What are the causes of the revolution in France. History of the French Revolutions

Great French revolution had an impact on the fate of not only France, but throughout Europe. The people who started it could not even think about how things would turn out. the site highlights five events that made the Revolution what we know it to be.

Many mistakenly believe that Louis was executed immediately after the storming of the Bastille. But it's not.

P The fall of the prison forced the king to seek peace with the rebels. The court made concessions, in fact, accepting all the requirements of the Assembly. Breutel, who had been first minister for only three days, was dismissed, and his place was taken by the much more popular Jacques Necker (he was head of government before Breutel). For some time the king and the National Assembly existed jointly.

At the same time, after the adoption of the Constitution, or rather the declaration of human and civil rights, and a number of reforms, Louis, in fact, lost power over the country. This position could not suit him. The king kept thinking about revenge, but all his attempts to weaken the Assembly ended in failure. The apogee was the escape of Louis from Paris, which also failed. The arrest of the fugitive monarch near the border finally undermined the authority of the Constitutional Monarch. A year later, Louis was deposed, charged with treason, put on trial and executed.

France endured the Jacobin terror for about a year.

But by the summer of 1794, Robespierre no longer had support either in society, or in the army, or even among those Jacobins who were not yet mired in massacres. So July 27 came, it is also the 9th Thermidor according to the new, Jacobin calendar. It is believed that the conspirators did not intend to overthrow Robespierre. They were only trying to ensure their own safety and avoid possible arrest and execution. But events got out of their control when the conspiracy was supported by the troops and the Parisians.

By the summer of 1794, Robespierre no longer had support either in society or in the army.

After that, the conspirators arrested Robespierre and his closest associates (Saint-Just and Couton). The leaders of the Jacobins were executed, their club was closed, and the so-called Directory, headed by Paul Barras, came to power in the country. Another five years will pass and the Directory will be overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte, whom she pardoned shortly after the Thermidorian coup.

The Jacobin Club was formed in 1789 and, at first, was an ordinary political circle.

Moreover, until 1791, the Jacobins were devoted supporters of the Constitutional Monarchy. Their views changed after the failed escape of the king. It was then that the views of the members of the club, many of whom were members of the Convention, began to radicalize rapidly. And this despite the fact that initially even among the Jacobins there was no unity. The club was divided into three wings. The left was led by Jean-Paul Marat, the right by Georges Danton and the cent by Maximillian Robespierre. In June 1793, the Jacobins, on the wave of their popularity, came to power, overthrowing the more moderate Girondins. The de facto head of France was Robespierre, who launched a large-scale terror, including against his former allies.

In June 1793, the Jacobins came to power, overthrowing the moderate Girondins.

The Jacobins destroyed not only political opponents, but also dissenters within the party. So Danton, who opposed Robespierre, was sent to the guillotine. Even before that, the inherently monstrous "law on suspicious" was adopted. According to the document, anyone suspected of being associated with the enemy or sympathizing with tyranny could be sent to prison. Since there were no clear criteria for determining "suspicious" ones, the law made it possible to send any person to jail, and then to the guillotine. In October 1793, the Jacobins executed the former Queen Marie Antoinette. In the same month, a decree was passed on the destruction of Lyon, whose inhabitants overthrew the local Jacobin administration.

It all started with the conflict between King Louis XVI and the Estates-General he had convened.

Or rather, with the deputies from the Third Estate, who tried to proclaim the states by the National Assembly. In parallel, they were preparing a draft Constitution, which, of course, was supposed to limit the power of the king. Louis was not ready for such a turn of events and did not want to delegate power to the Assembly, the legitimacy of which he did not recognize. But since it turned out to be impossible to disperse the opposition deputies by the forces of the Life Guards and royal orders, the monarch decided to take tougher measures. Troops were sent to Paris (according to the king to protect the Assembly), and Baron Breteuil was appointed to the post of head of government, by royal order, who several times suggested that the court take tough measures against deputies who had disobeyed. The assembly could not resist the army, but the Parisians unexpectedly came to its aid.

The storming of the Bastille began with a conflict between Louis XVI and the Estates General

The presence of troops and the appointment of Breitel as the first minister caused acute discontent among the inhabitants of the capital. The uprising was supported not only by representatives of the third estate, but also by priests and nobles. Among the latter were experienced military men. Events got out of control of the royal troops. The rebels were in search of weapons for their barricades. The attack on the Bastille was aimed at capturing the local arsenal. The famous prison, which in fact symbolized the repressive power of French absolutism, at that time was no longer a terrible dungeon. Only 7 prisoners served their sentences in it. The garrison, which consisted of a hundred people, surrendered rather quickly, although during the assault the defenders lost only one person. Soon the captured Bastille was blown up.

