Its main postulates

Functional systems are understood as such self-regulating dynamic organizations, the activity of all the constituent components of which mutually contributes to the achievement of adaptive results useful for the organism as a whole.

Such results, first of all, are various indicators of metabolism and the internal environment of the body. In addition, these are numerous results of the behavioral activity of living beings, which determine the satisfaction of their leading needs. In the body, therefore, there are as many functional systems as there are useful, adaptive results.

For example, from the teachings of P. K. Anokhin on functional systems follows one of the leading patterns of growth and development of the body - SIS-TEMOGENESIS. The latter is very clearly seen in the early stages of child development: the newborn is not capable of any active physical action, except for the implementation of innate reflexes. At a certain stage, the child will turn on his side when the functional system that ensures this act reaches sufficient development (the corresponding development of the musculoskeletal system, the mechanism of orientation in space, etc.). Also, further, he, in due time, will sit down, walk, run, when the functional systems providing these acts have reached a certain degree of development. Thus, SYSTEMOGENESIS is a selective and accelerated development of anatomical and physiological formations (functional systems) that ensure survival and functioning of a person at each individual stage of development. Functional systems mature unevenly, turn on in stages, change, providing the body with adaptation in different periods of ontogenetic development.

The composition of functional systems is not determined by the topographic proximity of the structures or their belonging to any section of the anatomical classification. The functional system can involve both nearby and distant structures of the body. The only factor determining the selectivity of these compounds is the biological and physiological architecture of the function, and the only criterion for their usefulness is the final adaptive effect for the whole organism, which occurs when the processes in a given functional system unfold.

Thus, the central link of any functional system represents one or another result useful for the organism as a whole, for its metabolism. The last (result) is the “visiting card” of any functional system. Any state of the result, and especially a deviation from the level that ensures normal metabolism, is perceived by the corresponding receptors, which transmit information to special centers. The latter, in turn, mobilize various executive mechanisms that bring the result to the optimal level for the body. As a result, functional systems operate on the principle of self-regulation.

Functional systems are units of the integral activity of the organism. They are dynamic self-regulating organizations that are formed on a metabolic basis or under the influence of environmental factors, and in humans - the social environment.

The variety of adaptive results useful for the organism indicates that the number of functional systems that make up various aspects of the life of the whole organism can be extremely large. Some functional systems by their activity determine various indicators of the internal environment of the body, others - behavioral activity and interaction with the environment.

Any functional system, according to the ideas of P. K. Anokhin, has a fundamentally the same type of organization and includes the following general, universal for different systems, peripheral and central nodal mechanisms:

· useful adaptive result as a leading link in a functional system, it is the "trigger" of the system;

· result receptors - giving a "task" to obtain an adaptive result (here the unconditional part of the reflex ends);

· back afferentation , coming from the receptors of the result to the central formations of the functional system as a necessary and universal stage of any conditioned reflex or behavioral act, when the whole complex of information is given " feedback» to the central link of the functional system, as far as the given solution to the correctly set task;

· central architecture (centers of the cerebral cortex), representing a selective association of functional systems of nerve elements of various levels, which is an analyzer (corrector) decision(prediction and control of the results of action);

· executive somatic, vegetative and endocrine Components , including organized purposeful behavior within the framework determined by the existing decision of the functional system.

In the whole organism, the interaction of various functional systems is based on the principles of hierarchy and multiply connected, multiparametric interaction of the results of the activity of individual functional systems.

Hierarchy principle is that in each this moment time, the activity of the organism is determined by the functional system that dominates in terms of survival or adaptation to the environment (the principle dominants). Other functional systems are arranged in a hierarchical order in accordance with their biological significance and the need for social activities person.

The change of dominant functional systems occurs constantly and reflects the essence of the ongoing metabolism and the constant interaction of the organism with the environment. However, all functional systems are closely interconnected and a change in one indicator, the result of the activity of any functional system, immediately affects the results of the activity of other functional systems.

A holistic organism at any given moment of time represents a well-coordinated interaction, integration (vertically and horizontally) of various functional systems, which determines the normal course of metabolic processes. Violation of this integration, if it is not compensated by special mechanisms, means a disease and can lead to the death of the organism.

