there were big rich people; economically strong layer were the owners of workshops and manufactories, the heads of handicraft organizations. But most of the city's population consisted of the poor - small artisans, itinerant merchants, servants, workers and beggars. All of them were completely powerless. A special stratum of the urban population consisted of hired skilled workers. The description of textile production in the city of Suzhou says: “All craftsmen have a specialty. They have a permanent owner, they pay by the day. In special cases, they take masters who do not have a master, calling them invited.
In the second half of the XVII century. certain types of handicrafts and manufactories, connected mainly with the foreign market, revived. Counting on the help of Western European states in their struggle against the Chinese people, the Qing did not prevent foreign merchants from trading in China for a long time. At the end of the 17th and especially at the beginning of the 18th century. in Central and Eastern China, the porcelain enterprises of Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, Dehua in Fujian, and Longquan in Zhejiang worked hard. Chinese craftsmen made and painted porcelain, skillfully adapting to the tastes and demands of overseas buyers. Another industry that revived due to the export to the foreign market was the manufacture of silk fabrics.
Small-scale commodity production and manufactories, which worked for the domestic market, were in a state of decline for a long time, but little by little they began to revive. The captious supervision of the authorities and various state monopolies remained a serious brake on their development. The Manchus restored long-standing monopolies on salt and metals, outsourcing the development and trade of these products. Initially, the development of ores was completely prohibited, but in the 70s of the XVII century. they lifted the ban. Officials controlled the extraction of ore, taking about 3/5 to the treasury. A tax was paid for each machine, it was forbidden to keep machines more than the prescribed number. In addition, duties were established on goods transported through customs gates inside the country and in seaports, as well as special taxes on trade transactions.
Even having established their dominance in the country, the Manchus feared an increase in the activity of the townspeople. They distrusted the initiative of merchants and entrepreneurs, limited and controlled internal trade, established outposts, even destroyed some harbors. Thus, the artificial harbor of Nanjing, which previously could accommodate the entire merchant fleet of China, was seriously damaged. Fearing that merchant ships would again not become an instrument of struggle for Chinese patriots, the Qing banned under pain of death the construction of large multi-deck sea ships, which was one of the reasons for the significant reduction in China's trade with other countries. The Qing court also tried to limit China's overland communications with foreign countries; Chinese merchants, for example, were strictly forbidden to export their goods to Siberia on their own.
Trade with foreigners was allowed only to large companies, which were under the supervision of the authorities. In the North, trade with Russia, Mongolia, and Central Asia was seized by the monopoly organizations of Shanxi merchants and usurers, who bought the salt trade and financed the Qings themselves. The other largest association was the Cantonese Gunkhans (the Europeans called them Kohong), who received the right to trade with the East India Companies of Europeans. To join this society, one had to contribute a share of 2,000 lans in silver.
The most prominent representatives of commercial capital were closely connected with the state apparatus. Large commercial and usurious capital firmly rooted in the feudal system of the Qing Empire.
3. State structure and foreign policy of the Qing Empire
Central and local government
The Manchurian conquerors, with the help of the Chinese feudal lords who came over to their side, took full advantage of the complex system of state administration that had been created for centuries in feudal China. At the head of the state was an unlimited monarch with hereditary power - the Manchu emperor (bogdykhan). An extensive feudal-bureaucratic apparatus with the State Council, the State Chancellery, six chambers and other government institutions was subordinate to him.
The main military forces on which the Qing relied government, consisted of large military formations, the so-called Eight Banners, formed mainly from the Manchus, but also included some Mongolian and Chinese troops. In addition, there were Chinese troops of the "green banner", more numerous, but worse armed.
The empire was divided into provinces, united in 10 governorships. The provinces, in turn, were divided into regions, districts, counties, volosts. The lowest administrative unit was "10 yards". Viceroys and provinces had their own troops and financial departments. Viceroys, governors and other significant officials appointed from Beijing were temporary, but full-fledged masters of the territory given to their administration and enriched themselves at the expense of its population in all legal and illegal ways. The provinces were isolated from each other administratively and economically, which should have prevented the Chinese people from uniting to fight against the oppressors.
Officials occupied positions according to the degree obtained in the exams, but more often the positions were simply sold. Although the Qing Empire served the interests of the largest feudal lords, both Manchu and Chinese, the Manchu nobility occupied a privileged position in it. The highest positions were available mainly to the Manchus, the Chinese occupied less important posts in the bureaucracy. Representatives of other nationalities of China, as a rule, were not accepted for public service at all; Muslims were allowed to serve in the military, but not in civil government.
The estate structure of the empire
At the beginning of the XVIII century. The Code was drawn up, which legally formalized the position of various segments of the population. The peasants, according to the Code, were completely deprived of their rights; they had to bear heavy duties, being at the same time bound by numerous restrictions and prohibitions. The peasant could not even dispose of his household freely: he could not slaughter a cow or a buffalo without the permission of the feudal administration, sell meat or buy salt. At every step, the peasant was threatened with corporal punishment, confiscation of property, exile to forced labor, and the death penalty. Artisans and the urban plebs were in a similar position. The law regulated the work of artisans, defined their state duties. Actors, lower servants of state institutions (cleaners, gatekeepers, etc.) were in a position close to slavery, and women also remained incomplete. Slaves were at the lowest rung of the social ladder. Many of them lost their freedom during the conquest of China by the Manchus; subsequently, some of them were released, others, such as prisoners of war, were turned from temporarily enslaved into eternal slaves. But the most widespread in China was the debt slavery of the peasants.
The Manchus, being predominantly shamanists by religion, used Confucianism in its medieval, Zhusian form as a state ideology. The entire education system under the Qings was based on Confucian writings, the basis of legal views and laws were ancient patriarchal principles included in Confucianism - submission to elders, authoritarian nature of power, reverence for antiquity and traditions. The Manchu bogdykhan and his officials took upon themselves the performance of rituals and sacrifices; Zhu Xi's works were ordered to be collected and re-published. According to the laws of the Qing Empire, among the ten gravest crimes for which the death penalty was imposed without the right to be replaced by another type of punishment, parricide was listed. By its demand for complete subordination of the younger to the elder, by its idealization of the ancient monarchy and its elevation to the principle of imitation of the entire past, by its regulation of all aspects of the life of each person and of the entire people as a whole, Confucianism played an extremely reactionary role during the reign of the Qing. In the Qing Empire, it was an important help to the police service, a means of perpetuating the feudal system and the power of the Manchu oppressors.
At the same time, the Qing placed at their service all the church and religious organizations that existed in China: Buddhist, Taoist, Muslim.
The class division of the population was fixed in estates. On the upper steps of the feudal ladder stood the Manchu nobility and the Manchu hereditary nobility. Large Chinese feudal lords and the richest representatives of the merchant class, although they were not completely equal in rights with the Manchu nobility, were actually part of the ruling class. Medium and small feudal lords, from whose midst came the majority of officials, persons who passed the exams for holding public office or acquired a rank and position for money, were considered personal nobles.
Artificial partitions were erected between different groups of society and even within the ruling class itself. Living conditions, behavior, clothing, home decoration, receiving guests, trips - everything was strictly regulated for various ranks and ranks.
The Manchu conquerors required the Chinese population to shave part of their head and wear a braid as a sign of submission. The Chinese patriots fought against this humiliating demand; the peasants resisted him especially stubbornly. The Manchu authorities ordered that anyone who kept their hair be chopped off on the spot; the cut heads of the executioners were attached to a high pole and hoisted it to intimidate the people in the center of a city or village. “If you save your hair, you won’t save your head, if you save your head, you won’t save your hair,” the winners declared.