Unlike other important events of the revolution, this episode did not take place in Paris.

By the time Louis was executed, France had gone through a chain of uprisings, failed conspiracies and internal conflicts. The country was at war with Prussia and Austria. Brothers of the executed Louis XVI, future Louis XVIII and Charles X-th were obvious pretenders to the throne and symbols of royalists. The reforms carried out by the Assembly, which was rapidly losing authority and power, were not to the liking of everyone. They were not supported, in particular, by the population of the department of Vendée, in western France.

By the execution of Louis XVI, France had gone through uprisings, conspiracies and conflicts

The locals were supporters of the king and the church, they took what happened in Paris without enthusiasm, and the execution of Louis became a pretext for an uprising. The Vendée rebellion began in March 1793, and it was finally possible to suppress it only in 1796. The performance of the inhabitants of the Vendée became infamous due to the brutal reprisals of the warring parties on each other. The Republican army burned entire cities to crush the rebellion. The rebels also did not stand on ceremony with the opponents who fell into their hands.

As you well know, this year the USE assignments in history will include those that test knowledge of World History. Moving in line with innovations, we have already dealt with one of the topics - Today we will talk about the Great French Revolution.

From the school history course, it is the history of Russia that is studied in the most detail. The material that falls on the study in the fifth - eighth grades disappears from the heads of the guys as soon as the school holidays come. And this is not surprising: it makes sense to study World History if no one specifically asks for it. And here you are: in the USE tests in history, they began to test knowledge of this history.

It is clear that if we studied the uprisings of Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev, the Decembrists ... it will seem to any student that the history of Europe is the history of a real civilization, and there, in Europe, those horrors described in The Captain's Daughter certainly do not. .. In fact, everything is different: the history of Russia is only special case world history. And when you start to study this history, you understand that Russia was destined for only one role out of many.

For example, the Great French Revolution was one of the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe. Actually, it is precisely in this character that her reasons lie. Let's take a closer look.

Bourgeois character of the French Revolution

According to the class theory of Karl Marx there are social classes. A social class is a social association that has its place and role in the production of goods and services. Accordingly, there is a class of feudal lords - the owners of the land, who own the most important means of production - it is on the land that only food can be grown. There was also a class of peasants, bourgeoisie and others in France.

Class antagonism existed between classes—contradictions in class interests. For example, what class contradictions can there be between a feudal lord and a peasant? The feudal lord wants to exploit him mercilessly and, if possible, forever. At the same time, this peasant would be paid a meager amount for his work! Then the feudal lord sells the harvest and makes a huge profit. By the way, if you don’t know what feudalism is, then take a look.

The peasant, on the other hand, has directly opposite interests: he wants to become the owner of the land himself, so as not to depend on the feudal lord, in order to sell the results of his labor himself.

Eugene Delacroix. Freedom leading the people. 1830 La Liberté guidant le peuple Oil on canvas

There is also the bourgeoisie - which, again, depends on the feudal gentry, the royal power ... The state, represented by the nobles, the king and the clergy, looked at the peasantry and the bourgeoisie as a cash cow. And so it went on for centuries. The only difference is that at the end of the 18th century there was no serfdom in France.

By the way, at the end of the post I prepared extremely funny material for you about what happens to your cows under different social systems and ideologies 🙂

But there were estates, estate restrictions in favor of only three players: the king, the clergy and the nobility. Meanwhile, by the end of the 18th century in France, the bourgeoisie had become a powerful social force. The bourgeois realized that they wanted not only to be a cash cow for the government, but also to influence that government itself.

In this character lies the main cause of the French Revolution: the transition from the feudal formation to the capitalist formation. From a system in which the ruling class was the landed nobility to one in which the ruling class was the bourgeoisie - entrepreneurs, artisans, merchants. This topic is extensive, and in the future we will reveal it from different angles.

Associated Causes of the French Revolution

Thus, the first cause of the revolution in the fact that in France by the end of the 18th century class contradictions intensified.

The second reason: socio-economic crisis - a decline in production, an increase in lending, the insolvency of the bulk of the population, crop failures, famine.