Many branches of natural science put into practice the theory of functional systems by P. K. Anokhin, which is evidence of its universality. The academician is considered a student of I. P. Pavlov, only in his student years he was lucky enough to work under the strict guidance of V. M. Bekhterev. The influence of the fundamental views of these great scientists prompted P. K. Anokhin to create and justify general theory functional systems.

Historical background

Some of the results of Pavlov's research are still being studied in educational institutions. It should be noted that Darwin's theory has not been removed from the school curriculum, but concrete evidence of its truth has not been provided to the scientific community. It is taken "on faith".

However, observations of the Earth's ecosystem confirm that it does not exist: plants share nutrients and moisture with each other, evenly distributing everything.

In the animal kingdom, it can be seen that individuals do not kill more than is necessary to ensure their livelihoods. Animals that violate the natural balance through abnormal behavior (for example, begin to kill everyone), as sometimes happens with some members of the wolf pack, are exterminated by their own relatives.

Observations of primitive tribes that survived in the twentieth century, studying their culture, life, one can draw a conclusion about a primitive man who felt, understood, knew that he was part of the environment. Killing some animal for food, he left something from the one he killed, but not as a trophy, but as a reminder of someone's life spent to continue his own.

From this follows the conclusion that ancient people had the concept of community, dependence on various environmental factors.

Research area of ​​Petr Kuzmich

The theory of P. K. Anokhin, on the contrary, is built on the basis of an extensive experimental base, a clearly structured methodology. However, the academician was led to this concept long years observations, practice, experiments, theoretical study of the results. Not the last role in shaping systems approach the results of the experiments of Pavlov, Bekhterev, Sechenov played to the problem of purposeful activity. At the same time, the concept of functional systems cannot be called “copying” or “continuing” the theories of the listed authors due to the difference in methodology and general structure.

Methodological approaches of Pavlov and Anokhin

Upon a detailed examination of the concepts, one can notice that the positions of the methodology are understood and explained by the authors in completely different ways.

The above basic methodological principles of the authors allow us to conclude that they are “opposites”. The theory of functional systems by Petr Anokhin cannot be a logical continuation of the materialistic teachings of IP Pavlov.

Influence of the works of V. M. Bekhterev

A historical fact is the disagreement between the creator of Objective Psychology and Pavlov. Thanks to the vindictiveness and pettiness of the latter, Bekhterev was not awarded the Nobel Prize.

The author of the theory of functional systems describes the functioning of the Pavlovian school as the voicing of many hypotheses (taken on faith) against the background of one fundamental discovery (conditioned reflex). Indeed, the works of the famous physiologist (these are several volumes of Pavlovian environments) are a discussion with employees of the main hypotheses and assumptions.

Pavlov's scientific works were recognized by the world community and were, for their time, quite progressive, but the "reflexology" designed by Bekhterev had the objectivity that was lacking in Pavlov's theory. She studied the influence of human physiology on his socialization and behavior.

It should be noted that after the mysterious death of Vladimir Mikhailovich, both "Reflexology" and "Objective Psychology", as scientific trends, were "frozen".

Studying the legacy of Bekhterev and Anokhin, one can notice some general principles in the methodology of studying the subject. Worthy of attention is the fact that the theoretical assumptions of both authors have always been based on practical research and observations. While Pavlov allowed "issuing devastating reviews" only because of personal hostility.

The emergence of the concept, its development

The foundations of the theory of functional systems were laid back in the thirties of the twentieth century on the basis of studying the interaction of central and peripheral nervous activity. Rich practical experience Pyotr Kuzmich received at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine named after A. M. Gorky, which served as the basis for the creation in the forties of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the Leningrad Institute of Experimental Medicine.

The academician was able to study nervous activity not only at the general biological level. The first steps were taken in studies of the embryological aspects of the functioning of higher nervous activity. As a result, the structural and functional approaches in Anokhin's systems theory are recognized as the most advanced. It highlights private mechanisms and their integration into more complex system higher order.