The Manchus themselves constituted a separate privileged group. Their position was determined by law. Measures were taken against their assimilation, for this purpose mixed marriages were strictly prohibited. Taking advantage of all the achievements of the centuries-old Chinese culture, enriching themselves predatorily at the expense of the Chinese people, having built their state largely according to the old Chinese models, the Manchus deliberately erected a barrier between themselves and the conquered people.
Foreign policy. Relations with Russia
The foreign policy of the Qing Empire was characterized by the desire to isolate China from the outside world. China's ties with Korea and Vietnam were based on relations of suzerain and vassals; China had little trade with Japan. As for the Europeans who came to China for trade, missionary and other purposes, the policy towards them changed depending on the weakening or strengthening of the power of the Qings themselves. Despite the obstacles placed by the Manchu authorities, Russian-Chinese relations at the end of the 17th century and during the 18th century. continued to develop.
Trade relations between Russia and China were carried out first through Central Asia, and then through Siberia and Mongolia. When the Russians from the middle of the XVII century. began the development of Transbaikalia and the Amur region, the Qing government reacted unkindly to this. It was afraid of Russia's rivalry in the struggle for influence in this vast area and the strengthening of its positions near the borders of the emerging Qing Empire. This consideration determined the policy of the Qing Dynasty towards Russia during the second half of the 17th and almost the entire 18th century.
The Qing government in 1652 demanded that the Russians leave the lands they had occupied on the Amur; in 1658 it sent troops to destroy Albazin, a city founded by the Russians.
The Russian government stood for peaceful relations with China. Such a policy was dictated by the lack of sufficient military forces in the area and the unresolved major foreign policy tasks on the western borders of the Russian state. That is why the Russian government sought to strengthen peaceful, good-neighbourly relations with China and to develop Russian-Chinese trade, which was beneficial to both countries. In the early 1970s, Russian merchants were already doing quite a brisk trade with China. In 1675-1676. The Russian government sent a large friendly mission to Beijing, headed by the Moldavian scientist Nikolai Spafari (Milescu). Spafarius was given the task of establishing regular diplomatic relations with China by exchanging embassies, inviting Chinese craftsmen to serve in Russia, learning about more convenient land and water routes to the Far East, and seeking to expand Russian-Chinese trade relations. But Spafari, like his predecessor Fyodor Baikov (1654), failed to achieve these goals. Emperor Kangxi delayed for a long time with a response to the Russian proposals, demanded that the Russians leave the Amur, the extradition of defectors, and, finally, sent the embassy away with nothing.
After the suppression of the uprising in southern China and Taiwan, Kangxi began to implement his plan to drive the Russians out of the Amur. Having built a chain of fortifications in Manchuria, in 1684 the Bogdykhan sent a Manchurian army equipped with artillery to the Amur in order to destroy Albazin and drive the Russians out of the Amur region.
The long siege of Albazin began. The Manchus, having suffered significant losses, promised to retreat from the Amur if the Russians, in turn, leave Albazin. The small garrison of Albazin was eventually forced to leave this city. But soon Albazin was rebuilt and populated by Russians; a new Russian garrison appeared here.
Kangxi resorted to threats, trying to intimidate the Albazins. He also encouraged the Mongol khans to take active steps against the Russians, urging them to attack Selenginsk, Verkhneudinsk and Nerchinsk. In 1686, numerous Manchurian cavalry with 40 guns approached Albazin. The Manchus built a high rampart, fencing off Albazin from the outside world, stormed the fortress several times, but they failed to take it.
In 1687, the Russian ambassador Fyodor Golovin arrived in the Russian border town of Selenginsk, on his way to China, and was ordered to establish normal diplomatic and trade relations with the Chinese state and to determine the border between the two states.
At this time, some Mongol feudal lords, incited by Kangxi, attacked Selenginsk. The Selenginsk garrison withstood the siege and repelled the Mongol attack. In the summer of 1689, on Russian territory, in the city of Nerchinsk, negotiations began between Russia and China. The Kangxi ambassadors, seeking to put pressure on the Russian embassy, arrived in Nerchinsk, accompanied by thousands of troops. They interrupted the negotiations several times, staged military demonstrations, trying to intimidate the Russian ambassadors and force them to accept the demands of the Manchurian side, but did not dare to break off the negotiations. On August 27, the agreement was concluded. The Nerchinsk Treaty of 1689 is the first document in the history of Russian-Chinese relations; along with the theme, it was also the first international treaty concluded by China with a European power. According to the agreement, the left bank of the Amur remained with the Manchus, Albazin was destroyed, and the Argun prison was moved to the left bank of the Argun. The Qing, for their part, pledged to promote Russian-Chinese trade.
In 1726, a new Russian embassy arrived in Beijing, headed by Savva Vladislavich. This embassy was instructed to agree on the demarcation of the border between Russia and Mongolia, which became part of the Manchu empire, on defectors, on trade caravans and on trade on both sides. In 1727, the Burinsky Treaty was concluded, and at the beginning of 1728, the Kyakhta Treaty, which resolved border issues, questions about defectors and trade. Points of constant trade were established in Nerchinsk and Kyakhta. In Beijing, the Russian spiritual mission began to function normally, which partly performed diplomatic functions and the functions of a trade mission. The mission was at the same time the most important source of scientific knowledge about China, its language and culture. In this regard, the significance of the mission was very great. The first Russian sinologists came out of it: Illarion Rossokhin, one of the first translators of Chinese texts into Russian, who later worked at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Alexei Leontiev, known for his translations of Chinese and Manchu books.
In the first decades of the 18th century The Manchu emperors needed Russia's help to fight against the Dzungar (otherwise Oirat) Khanate, which successfully repelled all attempts to conquer it. Twice, in 1730 and 1731, special embassies came from Beijing to Moscow and St. Petersburg with the task of enlisting Russian help. But these embassies were not successful, due to Russia's refusal to support the Manchu plans for the conquest of Dzungaria.
Meanwhile, Russian-Chinese trade developed successfully. Tea, strong drinks, raw silk, silk and cotton fabrics, cane sugar, rhubarb, porcelain, etc. were brought to Kyakhta from China. Furs, woolen fabrics, mirror glass, etc. were imported from Russia to China.
In 1744, in order to strengthen direct Russian-Chinese trade relations, the import of Chinese goods into Russia through Western Europe was prohibited, and in 1761 a new customs tariff was introduced, which exempted the import of Chinese raw silk, cotton products, paints, pearls, as well as the export to China of Russian cloth, needles and other goods.
China and Western European states
As mentioned above, during the struggle against the Chinese people, the Manchus found allies among Western European merchants who sold them cannons and helped them with their ships. Therefore, the Qing initially did not prevent the establishment of foreign merchant settlements on Chinese soil, left seaports open, and even relaxed customs restrictions. Numerous ships arrived from England, Holland and France to Chinese ports. On the Chinese coast, foreigners built houses and trading posts. Often, contrary to the prohibition of local authorities, they traveled around coastal cities and bought silk fabrics, embroideries and other handicrafts, porcelain, gold, mercury, sugar, spices, medicinal herbs, and roots for export. The lucrative trade with China was monopolized by the English, Dutch and French East India Companies.
In addition to merchants, Catholic missionaries also came to China. The Manchus, not trusting the Chinese, needed the help of the Europeans. In view of this, Kangxi brought the missionaries closer to him and allowed them to preach Christianity.
The Dutch, British, Portuguese and French competed with each other for the Chinese market. The English East India Company was especially active. Its representatives imposed favorable terms of trade on Chinese merchants for the British. In 1715, the first English trading post was established in Canton. The French also tried to keep up with the British.