Third cause of the French Revolution: the inability of royal power to resolve urgent social contradictions. As soon as Louis XVI wanted to carry out the necessary transformations in favor of the third estate (the bulk of the population of France), he was immediately criticized by the clergy and nobility. And vice versa. Plus, the so-called case of the necklace of Queen Marie Antoinette played its role.

In general, all The World History dismantled in my author's video course « »

Well, now, the promised jokes:

Libertarianism.
You have two cows. They graze and milk themselves.

Neighborhood community.
You have two cows. Your neighbors help you take care of them, and you share milk with your neighbors.

clan society.
The elder takes everything. And you never had cows.

Feudalism.
You have two cows. Your feudal master takes ¾ of your milk.

Christian Democracy.
You have two cows. You keep one for yourself and give the other to your neighbor.

Socialism (ideal).
You have two cows. The government takes them away and puts them in a stall with other comrades' cows. You must take care of all cows. The government gives you as much milk as you need.

Socialism (bureaucratic).
You have two cows. The government takes them, places them on the farm along with the cows of other citizens. They are looked after by the former owners of chicken coops. You must take care of the chickens that have been selected from the owners of the chicken coops. The state gives you as much milk and eggs as the regulations require.

Communism (ideal):
You have two cows. The state takes both and gives you as much milk as you need.

Communism:
You have 2 cows. The state takes both cows and gives you some milk.

Stalinist communism.
You have two cows. you forget complain about them, but the government takes all the milk for itself. Sometimes it leaves you some milk.

Dictatorship.
You have two cows. The government takes both and shoots you. Milk is banned.

Totalitarianism.
You have two cows. The government takes both, denies their existence, and drafts you into the army. Milk is prohibited.

Fascism.
You have two cows. The state takes both of them and sells you a certain amount of milk (if you are a Jew, it does not give)

Nazism.
You have two cows. The state takes them both and shoots you.

Bureaucracy.
You have two cows. The state tells you what you have the right to feed them, when and how you can milk them. It forbids you to sell milk. After a while, the state takes both cows, kills one of them, milks the other, and pours the milk into the river. You are then required to submit 16 notarized records for each missing cow.

Democracy - 1.
You have two cows. Your neighbors decide who gets the milk.

Democracy - 2.
You have two cows and everyone tells you how to milk them. If you milk them any other way, you will be sued for animal cruelty.

Electoral democracy.
You have two cows. Your neighbors choose someone to come to you and tell you who gets the milk.

American Democracy.
The government promises you two cows if you vote for it. After the election, the president is impeached for speculating on future cows. The press inflates the hype around the "Cow Scandal".

Liberalism.
You have two cows. The state doesn't care if you exist, let alone your cows.

France before the revolution was a rich and prosperous power: accounting for about 1/5 of the population of Europe, it concentrated in itself over a quarter of its wealth. Revolution 1789-1794 was essentially inevitable, since French society, which continued to bear the burden of feudal ideas and institutions, reached a dead end. The absolute monarchy could not prevent the steadily growing economic, social and political crisis. The main obstacle to the further development of France was precisely the absolute monarchy. It had long ceased to express national interests and more openly defended medieval class privileges, including exclusive land nobility, the guild system, trade monopolies, and other attributes of feudalism.

Background of the French Revolution:

growing dissatisfaction with the existing order among the general population, incl. the bourgeoisie, parts of the nobility and clergy;
crop failure, financial crisis caused by immense spending on the maintenance of the army, the apparatus and the royal court;
oppression of the bureaucracy, arbitrariness in the courts;
predatory requisitions from the peasants, shop regulation, which hindered the development of manufactories, customs barriers, the depravity of the ruling elite.

The French enlighteners (Voltaire, Montesquieu, Morreli, J.-J. Rousseau, Diderot, Holbach) played a particularly significant role in preparing the revolution. Religion, understanding of nature, society, state order - everything was subjected to merciless criticism.
The ideas of Montesquieu formed the basis of the Constitution of 1791, the founders of the Constitution of 1793 were guided by the teachings of Rousseau, and the ideas of Adam Smith were put in the basis of the Civil Code of 1804.

Stages of the French Revolution

There are three stages in the history of the French Revolution:

July 14, 1789 - August 10, 1792;
August 10, 1792 - June 2, 1793;
the highest stage of the revolution - June 2, 1793 - July 27/28, 1794.