Describing the structure of behavioral reactions, the academician came to the conclusion about the integration of particular mechanisms into a holistic behavioral act. This principle was called the "functional system". Not a simple sum of reflexes, namely their combination into complexes of a higher order, according to the theory of functional systems, initiates human behavior.

Using the same principles, one can consider not only complex behavioral reactions, but also individual motor acts. Self-regulation is the main effective principle in Anokhin's theory of the functional system. The achievement of planned goals that benefit the body occurs through the interaction and self-regulation of the smaller components of the system.

The publication of Anokhin's book "Philosophical aspects of the theory of a functional system" includes selected works covering the issues of natural and artificial intelligence, physiology and cybernetics, as well as system-forming factors.

Systemogenesis as the basis of the theory

In the definition, a "functional system" is described as obtaining a useful result through the interaction of elements of a wide, constantly transforming distributed system. The universality of the theory of the functional system of Anokhin P.K. lies in its application in relation to any purposeful action.

From the point of view of physiology, functional systems are divided into two categories:

• The first of them is designed to maintain the constancy of the main parameters of the body through self-regulation, for example, maintaining body temperature. In case of any deviations, processes of self-regulation of the internal environment are launched.
• The second provides adaptation to the environment due to the connection with it, which regulates behavior change. It is this system that underlies various behavioral responses. Information about changes in the external environment is a natural incentive to correct various behavioral forms.

The structure of the central system consists of successive stages:

• afferent synthesis (or "bringing" to an organ or nerve center);
• decision-making;
• acceptor of the results of an action (or "acceptance" of the results of an action);
• efferent synthesis ("carrying out", transmitting impulses);
• formation of action;
• evaluation of the achieved result.

Various kinds of motives and needs (vital (thirst, hunger), social (communication, recognition), ideal (spiritual and cultural self-realization)) stimulate and correct the form of behavior. However, in order to move to the stage of purposeful activity, the action of “starting stimuli” is required, with the help of which the transition to the decision-making stage takes place.

This stage is implemented on the basis of programming the results of future actions through the involvement of a person's individual memory in relation to the surrounding objects and methods of action to achieve the goal.

Goal setting in theory

The selection of the goal of behavior in the theory of Anokhin's functional system is key point. Both positive and negative leading emotions are directly related to goal setting. They set the vector and contribute to the selection of the goal of behavior, laying the foundations of morality from the standpoint of the theory of functional systems. Situational emotions act as a regulator of behavior at this stage of achieving the goal and can provoke the abandonment of the goal or a change in the plan for achieving the desired.

The principles of the theory of the functional system of Anokhin P.K. are based on the assertion that it is impossible to equate a sequence of reflexes with purposeful behavior. Behavior differs from the chain of reflexes by the presence of a systematized structure based on the programming of actions with the help of anticipatory reflection of reality. Comparison of the results of the action with the program and other related processes determine the purposefulness of behavior.

Functional system diagram

Academician's theory and cybernetics

Cybernetics is the science of the regularities of control processes in various systems. The methods of cybernetics are used in cases where the collision of the system with the environment has caused certain changes (adjustments) in the behavior of the system itself.

It is easy to see that there are certain facets of contact between cybernetics and Anokhin's theory of functional systems. Briefly describe the attitude of Peter Kuzmich to the science that was new at that time. He is rightly called a propagandist and developer of questions of cybernetics. This is evidenced by the articles included in the collection "Philosophical Aspects of the Theory of a Functional System".

In this regard, the book “Selected Works. Cybernetics of functional systems”. It describes in detail the issues and problems of cybernetics and their possible solution using the theory of functional systems, which is given as the main principle of control among biological systems.

The role of P.K. Anokhin in the development of a systematic approach is to substantiate a scientific theory with precise physiological reasoning, in contrast to his predecessors. Anokhin's theory is a universal model of the body's work, which has precise formulations. It is also impossible to ignore the functioning of the model based on the processes of self-regulation.

The universality of the theory of functional systems is expressed in the possibility of studying the activity of systems of any complexity, since it has a well-developed structured model. With the help of numerous experiments, it was proved that the laws of cybernetics are characteristic of any functional systems included in living organisms.