Vessel for wine in the form of the hieroglyph "Fu" ("Happiness"). Painting with enamel on glaze. The end of the XVII-XVIII century.
in France in the 18th century. Three companies arose one after another for trade with China and India, which later merged into one French East India Company, which exported porcelain and other products of Chinese industry from China. The French established their trading post in Ningbo.
US-China relations began later. In 1784, the first ship arrived in China from the USA; subsequently, the number of American ships exceeded the number of ships trading with China of all countries combined, except England.
Having strengthened their power, the Manchus changed their attitude towards the Europeans. In 1716 they introduced the first restrictions on the entry of foreigners into China. The son of Kangxi, Emperor Yongzheng, in 1724 ordered the closing of 300 Christian churches and sent almost all the missionaries to the Portuguese colony in Macau. In 1757, Emperor Qianigong banned foreign trade in all ports except Canton. Factories of Europeans were eliminated and foreigners were forbidden to enter the country.
The “closure” of China delayed the colonial penetration of Europeans, but at the same time it extremely slowed down socio-economic and cultural development, artificially isolating China from countries where capitalism was developing or had already triumphed.
Wars of the Qing Dynasty
In the XVIII century. The Manchus launched a series of new wars of conquest. Western China - a part of Central Asia, where Chinese influence dominated from ancient times - was under the rule of Muslim and Mongol feudal lords. Here in the 40s of the XVII century. an extensive Mongol khanate, known as the Dzungar Khanate, was formed, closely connected with Tibet, other Mongol khanates and the peoples of Central Asia. This khanate posed a threat to Manchu dominance in East Asia.
The Qing government sought to undermine the power of the Dzungar state, tearing away allies from it and sowing discord among its princes.
Fortresses with strong garrisons were built on the Sino-Dzungarian borders. The long-standing economic relations that linked China with the peoples of the area were broken. Thus, Kangxi banned the export of tea, iron products and other goods from China to Dzungaria, which were traditionally sold among the population of Dzungaria, and at the same time extremely limited the import of goods from Dzungaria into China.
Military clashes between the Jungars (Oirats) and the Manchus began in 1689. But only in the middle of the 18th century. The Qings launched a decisive offensive against the Dzungar Khanate. In 1755, one of the contenders for the Khan's throne in Dzungaria, Amursana, fled to China, where he asked for help to fight against rivals. Bogdykhan Qianlong took advantage of this and sent troops to the west, which Amursana himself led; at the same time, another Qing army invaded Dzungaria along a different path. Dzungaria was conquered, but soon a powerful popular uprising began in it, the suppression of which required enormous efforts from the Manchus. Only in 1758 Dzungaria was finally conquered by the Manchus, who exterminated almost the entire Oirat population of this region. After that, the Qings began to organize agricultural military settlements in Dzungaria from Chinese soldiers attached to the land. In 1759, the Qing conquered Kashgaria, which, together with Dzungaria, subsequently formed the Chinese province of Xinjiang.
In 1765, the Qing started a war in Indo-China. At the same time, a Manchurian-Chinese detachment invaded Burma, but was expelled from there. In 1769 the war resumed; this time the Burmese were forced to recognize themselves as vassals of the Qing and pledged to pay tribute every ten years. In 1788-1790. Qing troops invaded the territory of Vietnam, which was also forced to recognize its vassal dependence on the Qing. Finally, the long-standing vassalage of Korea was consolidated. Thus, under the first Qing, the frontiers of China extended far in all directions.
4. The struggle of the Chinese people against the Manchu rule and feudal system
The struggle against the Manchu power in the second half of the XVII century.
Despite the feudal reaction, the police regime and the system of terror that reigned in the country under the Qing, the Chinese people did not stop fighting against their new and old masters. Organized by secret religious and sectarian societies, it acted in a religious shell. Secret sects in a relatively short time turned into mass, ubiquitous and elusive organizations. They had their links in villages and cities; the bulk of their members were peasants, the urban poor, artisans, and factory workers. Even vagabonds and beggars took part in them.
The leadership in these organizations was usually in the hands of educated people from among the merchants, landowners, officials and the military, but the peasants also played a significant role in the leadership. The main goal of the activity of secret religious societies was the overthrow of the Manchu power and the liberation of the country. This is evidenced by the rites and oaths at the entry of new members into society.
At the same time, secret societies fought against feudal oppression and provided assistance to their members who were in trouble.
After the Manchus conquered Fujian, some Chinese patriots went to a Buddhist monastery located in the mountains of Jiulingnan, and founded there in the 70s of the 17th century. brotherhood, which set as its goal the overthrow of the Qing. So the foundations of the secret society "Sanhehoy" - Triads were laid. The 128 monks of this mountain monastery waged an unceasing secret war against the conquerors, fulfilling an oath not to lay down their arms until victory was achieved.
The authorities were eventually able to locate this center of anti-Manchu activity. They started persecuting the monks. But it was not easy to deal with the stronghold of Jiulinshan. In 1784 the emperor ordered the destruction of the monastery. According to legend, five monks of this monastery were saved from fire and bloody slaughter; going on a journey, they teamed up with five merchants and began to recruit members for the Sanheha secret society. Soon this society grew again, gained many supporters and great popularity. Everyone who entered the Sankhoi swore an oath to hate the Manchus and to fulfill the main slogan of society - to seek the "overthrow of the Qing and the restoration of the Ming", that is, the former Chinese dynasty. Any Chinese could join the society, regardless of whether he was poor or rich, learned or illiterate, warrior or official. The society had its own charter, maintained strict discipline and the strictest secrecy. After taking the oath, accompanied by a frightening ceremony and the symbolic cutting of a braid - this sign of obedience to the Manchus, everyone entering society was included in a certain link and had to wholeheartedly serve a common goal. The societies found wide support in the coastal areas and among Chinese emigrants in the countries of the South Seas.
The second major secret society was the Galaochoi, or the society of the Elder Brothers, which arose in the middle of the 18th century. and then became widespread, especially in Central China. This society also called for the overthrow of the Manchus, for the restoration of the Chinese state with the Mins at the head. Keeping in mind, however, that the Mines were not at all popular among the people, society idealized the first Minsk ruler, a peasant by origin, a participant in the popular struggle against Mongolian yoke in the 14th century His name served as a secret symbol of struggle. Among the members of the Gelaokhoi, a call was circulated to seek the creation of a state where it would not be necessary to "eat Qing food, live on Qing land, serve the Qing."
The most powerful among the secret societies and brotherhoods was, apparently, the old society "Bailyanjiao" - the White Lotus, glorified by its struggle against the Mongol rule and the Ming feudal lords. Now it has set as its main goal the overthrow of the Manchu domination. The activities of the society also had an anti-feudal orientation. Masses of peasants entered Bailianjiao, swearing an oath to fulfill its charter, religious rites, renounce worldly temptations and devote their whole lives to serving the goals of society.
Secret societies covered wide circles of the population. Each of them adjoined many small secret organizations that had their own charters, rituals and adhered to the religious teachings of the Buddhist and Taoist persuasion. Secret brothers recognized each other by conventional signs and expressions, by the manner in which they took objects, smoked tobacco, etc.
The Manchus fought the secret societies with the most cruel measures; laws equated participation in them with high treason. In 1727, the Yongzheng Emperor ordered death for participation in the White Lotus Society. But no measures could stop the activities of these underground organizations.