The first stage of the French Revolution

In May 1789, the States General were convened (a body of estate representation, convened 3 times a year, in which the nobility, clergy and third estate were represented). The king demanded the introduction of new taxes, insisting on voting by estates (each estate - one vote). The Estates General refused to obey. It was decided to take decisions by majority vote at joint meetings of the estates. This majority turned out to be on the side of the opposition forces. The king tried to dissolve the States General, which objectively reflected the interests of the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility and sought to preserve the monarchy, to lay a solid foundation of constitutionalism under the shattered building of the old state (in this regard, the leaders of the third estate in the Constituent Assembly were called constitutionalists).

constitutionalists had as their main and immediate political goal the achievement of a compromise with the royal power, but at the same time they constantly experienced the "impact of the street" - the revolutionary-minded masses. Thus, the main content of the first period of the revolution was the intense and protracted struggle of the Constituent Assembly with the royal power for a constitution, for the reduction of traditional royal prerogatives, for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

The States General proclaimed themselves the National and then the Constituent Assembly, announcing their engagement in the reorganization of the state. Troops were drawn to Paris. On July 14, 1789, the rebellious Parisians with soldiers who had gone over to their side captured the Bastille. The moderate forces of the revolution come to power - the Feuillants, who advocated constitutional monarchy and the abolition of feudal vestiges.

August 11, 1789 The Constituent Assembly adopts a decree "On the abolition of feudal rights and privileges", according to which:

feudal orders were abolished;
personal duties were abolished;
the lands of emigrants were transferred to perpetual possession or subject to sale;
the sale of positions was prohibited;
senior justice was abolished;
the lands of the clergy were placed at the disposal of the nation;
canceled internal goods and guild system;
The territory was divided into 83 departments.

The National Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and", which proclaimed:

sacredness and inviolability of natural rights and freedoms;
the principle of the national;
the principle of legality;
principles of criminal procedure and law.

Legislature given to a unicameral legislature. An insignificant part of the population took part in his election - active citizens (4 out of 26 million people), women were not allowed to vote. Deputies were elected for two years, enjoyed the right of immunity and were representatives of the entire nation.
Assembly Powers:

issuing laws;
adoption of the budget (establishment of taxes, determination of public expenditures);
determination of the size of the army and navy;
holding ministers accountable;
ratification of treaties with foreign states. The king retained the right of suspensive veto on the laws adopted by the Assembly and the decision to go to war was subject to approval by the king.

Almost all peoples have had revolutions in history. But today we will talk about the French Revolution, which began to be called the Great.

The largest transformation of social and political systems s of France, which led to the destruction of the absolute monarchy, and the proclamation of the First French Republic.

We will tell you about the Great French Revolution from various sources.

Source I - Wikipedia

Causes of the revolution

The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and historians consider it to end on November 9, 1799 (coup of 18 Brumaire).

France in the 18th century absolute monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a regular army. The existing socio-economic and political regime formed as a result of complex compromises worked out in the course of a long political confrontation and civil wars XIV-XVI centuries One of these compromises existed between the royal power and the privileged estates - for the renunciation of political rights, the state power protected the social privileges of these two estates with all the means at its disposal.

Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - during a long series of peasant wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. the peasants achieved the abolition of the vast majority of monetary taxes and the transition to natural relations in agriculture. The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted a layer of French bourgeois). However, the regime that developed as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the 18th century. began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily from England. In addition, excessive exploitation increasingly armed the masses of the people against the monarchy, whose vital interests were completely ignored by the state.

Gradually during the XVIII century. at the top of French society, an understanding has matured that the old order, with its underdevelopment of market relations, chaos in the management system, corrupt system for the sale of public posts, lack of clear legislation, a confusing system of taxation and an archaic system of class privileges, needs to be reformed. In addition, the royal power was losing confidence in the eyes of the clergy, the nobility and the bourgeoisie, among which the idea was asserted that the power of the king is a usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (Montesquieu's point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (Rousseau's point of view). Thanks to the activities of the enlighteners, of whom the physiocrats and encyclopedists are especially important, a revolution took place in the minds of the educated part of French society. Finally, under Louis XV, and to an even greater extent under Louis XVI, liberal reforms were initiated in the political and economic fields. The granting of some political rights to the third estate, along with a significant deterioration in its economic situation as a result of the reforms, inevitably led to the collapse of the Old Order.