Finally

The theory of Anokhin Pyotr Kuzmich, which has existed for more than fifty years, defines a person as a self-regulating system that is in unity with the outside world. On this basis, new theories about the occurrence of diseases and their treatment, as well as many psychological concepts, have appeared.

» Anokhin functional system

© V.A. Romenets, I.P. Manoha

Theory of functional systems P.K. Anokhin (1898-1974)

The idea of ​​functionalism (as the unity of the integrative activity of the brain and the body) P.K. Anokhin proposed in 1939. It dealt with the fundamental problems of physiology, psychology and cybernetics.

The principles of the theory of functional systems put forward by Anokhin were stated as follows: one can state the presence of a system-organizing factor that determines the formation of cooperative relations between the components of the system that contain a functionally useful result.

Such cooperation becomes possible if the system permanently chooses the "degrees of freedom" of each system component (we can talk, for example, about the synaptic formation of a neuron). Thus, the reverse afferentation as a result produces a reorganized effect of cooperative relations between the system of components, a certain specific key of mechanisms (internal architectonics) cannot build a conceptual bridge for the researcher from the level of integration to the level of the finest mechanisms of brain systematic activity with the molecular level inclusive.

These fundamental mechanisms of a functional system ensure continuous self-organization and plastic adaptation in relation to changes in the external environment. The key mechanisms of the functional system were identified:

• afferent synthesis
• decision-making;
• acceptor of action results;
• action program,
• the result of an action;
• reverse afferentation, which contains all the parameters of the result;
• comparison of real results with those that were foreseen in advance in the acceptor of the results of the action.

Anokhin's theory gives us the opportunity to study and evaluate complex processes in the life of the whole organism.

Thus, a functional system consists of a certain number of nodal mechanisms, each of which takes its place and has a certain specific purpose. The first one is afferent synthesis, in which four mandatory components are distinguished: dominant motivation, situational and triggering afferentation, and memory. The interaction of these components leads to the decision making process.

Any purposeful action of an animal or a person occurs only if there is an appropriate motivation, it is formed on the basis of a need (physiological, social, etc.). If there is no such motivation, the behavior is not realized. Therefore, it is impossible to develop a digestive conditioned reflex in a well-fed animal, since there is no motivation for hunger. Accordingly, for the formation of purposeful behavior, appropriate actualization (excitation) of certain nerve centers is necessary with simultaneous suppression of other centers. That is, the motivation of an action or behavior should be dominant.

A behavioral act, depending on the surrounding conditions, can be carried out in different ways, that is, situational afferentation determines the nature of the action.

The third component of afferent synthesis is triggering afferentation, that is, excitation that directly causes a behavioral response. The external manifestation of the conditioned reflex begins to unfold only at the moment the corresponding signal is turned on, it acts as a starting stimulus. That is why the excitation that occurs when exposed to such a specific stimulus is called starting afferentation.

The fourth component of afferent synthesis is memory, that is, the past experience of a person or animal. You can reach the same goal different ways, therefore, memory suggests the nature of the reaction or the necessary line of behavior of the individual.

But before a decision is made, all four components of afferent synthesis must be processed, that is, their comparison, interaction. Afferent synthesis is based on the phenomenon of convergence (interaction) of excitations of different modality on polymodal neurons of the brain, which are able to respond with excitation to several stimuli, not only sensory (sound, visual, tactile, etc.), but also biologically (and not only!) (digestive, pain, etc.).

These neurodynamic processes cause the differentiation and evaluation of the possible results of the activity of a certain functional system before a decision is made to obtain a well-defined result, that is, the result that best corresponds to this dominant motivation in a given setting (situation).

According to Anokhin, all these multimodal excitations occur on one neuron, where information processing takes place, that is, the convergence of excitations on a neuron is a universal working factor of its integrative activity. In this neuron, there is a complex processing and recoding of the informational significance of all the numerous perturbations that have entered it into a single axonal excitation. Accordingly, this excitation leaving the neuron must have a very complex code value, that is, in its informational meaning, it must correspond to the integrative state of the whole neuron.