One of the manifestations of the anti-Manchu struggle was also the refusal of educated Chinese to cooperate with the Manchus. Some philosophers, historians, philologists, writers and painters did not want to serve the Manchus, secluded themselves, “left paper and brush forever” or wrote works exposing the Manchus and Chinese traitors, in which they called on the Chinese people to resist and fight. The outstanding Chinese scientist Gu Yan-wu (1613-1682), who at one time participated in the liberation war as one of the associates of Zheng Cheng-gun, after the victory of the Manchus, wandered around the country, calling for a fight against the enslavers. His catchphrase: "Every person is responsible for the prosperity and death of the motherland" - became widely known. The philosopher Wang Chuan-shan (1619-1692), who fought against the Manchus in the South, subsequently refused to serve in the Qing state apparatus and retired to the countryside. The philosopher, historian and mathematician Huang Zong-si (1610-1696), an active participant in the anti-Manchu struggle and the commander of one of the detachments, also rejected cooperation with the Manchus.
Many representatives of the Chinese intelligentsia, remaining in the civil service and outwardly showing obedience to the Manchus, wrote anti-Manchu works, drew cartoons and made patriotic posters.
The Manchus appreciated the seriousness of this broad anti-government opposition and responded to it with terror. Kangxi ordered the arrest and execution of all those suspected of writing "seditious" works. Severe persecution of the advanced people of China began. Emperor Qianlong, posing as a poet and philanthropist, further intensified the terror and began the persecution of old literature. These activities have been aptly called "the prison of writing" in China. Not only authors were executed, but also everyone who kept and read forbidden books. Specially created government commissions reviewed all Chinese literature, eradicating from various works, sometimes centuries old, the slightest signs of love of freedom and patriotism, crossing out historical information about movements opposed to governments, about liberation movements and uprisings. Thousands of works were condemned to be burned. Special officials with the help of mass searches identified books included in the lists for seizure, and punished their owners.
Popular uprisings in the 18th century
But the Chinese people did not stop fighting. Anti-Manchu popular uprisings continued to rise in China during the entire period of the Qing Dynasty. Particularly large and prolonged uprisings took place in the second half of the 18th century. They were attended mainly by the tribes and nationalities of the South and South-West and the secret societies named above.
The tribal movement arose in connection with government measures aimed at increasing the exploitation of the indigenous population of non-Chinese origin. Thus, in 1704, on the orders of Kangxi, among the Miao tribes that inhabited Hunan and Guizhou and were previously ruled by their tribal and tribal elders, two districts were created with the usual bureaucratic administration and an all-Chinese taxation system was introduced.
Following the tax collectors, moneylenders appeared, the Miao lands began to pass to new owners. The Miao raised an uprising in 1735, which soon spread to Guangxi. The mountainous conditions, the lack of roads, and the cohesion of the Miao favored their struggle. The Manchu troops suffered heavy losses. The uprising then faded away, then flared up again and continued until the beginning of the 19th century.
In Sichuan, where new orders were also being introduced, local Jinchuan tribes revolted in 1772; they attacked the officials who arrived from the center and destroyed them. Troops from Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan were thrown against them. The troops restored "order", but as soon as they left, the uprising flared up with renewed vigor.
In 1783, the Muslim population rose in the province of Gansu. This movement was also suppressed with great difficulty.
The cruel regime established for the Taiwanese after the destruction of the state of Zheng Cheng-gun, the predatory exploitation of natural resources and the ruin of the population caused a series of uprisings in Taiwan. In 1721, 30,000 Taiwanese peasants dealt serious blows to government troops and laid siege to the largest cities; their leader Zhu Yi-guan became the head of the new government of the island. Qing officials fled to the mainland, but soon returned accompanied by a large force that restored the situation.
In 1786, the Taiwanese organization of the Triad Society raised a new uprising. The rebels in the North captured a number of fortified cities. The uprising also began in southern Taiwan. Only in 1788 did the Manchus manage to separate the rebel forces and inflict a decisive defeat on them.
In the last third of the XVIII century. secret religious societies became even more active and proceeded to prepare new armed uprisings. The first of these, organized by the White Lotus, took place in Shandong in 1774-1775. The rebels occupied several cities and captured a fairly large territory. After the suppression of the uprising, the surviving members of the White Lotus did not stop agitation and gathered strength to resume the struggle. In 1786, they organized a new uprising in Shandong and Henan, to which the government responded with repressions, mass executions, and exile. However, the government failed to completely defeat this secret society. As a result of the agitation of the White Lotus in February 1796, the peasants rebelled in Hubei, to whom a significant part of the townspeople joined. The rebels occupied the fortified city of Xiangyang. By the summer, the uprising covered a vast territory, which included, in addition to Hubei, also Henan, Shanxi, Sichuan, Gansu. Large military units were sent to these provinces, but they proved powerless to cope with the movement.
The Manchu rulers and their Chinese henchmen were seriously alarmed, especially since the uprising of the southern tribes was still ongoing. Meanwhile, the rebels tried to act in an organized manner. In 1797, a conference of leaders of large detachments was convened in Sichuan. A well-organized, disciplined and led by a single command army was created here. The rebels seized the property of the rich and divided it among the poor. Women took a large part in the movement.
The Manchurian soldiers, who had long lost their former combat capability, were afraid of this army, inspired by the struggle for a just cause. Government units suffered heavy losses. Detachments recruited by local feudal lords helped to suppress the uprising. It was they who inflicted a number of sensitive blows on the rebels, since they knew the terrain no worse than they did, used their tactics of surprise attacks, and were able to detect and destroy their shelters.
Having achieved success here, too, the government was nevertheless forced to promise amnesty to the rebels who returned to peaceful labor. By 1799-1800. the uprising began to weaken. Only individual detachments of the rebels operated for some time in Hubei and Shaanxi.
5. Culture
Manchurian conquest, without interrupting general development Chinese culture, however, greatly retarded the growth of those forces that already from the second half of the Ming era, at least from the 16th century, undermined the feudal system. Culture under the Qing dynasty continued to develop as a feudal culture.
Fine to applied arts
The development of architecture was associated with extensive construction, which was carried out by the Manchu rulers. An idea of this architecture is given by Beijing palaces, both within the former Forbidden City and out-of-town, as well as the famous imperial mausoleums in Mukden (now Shenyang) - the cradle of the Qing dynasty. The city walls were restored and rebuilt with monumental gates in them. Government buildings were erected everywhere, Confucian mausoleums, Buddhist and Taoist temples were built. Finally, there was extensive construction of residential buildings - palaces of the Manchu and Chinese nobility, high dignitaries, wealthy merchants, usually closely associated with the laying out of gardens and parks.
With all the scope of construction, the architecture remained basically unchanged, continuing the traditions of the building art of the times of the Ming Empire. Chinese architects during the Qing Dynasty developed with extreme completeness what was in the buildings of the XV-XVI centuries. only the beginning to emerge: the grandiosity of size, the abundance of decoration. Curved lines, all kinds of curls prevailed over straight lines and calm surfaces, while maintaining, however, the overall geometric harmony of the main building scheme. Architecture of China XVII-XVIII centuries. represents, as it were, a type of Chinese baroque, that is, a style characteristic of the era of late feudalism.
The arrangement and decoration of palaces, government buildings and rich houses caused an increase in demand for works of applied art, in connection with which the latter received a significant development. The remarkable art of artistic casting is evidenced by the bronze figures of lions, turtles, herons, dragons, and phoenixes that have survived to our time in Beijing palaces, as well as found in museums in Europe and America. Among such objects, a special place is occupied by the “Bronze Palace” located in the Wanshoushan Palace - a structure that reproduces a palace-type building in bronze.