The meaning of the French Revolution

Hastened the development of capitalism and the collapse of feudalism
Influenced the entire subsequent struggle of peoples for the principles of democracy
Became a lesson, an example and a warning to the reformers of life in other countries
Contributed to the development of national self-consciousness of European peoples

Source II - catastrofe.ru

characteristic look

The Great French Revolution - the largest transformation of the social and political systems of France, which occurred at the end of the 18th century, as a result of which the old order, and France changed from a monarchy to a de jure republic of free and equal citizens. Motto - Freedom, equality, brotherhood.
The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and various historians consider it to end on July 27, 1794 (Thermidorian coup) or November 9, 1799 (Coup of 18 Brumaire).

Marxist historians argue that the Great French Revolution was “bourgeois” in nature, consisting in the replacement of the feudal system by the capitalist one, and the leading role in this process was played by the “bourgeoisie class”, which overthrew the “feudal aristocracy” during the revolution. Most other historians do not agree with this, pointing out that feudalism in France disappeared several centuries before the revolution; the French aristocracy actually included not only large landowners, but also large capitalists) it was the French aristocracy that propagated capitalist (market) relations for 25- 30 years prior to 1789 the revolution began with mass uprisings peasants and townspeople, who were anti-capitalist in nature, and they continued throughout its course, and the bourgeoisie, which was the French middle class, took an active part in them) Those who came to power after the first stage of the revolution, especially in the provinces, in the majority did not they came from the bourgeoisie, but they were nobles who, even before the revolution, were at the helm of power - they collected taxes, rent from the population, etc.

Among non-Marxist historians, two views on the nature of the Great French Revolution prevail, which do not contradict each other. The traditional view, which arose at the end of the XVIII - early XIX centuries (Sieyes, Barnave, Guizot), considers the revolution as a popular uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppression of the masses, from where the revolutionary terror against the privileged classes, the desire of the revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with the Old Order, and build a new free and democratic society . From these aspirations flowed the main slogans of the revolution - freedom, equality, fraternity.

According to the second view, which shares big number modern historians (including I. Wallerstein, P. Huber, A. Cobbo, D. Guerin, E. Leroy Ladurie, B. Moore, Huneke, etc.), the revolution was anti-capitalist in nature and was an explosion of mass protest against capitalism or against those methods of its distribution, which were used by the ruling elite.

There are other opinions about the nature of the revolution. For example, the historians F. Furet and D. Riche consider the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between various groups that replaced each other several times during 1789-1799. There is a view of the revolution as the liberation of the bulk of the population (peasants) from a monstrous system of oppression or some kind of slavery, whence the main slogan of the revolution is freedom, equality, fraternity.

From the storming of the Bastille to the march on Versailles

When the preparations of the royal court for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly became obvious, this was enough to cause an even greater outburst of discontent among the Parisians, who linked the prospects for improving their position with the work of the National Assembly. On July 12, 1789, there were new clashes between the people and the troops in Paris; Camille Desmoulins called the people to arms by attaching a green ribbon to his hat. On July 13, the alarm sounded over Paris.
On the morning of July 14, 12 cannons, 32,000 guns and gunpowder were seized in Les Invalides. Countless crowds of people, partly armed with guns, as well as lances, hammers, axes and clubs, flooded the streets adjacent to the Bastille - a military fortress and the main political prison of Paris. The officers of the regiments stationed in Paris no longer counted on their soldiers. Communication with Versailles was interrupted. At about one o'clock in the afternoon, the cannons of the fortress began firing at the people.

However, the people continued the siege, and the cannons captured in the morning were prepared to bombard the fortress. The garrison realized that resistance was pointless, and about five o'clock surrendered.
The king was forced to recognize the existence of the Constituent Assembly. In the weeks that followed, the revolution spread throughout the country. On July 18 there was an uprising in Troyes, on July 19 - in Strasbourg, on July 21 - in Cherbourg, on July 24 - in Rouen. In a number of cities, uprisings took place under the slogan “Bread! Death to the buyers! The rebels seized bread, took possession of the local town halls, burned the documents stored there.

Subsequently, new, elected bodies of power - municipalities - were formed in the cities, a new armed force - the National Guard - was created.
The rebellious peasants burned the castles of the lords, seizing their lands. In some provinces, about half of the landowners' estates were burned or destroyed. (These events of 1789 were called "Great Fear" - Grande Peur).