Afferent synthesis and decision-making predetermine the construction of an action program, that is, a specific set of efferent impulses is formed that should provide a peripheral action, and then the communication of the components of the corresponding result, which is the main task of a behavioral act.

Simultaneously with the action program, another important mechanism of the functional system arises - action result acceptor. It is a model of the future result of an action obtained as a result of a certain behavioral response, a copy of the efferent set of impulses that is created on the basis of the decision made. Accordingly, simultaneously with the passage of this efferent image of impulses to the executing organs, the copies must form in the brain a model (copy) of the future result of the action.

If a behavioral act is performed incorrectly or only partially, the brain receives this information. From the executive organs, it receives reverse afferentation in the form of discharges of afferent impulses, and this feedback is a necessary component of any functional system.

If the parameters of the result of the action do not differ from those intended, then the pattern of back afferentation matches the pattern of the acceptor of the result of the action, and the action is completed. When there is no such coincidence, there is a mismatch between the acceptor of the result of the action and the reverse afferentation, which leads to an increase in the orienting reaction of the animal or person, as a result of which the entire functional system starts up again and the cycle repeats until the results expected by the program are obtained.

Theory of anticipatory reflection of reality- a scientific result carried out by Anokhin in order to reveal the nature of the vital activity of the organism. External influences on the body (A, B, C, D, E, etc.), systematically repeating for a certain time, cause a certain series in the protoplasm of a living being chemical reactions(a B C D E). Protoplasm gets the opportunity to reflect in the micro time intervals of its chemical reactions the sequence of events of the external world, which by their very nature unfold in macro time intervals. The appearance of the first factor (A) is enough to bring the entire sequence of the chain of chemical reactions into an active state. The rate of chemical reactions of protoplasm ensures that the body is ahead of the deployment of successive, repeatedly repeated external influences. Anokhin regarded this property as a living universal and the only possible way of adapting the organism to the outside world. The entire history of the animal world shows the improvement of this ancient pattern, which P.K. Anokhin calls it a leading reflection of reality. At the same time, a number of environmental influences acquire a signal value, and the chains of successive chemical reactions that have formed on this basis appear as temporary links.

The central nervous system is considered as a substratum of high specialization, which developed as an apparatus for maximum and speedy anticipation of successive and repetitive phenomena of the external world. There is no doubt that the conditioned reflex in its signal function is interpreted as special case highly specialized forms of anticipatory reflection of reality.

In general, the theory of functional systems is a fairly effective attempt to comprehensively and holistically represent a behavioral act in the totality of physiological mechanisms that ensure its phased deployment from the initial to the final moment.

Romenets V.A., Manokha I.P. History of psychology of the XX century. - Kyiv, Lybid, 2003.

In addition to the school of IP Pavlov, which successfully develops the conditioned reflex theory in our time, there are a number of other areas in physiology. So, for example, the physiological school of the student of I.P. Pavlov, Academician P. K. Anokhina(1898–1974), who substantiated and developed the principle of the systemic organization of the body's activity - functional systems theory.

Among the many problems developed by P.K. Anokhin and his students, important place occupied the issue of the systemic work of the central nervous system in the conditions of the formation of the body's response to external stimuli. Experimental data obtained in conditioned reflex experiments, with parallel recording of the total electrical activity of a number of brain structures and the activity of individual neurons, made it possible to formulate the concept functional system. Back in 1937, P.K. Anokhin gave this concept the following definition: "a group of nerve formations with corresponding working organs on the periphery that perform a specific and well-defined function" . In further studies, the concept of a functional system has undergone certain, but not fundamental changes. One of the first in Russian and world physiology, Anokhin drew attention to the phenomenon back afferentation, which later became known as negative feedback principle (The same principle is the cornerstone of cybernetics). An important milestone The development of the views of P.K. Anokhin was his introduction of the concept of systemogenesis, i.e. about the patterns of development of functional systems.