Quite characteristic of this era was a careful study of the surviving examples of ancient foundry art. This even led to the emergence of a special branch of foundry art: the casting of products that reproduced samples of the Chou and Han bronzes.
The development of the art of carving on stone, bone, especially ivory, was caused by an increase in demand, but a significant role was also played by facilitating access to new material, in particular to white jasper, delivered from the newly annexed East Turkestan. In the art of carving, Chinese masters have achieved true virtuosity and artistic perfection. Various household items were decorated with carvings - tables, screens, incense burners, flower vases, shandals, jugs, musical instruments; figures of people, birds, and animals were carved from jasper and bone. Equally great development was received by products coated with varnish.
Embroideries constituted a special branch of artistic craft. The embroideries from the Hunan province were most famous. The production of embroidery, like brocade, was encouraged by great demand from the rich part of the population, as well as from abroad.
The most developed form was taken by the production of porcelain. The government enterprise in Jingdezhen (in the province of Jiangxi) was technically well equipped, production was carried out on the basis of a far-reaching differentiation of labor. It employed several thousand hired workers, who received wages much higher than in other similar enterprises. In fact, almost the entire able-bodied population of the town was associated with this production. According to the descriptions of that time, the flames escaping from more than 3 thousand furnaces could be seen from afar, giving the impression of a huge glow. Similar enterprises, only smaller, existed in other places. Some of them belonged to the government, others - to private individuals.
The demand for porcelain was huge, and not only within the country. Chinese porcelain began to be exported to the neighboring countries of Asia, especially where, as in Indo-China, for example, there was a large Chinese population; in ever-increasing quantities, porcelain products began to penetrate into Europe, where they became the best decoration of palaces.
Wanting to improve their skills, the Chinese masters did not look for new ways, but returned to old, already forgotten techniques. This is evidenced by the appearance of descriptions of various crafts and industries in antiquity and in the Middle Ages. Chinese applied art as if it mobilized all its centuries-old experience, developed it on a huge scale, conquered the West with its high artistry, reached the maximum that applied art could achieve under the conditions of a feudal type of production.
Painting followed the same path in the Manchu period. She continued to develop the traditions that had developed back in the days of the Ming Empire. Traditional genres continued to be cultivated: the decorative genre of “flowers and birds”, the landscape of “mountains and water”. They were joined by the art of portraiture. The Manchu rulers retained the "Hua Yuan" ("Garden of Painting") - the court Academy of Painting, but the Bogdykhans themselves did not particularly adhere to tradition and willingly attracted artists from among European missionaries. Some of them, such as the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione and the Austrian Ignatius Zikerpart, became court painters. They worked in a peculiar manner that combined the techniques of European and traditional Chinese painting. Sometimes European artists worked together with Chinese ones. Such, for example, is a picture depicting a rider and a person standing next to him: the figures of people and the horse on it belong to Castiglione, the entire background is by a Chinese artist.
Some new phenomena were observed in the landscape, in the genre of "mountains and water". The manner itself became more individual, freer, but there was no change in its essence.
Philosophy
Traditionalism, which was characteristic of the entire Chinese culture of the 17th - 18th centuries, in the field of philosophy was expressed in the desire to put thought into habitual schemes, to operate with long-established concepts, and to rely on old written monuments. But since the interests of the Manchu rulers of China and a significant part of the Chinese feudal lords who had come to their service clashed on this basis with the aspirations and aspirations of Chinese scientists who dreamed of overthrowing the power of foreigners and restoring national power, traditional philosophy began to reflect two directly opposite tendencies: one, aimed at protecting the regime established under the Manchus, and another, striving to overthrow this regime.
The Manchu rulers were quick to appreciate the benefit that could be drawn from the Confucian philosophy of the Sung period, especially from the teachings of Zhu Xi (1130-1200), in which this philosophy was fully expressed. The teachings of Zhu Xi were used by the Manchus to strengthen the feudal system. The Sung philosophy became the regime's official doctrine.
Emperor Kangxi published "Sheng Yu" ("Holy Edict") - a set of provisions that define the state ideology; this edict was repeated in a widespread form in the name of Emperor Qianlong. It recorded the feudal principles of social relations, the political system, supreme power. Among the oppositional part of Chinese society, a current was formed that was clearly hostile to the philosophy of the Sung school. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Huang Zong-si, one of the greatest thinkers of China in the 17th century, who took an active part in the struggle against the Manchu conquerors, even went to Japan to call on the Japanese to oppose the Manchus, criticized the most important thesis of the Sung political theory - about unlimited power of the ruler. Huang Zongxi said that the relationship between the ruler and the people is not absolute, but conditional, that "the rights and duties of the ruler are determined by the interests of the people."
Other thinkers fought against the Sung philosophy, reproaching it for being abstract, for departing from life practice. The thesis about the need for any philosophy to proceed from life practice and rely on this practice became the main one for many oppositional trends in social thought of the 17th-18th centuries. One of the first who proclaimed this thesis with all his might was the mentioned scientist Gu Yan-wu. Gu Yan-wu called for drawing knowledge from two sources: from reality and from literary materials.
Philology
Philology in the XVII-XVIII centuries. was engaged mainly in the criticism of ancient written monuments, the establishment of their authenticity. However, the tasks of philology at that time were by no means purely scientific: criticizing the ancient monuments, scientists sought to undermine the foundations of the Sung philosophy, which was based on these monuments. So, for example, Yang Shuo-ju (1636-1704), one of the founders of this trend in philology, argued that the Shu-ching, the ancient "Book of History", is one of the most important books of the Confucian canon, highly valued by Sung thinkers, arose not during the ancient Zhou kingdom, but in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e., i.e., represents a later forgery of an allegedly ancient text. Hu Wei (1633-1714) in turn announced that the I-ching (Book of Changes), the most important part of the Confucian canon, the basis of the entire philosophy of nature among the Suns, comes entirely from Taoist sources. Subsequently, the main representatives of philological science in China were Hui Tung (1697-1758) and Dai Zhen (1723-1777). The first rejected the authenticity of all ancient monuments, except for those that arose during the Han Empire. On this basis, a whole school has grown up, which has set as its goal the study of the sources of the Han times.
Such branches of scientific knowledge as paleography, epigraphy, and historical phonetics have been widely developed. Dai Zhen put forward the assertion that in order to understand ancient monuments, data on history, historical geography, and chronology are needed.
Historiography. Bibliography
The struggle of opposition currents unfolded on the basis of the study of history. The Manchu rulers, imitating the Chinese dynasties, formed a special committee to compile the history of the preceding Ming dynasty. The political purpose of such a story was to show the historical inevitability of the fall of the former dynasty and its replacement by a new one.
The opposition could not come to terms with such an interpretation of the history of the fallen dynasty, which in the eyes of the Chinese personified national and historically legitimate power. Therefore, “private” stories of the Ming dynasty appeared.
The Manchu authorities responded to the activities of opposition philosophers, philologists and historians with decisive measures: they were subjected to repression - executions, imprisonment, exile. These repressions were applied repeatedly in the 17th-18th centuries, during the reign of the emperors Kangxi, Yongzhen and Qianlong. Books objectionable to the government were confiscated, and those guilty of concealing them were subjected to severe punishments. So, under Qianlong, between 1774 and 1782, seizures were made 34 times. The books to be seized were included in the "List of banned books".