By decrees of August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations and declared equality of all before the law in paying state taxes and in the right to hold civil, military and church posts. But at the same time, it announced the elimination of only "indirect" duties (the so-called banalities): the "real" duties of the peasants were left, in particular, land and poll taxes.

On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" - one of the first documents of democratic constitutionalism. The “old regime”, based on estate privileges and the arbitrariness of the authorities, was opposed to the equality of all before the law, the inalienability of “natural” human rights, popular sovereignty, freedom of opinion, the principle “everything that is not prohibited by law” and other democratic principles of revolutionary enlightenment, which have now become the requirements of law and current legislation. The Declaration also affirmed the right to private property as a natural right.

On October 5, a campaign took place on Versailles to the residence of the king, in order to force Louis XVI to sanction the decrees and the Declaration, the approval of which the monarch had previously refused. At the same time, the National Assembly ordered Lafayette, who commanded the National Guard, to lead the guards to Versailles. As a result of this campaign, the king was forced to leave Versailles and move to Paris, to the Tuileries Palace.

Source III - studopedia.ru

I am the Kobin dictatorship

On September 21, the Republic (First Republic) was proclaimed in France. The motto of the Republic was the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity".

The question that worried everyone at that time was the fate of the arrested King Louis XVI. The convention decided to try him. On January 14, 1793, 387 out of 749 deputies of the Convention voted in favor of giving the king the death penalty. One of the deputies of the Convention explained his participation in the voting thus: “This process is an act of public salvation or a measure public safety... ”On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, in October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.

The execution of Louis XVI served as a pretext for expanding the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, the deepening of economic difficulties within the country, the growth of taxes - all this shook the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms and murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793, a popular uprising took place. From this event begins the third stage of the Revolution.

Power passed into the hands of the radical bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. The victory of the Montagnards on a national scale was preceded by their victory over their opponents in the Jacobin Club; therefore the regime they established was called the Jacobin dictatorship. To save the revolution, the Jacobins considered it necessary to introduce an emergency regime. Sine qua non Jacobins recognized centralization state power. The convention remained the supreme legislative body. In his submission was a government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety of the Convention was strengthened to fight against the counter-revolution, revolutionary tribunals became more active.

The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. In most departments of France, especially the Vendée, there were riots. In the summer of 1793, Marat was killed by a young noblewoman, Charlotte Corday, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.

The Jacobins continued to advance catholic church and introduced the Republican calendar. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, according to which France was declared a single and indivisible Republic; the rule of the people, the equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was canceled when participating in elections in government bodies; all men over the age of 21 were given the right to vote. Wars of conquest were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its introduction was delayed due to the state of emergency in the country.

The Jacobin dictatorship, which successfully used the initiative of the social rank and file, demonstrated a complete rejection of liberal principles. industrial production and Agriculture, finance and trade, public celebrations and the private life of citizens - everything was subject to strict regulation. However, this did not stop the further deepening of the economic and social crisis. In September 1793 the Convention "put terror on the agenda".

The Committee of Public Safety held a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which, in a fairly short time The republic managed to create not only a large, but also a well-armed army. And by the beginning of 1794 the war was transferred to the territory of the enemy. The decisive victory of General J. B. Jourdan on June 26, 1794 at Fleurus (Belgium) over the Austrians gave guarantees of the inviolability of the new property, the tasks of the Jacobin dictatorship were exhausted, and the need for it disappeared.

Among the Jacobins, internal divisions escalated. Thus, from the autumn of 1793, Danton demanded the weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to the constitutional order, and the abandonment of the policy of terror. He was executed. The lower classes demanded deepening reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policy of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, went over to counter-revolutionary positions, dragging along significant masses of peasants.

On 9 Thermidor (July 27), 1794, the conspirators succeeded in carrying out a coup, arresting Robespierre, and overthrowing the revolutionary government. “The republic has perished, the kingdom of robbers has come,” these were last words Robespierre at the Convention. On Thermidor 10, Robespierre, Saint-Just, and their closest associates were guillotined.

Thermidorian coup and the Directory. In September 1794, for the first time in the history of France, a decree was adopted on the separation of church and state. The confiscation and sale of emigrant property did not stop.