In the concept of a functional system, a conditioned reflex is considered as the result of a complex multicomponent process. The leading system-forming factor is the achievement of a certain "final" result that meets the needs of the body at the moment. The initial nodal mechanism of a functional system is afferent synthesis. It is a complex of physiological processes, consisting of several functional blocks - dominant motivation, situational afferentation (the total amount of external and internal stimulation received by the brain in the experimental setting), the so-called starting afferentation and memory. As a result of the integration of these processes, "decision making" occurs. That is what determines final result process: on the basis of afferent synthesis, one of the many options for the response of the organism is selected. As a result, the number of degrees of freedom in the action of functional systems of other levels decreases and an action program is formed. In parallel with it, the so-called "action result acceptor", those. neural model of future (expected) results, a certain perfect image. The efferent excitation arising at the next stage leads to a certain action and result. Information about the parameters of the result through feedback (reverse afferentation)) is perceived acceptor of the results of action for comparison with the previously formed ("ideal") model. If the parameters of the result do not correspond to the pre-existing model, then a new excitation arises, which should make an appropriate correction. The acceptor of the results of action directs the activity of the organism up to the moment of achieving the desired goal.

A behavioral act can have a different degree of complexity, and being formed and carried out in specific conditions, he cannot help but depend on them. In the process of learning, animals learn new forms of behavior.

From the point of view of P.K. Anokhin, the structure of a behavioral act is a sequential change of the following stages:

• afferent synthesis;
• decision-making;
• acceptor of action results;
• efferent synthesis;
• the formation of the action itself;
• evaluation of the achieved result.

The stage of afferent synthesis is an analysis of the totality of information signals entering the central nervous system and giving the animal a reason to make a decision about possible behavior. During this stage, the body's need for something is taken into account, as well as the availability of possible ways to satisfy it, available in the animal's memory; the impact of various environmental factors (situational afferentation) and signals that trigger behavior (triggering afferentation). Any behavioral act is aimed at satisfying any need of the body.

The dominant need activates the corresponding memory departments that store information about possible ways to satisfy this need, and also activates the motor systems of the body, contributing to its speedy satisfaction. In addition to the presence of a corresponding need, the possibility of performing a behavioral act also depends on the conditions in which the animal has to act. Environmental factors, or situational afferentation, affect the manifestation and nature of a behavioral act, and sometimes they themselves can cause behavior habitual for a given situation. The significance of situational afferentation lies in the fact that, by creating a latent excitation, it timings behavior to a certain place, the most appropriate for satisfying the corresponding need. As a rule, behavior in an environment uncharacteristic for an animal that is not related to the satisfaction of this need proceeds less pronounced, incomplete or ineffective. As a result of the interaction of information about the need, the environment and memory data, the body's readiness for a certain action is formed, which is triggered by appropriate signals or stimuli, i.e. starting afferentation.

Trigger afferentation binds behavior to a specific time, a specific situation, and specific situation. The afferent synthesis stage ends with the transition to the decision-making stage, which determines the type and direction of behavior. At the same time, the so-called acceptor of the result of an action is formed, which is an image of future events, a result, an action program and an idea of ​​the means to achieve the desired result.

At the stage of efferent synthesis, a specific program of a behavioral act is formed, which turns into action - from which side to run, which paw to push and with what force. The result of the action received by the animal is compared in terms of its parameters with the acceptor of the result of the action. If a match occurs that satisfies the animal, the behavior in that direction ends; if not, the behavior is resumed with the changes necessary to achieve the goal.

Emotions play a big role in purposeful behavior. If the parameters of the performed action do not match action acceptor (set goal), then there is a negative emotional condition, which creates additional motivation to continue the action, its repetition according to the adjusted program until the result obtained coincides with the goal (acceptor of the action). If this coincidence happened on the first attempt, then a positive emotion arises that stops it.

Thus, the most important component that determines behavior is the achievement of a biologically useful result, the satisfaction of the leading biological needs: hunger, thirst, aggression, sexual need, parental, etc. Only in the presence of biological important goal the behavior becomes expedient for the animal, necessary for it and repeated with a high probability in the future. According to the theory of functional systems, although behavior is built on the reflex principle, it is defined as a sequence or chain of conditioned reflexes. The action of animals is determined not only by external stimuli, but also by internal needs, and arises on the basis of an anticipatory reflection of reality - programming, and the leading factor in the organization of behavior, its goal is to obtain a biologically useful result.