From 1772, a collection of all printed books ever published in China was undertaken. The collection continued for 20 years. In this way, a huge library for those times of 172,626 volumes (10,223 titles) was formed, located in several book depositories in Beijing and other cities. 360 people were involved in the analysis and processing of the collected material. All the books were divided into four categories, which is why the entire library was called "Si ku quanshu", i.e. "The Complete Collection of Books of the Four Repositories". A few years later, 3457 titles were released in a new edition, while the remaining 6766 titles were described in a detailed annotated catalogue. The explanatory dictionary "Kangxi Zidian" and the collection of quotations and expressions "Peiwen Yunfu" compiled back in the reign of Kangxi are of great value.
However, this event also had its downside. In fact, it was a grandiose operation to seize books that could serve as a support for all sorts of "dangerous thoughts", and no less grandiose operation to falsify texts. In the new editions that came out, all unwanted passages were removed; Even the titles of the books have changed.
Fiction
There remained, however, one area to which the control of the Manchu government extended the least. It was fiction that developed in big cities. Its roots go back to the oral work of folk storytellers, to the performances of street comedians. Even in the XIII-XVI centuries. oral storytelling and street performances led to the creation of romance and drama. During the period of the Ming Empire, the drama was greatly developed: the plot became more complicated, the number of characters introduced into action increased; the performance began to be divided into several acts (sometimes up to 10). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. it was this drama that developed further. Many wonderful plays appeared, such as Kong Shang-jen's (1643) Peach Blossom Fan (Tao Huashan).
The novel continued to develop. In the XVIII century. Two novels arose that are among the most significant works of all the literature of feudal China: “A Dream in a Red Chamber” (“Hong Lou Myn”) and “An Unofficial History of Confucians” (“Zhulin Vaishi”).
In the drama and novel of the Qing time, new social forces are visible, the development of which was retarded by the reactionary regime of Manchu domination, and a protest against the mores and morals of the feudal class is felt. "Dream in the Red Chamber" - a novel from the life of a noble Manchu family. The novel contrasts free feeling with its purely human laws to the coercive norms of feudal morality, which belittled the moral level of the human person.
"The Unofficial History of the Confucians" is a wide canvas of social satire directed at the most inert in the society of that time - the bureaucracy. The satire deals with the mechanism that creates the bureaucracy: the system of government examinations as a tool for selecting officials, turning people into dummies. At the end of the Qing period, this novel played a big role in anti-government propaganda.
In Europe, works of Chinese culture became widely known in the 17th and especially in the 18th century.
Missionaries of Catholic orders and members of the Russian Orthodox mission studied Chinese culture, collected information about agriculture, crafts, art, and the life of the population, translated the works of Chinese scientists, and wrote about everything they learned to Europe. They themselves wrote works about China and published them in almost all European languages. Books about China aroused constant interest. It is not for nothing that in the works of Voltaire, in the writings of the older and younger generations of French enlighteners, there are so many discussions about this great people. Goethe admired ancient Chinese poetry, no matter how bad the translations from Chinese were then; he wrote poems based on Chinese poetry. In Russia, M. V. Lomonosov paid much attention to the achievements of Chinese culture and expressed a desire to see the history of China written in Russian. Already in the XVIII century. progressive people in Europe highly appreciated the contribution of the Chinese people to the treasury of world culture.
Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead the great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.
Ancient people probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. The pieces are now earthenware, ceramics were discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the approximate age of the cave is 18 thousand years, it is the oldest pottery ever found.
Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7000 BC. The first crop was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and this also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.
Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China became home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of culture has remained.
The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, the families that controlled the land became the leaders of family governments called dynasties.
Dynasties of China
The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.
Xia dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the kingdom of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and wielded bronze weapons and earthenware.
Silk is one of the most important products that China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, although silk production may have begun much earlier.
Silk is produced by mining cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon yields one silk thread.
Not all historians agree that the Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe that the Xia story is just a mythical story, because some of the points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.
Shang dynasty
The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often seen as one big family. The Shang conquered Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.
The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization, leaving behind written records that were inscribed on turtle shells, cattle bones, or other bones.
Bones were often used to determine what nature or want. If the emperor needed to know the future, say which "the king will have a son" or "whether to start a war," assistants carved questions into the bones, then heated them to cracks. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.
During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the ancient Greeks. Also ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members become godlike after death.
It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seems to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to a split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou,.
The Zhou fought against the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype great wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.
During the Zhou, the Iron Age of China began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.
All agricultural land belonged to the nobility (the rich). The nobles allowed the peasants to farm the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The Emergence of Chinese Philosophy
During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be trained and improved if you find the right approach.
Basic postulates: people should focus on helping others; the family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.
The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows "Tao" which means "the way". Tao is the driving force behind all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and be compassionate to everything.
These philosophies differ from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature is often seen as gods. The power of the emperor was also associated with religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as a law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule - he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.
The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and riots.
By 475 BC the provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. In the end, one family (Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.
Qin dynasty
From 221 BC e. Until 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's reign did not last long, but it had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created China's first empire. The cruel leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a currency standard (money), a wheel axle size standard (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.
Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system that is used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism" which focuses on people who follow the laws and receive instructions from the government.
Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the previous dynasty's wall. Most of the walls of the Qin period are now destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.
An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, bigger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury within it. Outside the tomb is a life-sized clay army discovered in 1974.
The terracotta army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians, all made from clay.
Although the Qin dynasty did not rule long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound impact on later dynasties in China. It is from the period of this dynasty that we derive the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. he was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began, and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.
Han dynasty
The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in the history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as an ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.
During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in present-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so much that the emperor needed a larger government to govern it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, the compass, and porcelain.
Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from a special clay that is heated until it melts and almost turns into glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often referred to as "Chinese" because a few hundred years ago all porcelain was made in China.
The Han Dynasty was also known for its military power. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Takla Makan desert, allowing the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.
The caravan routes are often referred to as the "Silk Road" because this route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and fortified the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.
Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness, because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.
Interesting Facts About Ancient China
(I THINK THIS IS ENOUGH FOR ANSWER)
The Qing Dynasty is the last dynasty of monarchical China; The Qing Empire was a multinational empire created and ruled by the Manchus.
The ancestors of the Manchus were Nuzhen (Jurchen) - a nomadic people who lived in the valley of the Songhuajiang (Sungari) River. By the end of the XVI century. their leader Nurkhatsi managed to rally the various nomadic tribes together. In 1616, he founded his Aisin Gioro dynasty in Northeast China. In subsequent years, Nurhaci conquered new vast lands in the northeast and, finally, having successfully overcome the Great Wall of China near Shanghai with the help of the Ming general Fu Lin, captured Beijing.
By the end of the XVII century. Qing Dynasty rulers established control over all central regions of China. As a result of several major military campaigns in the regions of Central Asia and to the south, they were able to further strengthen their positions, thereby laying the foundation for the most grandiose expansion in the history of the Chinese empire. In 1683, the island of Taiwan was conquered, Tibet and East Turkestan (Xinjiang) were firmly assigned to the empire. The Qing emperors reached their greatest power by the middle of the 18th century.
The first 150-year period of Manchu rule, especially under such prominent emperors as Kang-si (1662-1722) and Qian-long (1736-1796), was marked by active external expansion, with certain signs of stabilization inside the country. Thanks to moderate taxes and rational agricultural policies, the economy began to revive. The Chinese continued to be discriminated against. Clear evidence of this was the introduction by the Manchus of the rule that all Chinese must wear a special plaque. By the end of the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. popular uprisings and riots broke out more and more often. Their main reasons were the merciless exploitation of the peasantry by local officials and the increase in taxes. One of the factors that accelerated the process of the decline of the empire was the steady increase in population density, which caused the rapid depletion of land suitable for cultivation.