In 1795 was adopted new constitution, according to which power passed to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. Universal suffrage was abolished, the property qualification was restored (albeit a small one). In the summer of 1795, the republican army of General L. Hoche defeated the forces of the rebels - Chouans and royalists, who landed from English ships on the Quiberon (Brittany) peninsula. On October 5 (13 Vendemière), 1795, the republican troops of Napoleon Bonaparte crushed a royalist revolt in Paris. However, in the politics of the groupings that were replaced in power (Thermidorians, the Directory), the struggle against the masses of the people became more and more widespread. Popular uprisings in Paris were suppressed on April 1 and May 20-23, 1795 (Germinal 12-13 and Prairial 1-4). On November 9, 1799, the Council of Elders appointed Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) as commander of the army. Large-scale external aggression - Napoleonic Wars in Italy, Egypt, etc. - protected Thermidorian France both from the threat of the restoration of the old order, and from a new upsurge of the revolutionary movement.

The revolution ended on November 9 (Brumaire 18), 1799, when the regime of the Directory was legally abolished and a new state order was established - the Consulate, which existed from 1799 to 1804. A "firm power" was established - the dictatorship of Napoleon.

The main results of the French Revolution

1. It consolidated and simplified the complex variety of pre-revolutionary forms of ownership.

2. The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to the peasants with an installment plan of 10 years in small plots (parcels).

3. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries, the introduction of constitutions.

4. The revolution took place under the auspices of representative elected bodies: the National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), the Convention (1792-1794). This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent setbacks.

5. The resolution spawned a new state structure- a parliamentary republic.

6. The state now acted as the guarantor of equal rights for the veins of citizens.

7. The financial system was transformed: the estate nature of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. The publicity of the budget was proclaimed.

One of the main causes of the French Revolution (French Revolution) in 1789 was the financial crisis. In the middle of the 18th century, France was involved in a whole series of ruinous wars, so that there was almost no money left in the state treasury.

The only effective way to replenish the treasury could be the taxation of the aristocracy, clergy and nobility, who were traditionally exempt from taxes.

But those, of course, with all their might resisted changing their financial position. Although King Louis XVI had absolute power, yet he did not dare to use this power in relation to upper classes because he was afraid of being accused of despotism. In an effort to find a way out of this extremely difficult situation and to gain the approval of the people, the monarch decided to convene the States General of France for the first time since 1614.

The states general were the highest body of the estate representation of the country. They consisted of three "states" or estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate) and the rest of the population, which included the majority of the French, namely the middle classes and the peasantry (Third Estate). A meeting of the Estates General was held in May 1789, with each estate presenting its grievances.

What the government did not expect at all was the huge number of complaints from the (Third Estate), which mainly consisted of representatives of the already formed bourgeois class, the new bourgeoisie were unhappy that they did not have the political rights that they could count on in due to their material and social status.

The tension was further increased by the fact that there were many disagreements about the procedure for voting: whether to give the right to vote to each estate, as tradition prescribed (in this case, there would be more privileged estates, and the Third Estate would remain in the minority), or whether to vote each representative can separately (in which case the Third Estate would receive the majority).

Under pressure from the people, Louis XVI was inclined to allow individual representatives to vote, but at the same time he began to draw troops to Versailles and Paris, as if he had already repented of having conceded to the Third Estate and was preparing to repel a possible blow.

The threat of an attack by the royal army on Paris led to the fact that the townspeople were in the thick of things. A group of electors, who were the final deputies from Paris for the Estates General, occupied the City Hall and proclaimed themselves the city government, or Commune.

The commune organized a people's militia, which then became known as the National Guard. The National Guard was supposed to maintain order in the troubled city that had become by this time and prepare the capital for defense against the attack of the royal troops. However, the Guard had to intervene much earlier, since on July 14 a crowd of angry Parisians headed for the arsenal of the Bastille prison in order to get weapons for the city detachments, and this campaign was a success.

The storming of the Bastille played a big role in the development of the revolutionary process and became a symbol of victory over the despotic forces of the monarchy. Although the consequences of the revolution were significant for all of France and even for Europe, the most significant events took place mainly in Paris.

Finding themselves in the epicenter of the revolution, ordinary residents of the capital, the so-called sans-culottes (literally, “people without short pants”, that is, men who wore long pants, unlike aristocrats and other rich people) became the main actors of the revolution. They formed revolutionary detachments, which became the main driving force at the critical moments of the Revolution.

While the bourgeois deputies were mainly concerned with political reforms, the sans-culottes put forward clear economic demands: control over pricing, provision of food for the city, and so on. With these demands, they took to the streets and thus founded the tradition of street revolutionary performances, which has survived to this day.