The theory of the functional system of P. K. Anokhin places emphasis in resolving the issue of the interaction of physiological and psychological processes and phenomena. It shows that both play an important role in the joint regulation of behavior, which cannot be fully scientifically explained either on the basis of knowledge of the physiology of higher nervous activity alone, or on the basis of purely psychological concepts. For numerous students and followers of P. K. Anokhin, the theory of functional systems served and serves as a theoretical basis for formulating certain physiological problems and for explaining the results obtained in experiments, however, its predictive capabilities are, as a rule, low, apparently due to extremely the general nature of the original formulations. Nevertheless, the concept of a functional system has been and remains one of the approaches accepted in Russian science to the consideration of the mechanisms of holistic behavior.

• Anokhin P.K. Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex. M., 1968.

The theory of functional systems describes the organization of life processes in an integral organism interacting with the environment.

This theory was developed while studying the mechanisms of compensation for impaired body functions. As was shown by P.K. Anokhin, compensation mobilizes a significant number of different physiological components - central and peripheral formations, functionally combined with each other to obtain a useful, adaptive effect necessary for a living organism at a given particular moment in time. Such a broad functional association of variously localized structures and processes to obtain the final adaptive result was called a “functional system”.

A functional system (FS) is a unit of integrative activity of the whole organism, including elements of various anatomical affiliations, actively interacting with each other and with the external environment in the direction of achieving a useful, adaptive result.

An adaptive result is a certain ratio of the organism and the external environment, which stops the action aimed at achieving it, and makes it possible to implement the next behavioral act. To achieve a result means to change the ratio between the organism and the environment in a direction that is beneficial for the organism.

The achievement of an adaptive result in a FS is carried out using specific mechanisms, of which the most important are:

Afferent synthesis of all incoming nervous system information;

Making a decision with the simultaneous formation of an apparatus for predicting the result in the form of an afferent model of the results of an action;
- actual action;
- comparison based on the feedback of the afferent model of the acceptor of the results of the action and the parameters of the performed action;
correction of behavior in case of mismatch between real and ideal (modeled by the nervous system) parameters of action.

The composition of a functional system is not determined by the spatial proximity of the structures or their anatomical affiliation. FS can include both closely and distantly located structures of the body. It can involve individual parts of any anatomically integral systems and even parts of individual whole organs. At the same time, a separate nerve cell, muscle, part of an organ, the entire organ can participate by their activity in achieving a useful adaptive result, only if they are included in the corresponding functional system. The factor determining the selectivity of these compounds is the biological and physiological architecture of the PS itself, and the criterion for the effectiveness of these associations is the final adaptive result.

Since for any living organism the number of possible adaptive situations is in principle unlimited, therefore, the same nerve cell, muscle, part of an organ or the organ itself can be part of several functional systems in which they will perform different functions.

Thus, when studying the interaction of an organism with the environment, the unit of analysis is a holistic, dynamically organized functional system. Types and levels of complexity of FS. Functional systems have different specializations. Some are responsible for breathing, others for movement, others for nutrition, etc. FS can belong to different hierarchical levels and be varying degrees difficulties: some of them are characteristic of all individuals of a given species (and even other species); others are individual, i.e. are formed for life in the process of mastering experience and form the basis of learning.

Hierarchy - the arrangement of parts or elements of the whole in order from the highest to the lowest, and each higher level is endowed with special powers in relation to the lower ones. Heterarchy is the principle of interaction between levels, when none of them has a permanent role as a leader and a coalition association of higher and lower levels is allowed. single system actions.

Functional systems differ in the degree of plasticity, i.e. by the ability to change their constituent components. For example, the PS of respiration consists mainly of stable (innate) structures and, therefore, has low plasticity: as a rule, the same central and peripheral components are involved in the act of respiration. At the same time, the FS that provides the movement of the body is plastic and can quite easily rearrange component relationships (you can reach something, run, jump, crawl).

afferent synthesis. The initial stage of a behavioral act of any degree of complexity, and, consequently, the beginning of the work of the FS is afferent synthesis. Afferent synthesis is the process of selection and synthesis of various signals about the environment and the degree of success of the body's activity in its conditions, on the basis of which the goal of the activity is formed, its management.