In area foreign policy the Qing emperors focused on Central Asia and therefore could not resist the growing threat of forceful pressure from Europe. In the first "opium" war (1840-1842), the empire was weakened by a military defeat. The burden of paying indemnities, which China was obliged to accept by foreign powers, was mechanically shifted onto the shoulders of peasants and merchants in the form of higher taxes. An increasing number of discontented united in secret groups. The Taiping Rebellion eventually broke out, over a decade from 1850 to 1864, shaking the empire. Referring to Christian postulates, the rebels demanded justice and equality of social and political rights. With great difficulty, the Qing managed to suppress the Taiping rebellion.
It is believed that the Taiping rebellion and its suppression as a whole claimed from 20 to 30 million human lives. The devastation caused by the civil war led to a terrible famine, forcing masses of Chinese to emigrate to the United States and many Asian countries. Corruption and extravagance intensified within the imperial court, especially during the reign of Empress Dowager Cixi. The imperial court was unable to carry out any reforms. The so-called Boxer Rebellion, which broke out in 1899 and was directed primarily against the constant humiliation of the country by foreign powers, was brutally suppressed by the troops of these same powers. After that, the positions of the imperial court were even more weakened. In 1911, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by the revolutionary Allied League led by Sun Yat-sen.
Qin Dynasty (221 - 207 BC) a dynasty founded by the first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi. He re-established a single centralized state through the annexation of the existing six states: Han, Wei, Zhao, Yan, and Qi.
The Qin Dynasty came to power by overthrowing the Zhou Dynasty. In the Qin era, the principles of governing China for several centuries to come were laid.
The Emperor had the title The first majestic ruler of Qin. According to his policy, the beginning of a centralized state was laid, in which officials were lawyers.
The country was divided into districts and districts. The reform provided for the unification of the measurement of weight, space, coins, and writing. As a result, it became easier to trade, regardless of regional differences.
The creation of the empire was the logical conclusion of a complex and lengthy process of strengthening the integrating centripetal tendencies in the leading Zhou kingdoms. states.
China's first imperial dynasty - Qin
More than 2 thousand years have passed since in 221 BC. the first centralized state in China was created - the Qin Empire, which had importance for the history of China.
Period from 255 to 222 BC called the Zhangguo period 
– Warring States Period. By the end of the III century. BC. the principality of Qin (prov. Shanxi) strengthened, which waged successful wars with other principalities, and then destroyed the Zhou dynasty and formed the first centralized despotism. Ying Zheng pursued a confident policy of unification of the country, which was necessary in connection with the development of agriculture and trade.
Many Chinese fought against the Huns, the nomads who inhabited Mongolia. The Huns had a powerful mobile cavalry. Nomad raids devastated the northern provinces of China, and the fight against them was difficult for the Chinese army, since the Chinese had few cavalry.
Usually the Huns easily got out of the blow and retreated deep into Mongolia. until the Chinese army stopped persecuting for lack of food and returned back. Following this, the Huns made new raids from the place where they could least be expected.
In 221 BC Zheng managed to defeat all his opponents and complete the unification of the country. The prince of the Qin principality, Ying Zheng, became the first ruler of China, proclaiming himself the first emperor, that is, “Qin Shi Huang Di”, which means the first sacred emperor of Qin.
The unification of China was of great importance for the history of China. The emperor created a clear system of centralized administration. The whole country was divided into 36 large regions, the boundaries of which did not coincide with the contours of the former kingdoms and principalities. And they were headed by junshou - governors.
The regions were divided into counties - xian, headed by "xianlings", and the counties - xian - into volosts - xiang, and smaller units - "ting". In each "tin" there were 10 communities - li. All the peasants of the empire received plots of land.
During the reign of Qin Shi Huang-di, large construction works
: post roads were built, irrigation systems were created, defensive structures were erected.
Another important contribution to the culture of China after the unification was the introduction of a single script. Before the Qin Dynasty, different principalities had their own scripts. This created obstacles in cultural exchange. After unification under the rule of Qin, Xiaozhuan, one of the types of Chinese ancient writing, became the generally accepted script.
The use of Chinese characters was legalized, which played an important role in the development of culture.
In addition, during the Qin Dynasty, one system measures and weights. The first emperor of China also introduced a single monetary circulation in order to create favorable conditions for economic development and strengthen the central government.
213 BC by order of Qin Shi Huang, all ancient books were burned, and in 212 BC. 460 of the most active ideological opponents of the emperor from among the Confucians were executed.
As early as the end of the 4th c. BC. in order to protect against the raids of the Huns, the principality of Yin, Zhou and Qin began to build a large defensive wall. The remains of this wall have not been preserved.
In 214 BC. The Chinese began building the Bian-chen wall - the border wall. The Great Wall of China begins at the old Chinese customs-fortress Shanhaiguan and goes to the west with mountain ranges, river banks and ends at the Jiayuguan fortress near the Richhofen ridge.
The construction of the Great Wall speaks of the high level of military engineering in ancient China. Under the Qin Empire, strategic routes were also built, as well as the construction of a waterway - the Grand Canal.
Qin Shi Huang - the first emperor of China
Qin Shi Huang (259 - 210 BC)- the ruler of the kingdom of Qin (from 246 BC), who began the end of the centuries-old era of the Warring States. The Qin Dynasty he founded, which planned to rule China for 10,000 generations, was overthrown a few years after his death.
Ying Zheng was born in 259 BC. e., in Handan- the principality of Zhao, where his father, Zhuang Xiangwang, was held hostage. After his birth, he received the name Zheng. His mother, a concubine, was previously in an intimate relationship with an influential courtier, Lu Buwe.
At the age of 13, Zheng became the Qin ruler, but until the age of 21 he was considered a minor, and Lu Buwe managed all affairs as regent and first minister.
The future Chinese emperor absorbed the then popular totalitarian idea of legalism, a prominent representative of which was Han Fei. The state structure of the Qin kingdom was determined by a powerful military force and numerous bureaucracy.
The Qin state was the most powerful in China. Everything was directed towards the unification of China under this dynasty. However, although the Qin dynasty in China significantly expanded its possessions at the expense of other kingdoms, these kingdoms still remained quite strong.
In 241 BC. e. the kingdoms of Wei, Han, Zhao and Chu concluded a new military alliance against Qin, but their combined troops were also defeated. Qingqi was also opposed by Yan and Qi - there are six kingdoms, the rest died during internecine wars.
In 238 BC. AD, when Ying Zheng ascended the Qin throne, he managed to defeat all the enemies one by one, capturing one territory after another during seventeen years of continuous wars. At the age of 32, he took possession of the principality in which he was born, at the same time his mother died.
He ordered to destroy each captured capital. In 221 Qin conquered the last independent kingdom on the Shandong Peninsula, Ying Zheng, at the age of 39, united all of China for the first time in history.
The unprecedented power of the ruler of the imperial era required the introduction of a new title. Qin Shi Huang literally means the founding emperor of the Qin Dynasty. The old name "wang", which translates as "monarch, prince, king", was no longer acceptable: with the weakening of Zhou, the title of van lost its value and significance. At first, the terms Huang (“ruler, sovereign”) and Di (“emperor”) were used separately.
Their unification should emphasize the autocracy of a new type of ruler. The imperial title thus created existed until the Xinhai Revolution of 1912. until the end of the imperial era.
It was used both by those dynasties whose power extended to the entire Celestial Empire, and by those who only sought to unite its parts under their leadership.
Qin Dynasty
The colossal campaign to unify the Celestial Empire was completed in 221, after which by decree of the emperor, weapons were confiscated from the population of the country from which bells and large bronze statues were ordered to be cast.