Creation of the National Assembly

While the king was gathering troops to Versailles, representatives of the Third Estate proclaimed themselves the National Assembly and invited the clergy and nobility to join them (which some nobles and part of the lower clergy did).

Most of the Assembly would probably agree with a constitutional reform that would limit the power of the monarchy in the English manner. But the real power of the deputies was determined mainly by their ability to avert the threat of a popular uprising in Paris. The king was forced to recognize the National Assembly, which in August 1789 adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, abolishing the feudal privileges of the old regime.

There were rumors in the city about counter-revolutionary sentiments at the court in Versailles, so that in October special squad Parisians went to Versailles and ordered the king to return to Paris, after which the monarch was placed in the Tuileries Palace, where he actually lived as a prisoner. In 1791, the monarch secretly left the city in the hope of fleeing abroad, but he was caught in Varennes and brought back to Paris in disgrace.

Unlike the king, many nobles managed to leave the country, and they began to persuade foreign states to oppose the revolutionary government. Some members of the National Assembly believed that in order to unite the nation and for the cause of the revolution, a war should be started, which would help spread the ideals of the revolution outside the country.

Following the initiative of the Girondin faction (a group of deputies from the Gironde region around Bordeaux), the Assembly decided, in order to defend the Revolution, to declare war on certain states. In 1792, France declared war on Austria, and a series of French revolutionary wars began. Since things were going rather badly at the front, moderate sentiments were gradually replaced by more radical ones.

Calls were made to overthrow the king and establish a republic. The National Assembly split, and the Parisians had to take power into their own hands. In August 1792, the sans-culottes marched to the City Hall, established their rebel Commune, and imprisoned the king. Under pressure from the new Commune, the National Assembly agreed to the dissolution, and for the adoption of a new, already republican constitution, it announced the election of a new Convention.

There is no doubt that the people's militias played an important role in the establishment of the republic, but at the same time they are also responsible for one of the most brutal atrocities of the Revolution, the September massacres of 1792, during which about 1200 people were brutally killed, prisoners of Parisian prisons ( Conciergerie, La Force and others).

Among those killed were recalcitrant priests and political prisoners, as well as Marie Antoinette's closest friend, Princess Lamballe. Later that month, the first meeting of the Convention was held, at which the monarchy was abolished, a republic was established, and the king was put on trial for treason.

Louis XVI was sentenced to death, and in January 1793 he was guillotined in the Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde). The execution of the king forced the royalists to unite both inside and outside France itself, and a vast military coalition was formed against revolutionary France. The convention at that time was torn apart by internal contradictions, two main factions stood out in it: the Girondins and the more radical Jacobins.

The moderate Girondins gradually yielded, and as a result, in June 1793, this faction ceased to exist. The Convention established a military dictatorship and carried out its policies through various bodies, including the Committee of National Security, headed by Maximilian Robespierre.

Justifying its actions by considerations of public necessity, the National Security Committee began the physical destruction of "enemies of the people"; this period entered the history of the Revolution under the name "Great Terror". Among the first victims of the terror was Queen Marie Antoinette, who calmly and with dignity mounted the guillotine in October 1793.

In the next few months, about 2,600 more people were executed, including many moderate revolutionaries, such as Danton, who, going to his death, remained true to himself and uttered such proud words: “First of all, do not forget to show the people my head because she deserves to be looked at.” Together with him, the romantic idealist Camille Desmoulins also ascended the scaffold, who on July 12, 1789, climbing onto a table in a cafe in the Palais Royal, urged people to take up arms.

The era of Terror ended in July 1794, when Robespierre, who had already shown himself to be a tyrant, was arrested by members of the Convention, not without reason fearing that the weapons of Terror could be directed against them, and then shared the fate of those people whom he condemned to death. .?

After the end of the Terror, the country returned to a more moderate policy, and power was handed over to the five-member Directory, which, unfortunately, showed weakness and a tendency to corruption. A period of instability ensued, during which there was a constant struggle between royalists and revolutionaries. The ruling class needed a strong leader who would adopt a constitution giving more power to the executive branch.

And such a leader was found, he became General Napoleon Bonaparte, who had already proved himself as an outstanding commander on the battlefields in Italy and Austria and easily crushed the royalist rebellion in Paris in October 1795. In November 1799 Napoleon overthrew the Directory and thereby carried out a coup d'état. In 1802, Napoleon appointed himself first consul for life, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself Emperor of France.