The new emperor carried out a number of reforms to consolidate the won unity: under the slogan “all chariots with an axis of the same length, all hieroglyphs are of standard writing”, a single network of paths was created, disparate systems of hieroglyphics of the conquered kingdoms were canceled, a single monetary system was introduced, as well as a system of measures and weights .
Xianyang was chosen as the capital of the Chinese Empire in the eternal Qin possessions, not far from modern Xian. Officials and nobles of all the captured states were transferred there (about 120 thousand families of hereditary nobility.
The huge country was again delimited into 36 large regions, the borders of which did not coincide with the framework of the former kingdoms and principalities. Each region was headed by a governor. The regions were divided into districts, which had chiefs, and the districts were divided into volosts, each of which included several dozen villages.
Much attention was paid to the organization of the central administration. At the head of the empire there were two ministers, one of whom Li Si played the main role. Several central departments were subordinate to these ministers, which had corresponding subdivisions in the regions.
So, the head of the military department was subordinate to the military leaders of the regions and a large staff of officials of the central apparatus, belonging to divisions and departments.
The structure of other departments was approximately the same - financial, tsarist-state economic, judicial, ritual and some others, including the supreme prosecutor's office, which supervised all departments and personnel of the country's administration.
All officials and persons below them strictly differed in their place in the system of not only positions, but also ranks. There were 20 of them The first 8 ranks could have ordinary people who received them depending on age, social and family status and merit, as well as by purchase or as a reward.
The rest (up to the highest, 19-20th, the owners of which were few in the empire) were bureaucratic ranks, which were granted for length of service and merit.
All numerous officials, up to the highest, received a fixed salary for their work. from state storages, more often grain, the amount of which was clearly established depending on the position and rank.
Only individual representatives of the 19th-20th ranks had the right to collect taxes from the peasants a certain territory donated to them in conditional possession, but at the same time they did not have administrative power here, their rights were limited to the collection of taxes.
Strictly centralized and well organized was the system of various and very difficult state duties, gigantic construction work, the obligation to provide for the army, the supply of food and equipment, participation in public works in the field, etc.
The principle of mutual responsibility, founded by Shang Yang, has become even more widespread than before.: it now concerned not only the peasants, but also those who recommended someone for the position of officials, which limited nepotism, that is, the desire to arrange a mediocre and incapable relative or acquaintance in a favorable position.
Coins were created - the same for all of China, the smelting of which has become a state monopoly, it is allowed to pay off duties and punishments, as well as the purchase of ranks so that excess income goes to the treasury.
Some of the merchants themselves were resettled from their native places, the big tax-farmers, who were engaged in salt production, iron-smelting, etc., were under the control of the authorities.
In addition, there was a network of large state-owned workshops in the state., on which artisans, including owners of private workshops, worked in the order of serving their duties or by court verdicts (state slavery of criminals), as well as for hire.
The system of legist legislation was quite rigid, up to the destruction of all relatives of the criminal along three lines of kinship - father, mother and wife - for special crimes. For less serious, physical punishment or state slavery awaited.
It should be noted that the entire described system of reforms and innovations as a whole had a considerable effect, and rather quickly. Strictly organized on the principles of barracks drill Chinese the state was able to implement a number of grandiose projects in a short time.
The Great Wall of China was built to protect against the nomads of the north. The construction of the capital with its colossal Efanggun palace complex was grandiose. not to mention the construction of the imperial tomb, about which many sources tell wonderful stories and myths.
Interesting! An ancient legend tells of the soul of the sleeping emperor Qin Shi Huang, who ascended to the moon and looked down at the earth from there. From the sky-high heights, the Chinese empire seemed to her a small dot, and then the emperor's soul was compressed, seeing the defenselessness of the Celestial Empire. It was then that he had the idea to build the Great Wall of China, which surrounded the whole country and hid it from cruel barbarians.
Tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang
Nothing illustrates the power of Qin Shi Huang better than size. burial complex, which was erected during the life of the emperor. The construction of the tomb began immediately after the formation of the empire near the present city of Xi'an.
According to Sima Qian, more than 700 thousand workers and artisans were involved before the creation of the mausoleum, and it lasted 38 years. The perimeter of the outer wall of the burial was 6 km.
The tomb with the burial of the first emperor was found by archaeologists only in 1974, then it turned out that Mount Lishan is a man-made necropolis. Its study continues to this day, and the burial place of the emperor is still waiting to be opened.
The burial mound was crowned with a certain pyramidal room, where, according to one version, the soul of the deceased should rise into the sky.
And although instead of living warriors, contrary to the usual tradition, their copies were buried in the tomb along with the emperor - Terracotta Army, which is regarded by some experts as a very progressive step, we should not forget that in addition to the statues of terracotta warriors According to various estimates, up to 70 thousand workers were buried together with Qin Shi Huang along with their families, as well as about three thousand concubines.
Interesting! The complex of the tomb of the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty - Shi Huangdi is the first among Chinese objects was entered by UNESCO in the Register of World Cultural Heritage Sites.
The end of the life of the first emperor of China - Qin Shi Huang
During the last ten years of his life, the emperor rarely visited his capital. He constantly traveled to various parts of the state, offering sacrifices in local temples, informing local deities of their achievements and erecting steles with self-praise.
Detours of own possessions emperor laid the foundation for the tradition of royal ascents on Mount Taishan. He was the first of the Chinese rulers to go to the seashore.
As can be understood from the "Shi chi" of the Han historian Sima Qian, the Chinese emperor was troubled by thoughts of his own death. During his wanderings, he met many wizards and sorcerers, hoping to learn from them the secret of the elixir of immortality.
In 219, he sent an expedition to the islands of the Eastern Sea in search of(probably in Japan). Confucian scholars saw this as empty superstition, for which they paid dearly: as the legend goes, the emperor ordered 460 of them to be buried alive in the ground.
In 213 BC. e Li Si persuaded the emperor to burn all the books, with the exception of those related to agriculture, medicine and divination. In addition, books from the imperial collections and chronicles of the Qing rulers were not touched.
In the last years of his life, in despair and having lost faith in gaining immortality ever, Qin Shi Huang less and less traveled around the borders of his state, fenced off from the world in a huge palace complex. Avoiding communication with mortals, the emperor hoped that people would see him as a deity.
Instead, the totalitarian rule of the first emperor of China caused growing discontent among the population. Having uncovered three plots, the emperor could not trust any of his confidants.
Death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC e. occurred during a trip around the country, in which he was accompanied by his youngest son Hu Hai, head of the office Zhao Gao and chief adviser Li Si.
Fearing unrest, they concealed the death of the emperor and, colluding, fabricated a letter on his behalf, in which not the eldest son Fu Su was declared heir to the throne, but the youngest - Hu Hai. The same letter contained an order to bestow an honorable death on Fu Su and the warlord Meng Tian.
Hu Hai ascended the throne at the age of 21 under the name of Er Shi Huang, however, in fact, remained a puppet of Zhao Gao and three years later was forced to commit suicide by his own order.
Revolts began in the empire, led by Chen Shen, in Guang and Liu Bang(late 209 - early 208 AD). In October 207 BC. e. the imperial capital Xianyang was taken by the army of Liu Bang, who was proclaimed emperor. He became the founder of the Han Dynasty.
During the reign of the Qin Dynasty, the territory of the state increased. It now included a significant part of China. The whole burden of waging wars, building the Great Wall, palaces, roads, etc. fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who were subjected to cruel exploitation. The consequence of this there were powerful peasant uprisings, under the blows of which the Qin dynasty fell.
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