The importance of afferent synthesis lies in the fact that this stage determines all subsequent behavior of the organism. The task of this stage is to collect the necessary information about various parameters of the external environment. Thanks to afferent synthesis, the body selects the main ones from a variety of external and internal stimuli and creates the goal of behavior. Since the choice of such information is influenced by both the goal of behavior and previous experience of life, afferent synthesis is always individual. At this stage, three components interact: motivational excitation, situational afferentation (i.e., information about the external environment) and traces of past experience retrieved from memory.

Motivation - impulses that cause the activity of the body and determine its direction. Motivational excitation appears in the central nervous system with the emergence of any need in an animal or person. It is a necessary component of any behavior, which is always aimed at satisfying the dominant need: vital, social or ideal. The importance of motivational excitation for afferent synthesis is already evident from the fact that a conditioned signal loses its ability to evoke previously developed behavior (for example, a dog coming to a certain feeder to get food) if the animal is already well fed and, therefore, it lacks food motivational excitation.

Motivational excitation plays a special role in the formation of afferent synthesis. Any information entering the central nervous system correlates with the currently dominant motivational excitation, which is like a filter that selects what is necessary and discards what is unnecessary for a given motivational setting.

Situational afferentation is information about the external environment. As a result of processing and synthesis of environmental stimuli, a decision is made about “what to do” and a transition occurs to the formation of an action program that ensures the choice and subsequent implementation of one action from a variety of potentially possible ones. The command, represented by a complex of efferent excitations, is sent to the peripheral executive organs and is embodied in the corresponding action. An important feature of FS is its individual and changing requirements for afferentation. It is the quantity and quality of afferent impulses that characterizes the degree of complexity, arbitrariness or automation of a functional system. Completion of the stage of afferent synthesis is accompanied by a transition to the stage of decision-making, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special, important stage of a behavioral act - the formation of an apparatus for accepting the results of an action.

A necessary part of the FS is the acceptor of the results of an action - the central apparatus for evaluating the results and parameters of an action that has not yet taken place. Thus, even before the implementation of any behavioral act, a living organism already has an idea about it, a kind of model or image of the expected result.

A behavioral act is a segment of a behavioral continuum from one outcome to another outcome. Behavioral continuum is a sequence of behavioral acts. In the course of a real action, efferent signals go from the acceptor to the nervous and motor structures, which ensure the achievement of the necessary goal. The success or failure of a behavioral act is signaled by afferent impulses entering the brain from all receptors that register successive stages of execution. specific action(reverse afferentation). Reverse afferentation is a process of behavior correction based on information received by the brain from the outside about the results of ongoing activities. Evaluation of a behavioral act, both in general and in detail, is impossible without such accurate information about the results of each of the actions. This mechanism is absolutely necessary for the successful implementation of each behavioral act.

Each FS has the ability to self-regulate, which is inherent in it as a whole. At possible defect FS occurs quickly of its components so that the desired result, even if less efficiently (both in time and energy costs), but still would be achieved.

The main features of FS. P.K. Anokhin formulated the following features of a functional system:

1) FS, as a rule, is a central-peripheral formation, thus becoming a specific apparatus of self-regulation. It maintains its unity on the basis of the circulation of information from the periphery to the centers and from the centers to the periphery.
2) The existence of any FS is necessarily associated with the existence of some clearly defined adaptive effect. It is this final effect that determines one or another distribution of excitation and activity over the functional system as a whole.
3) The presence of receptor apparatuses makes it possible to evaluate the results of the action of a functional system. In some cases, they can be congenital, and in others - developed in the process of life.
4) Each adaptive effect of the FS (i.e. the result of any action performed by the body) forms a flow of reverse afferentations, representing in sufficient detail all the visual signs (parameters) of the results obtained. In the case when, when selecting the most effective result, this reverse afferentation reinforces the most successful action, it becomes a “sanctioning” (defining) afferentation.
5) Functional systems, on the basis of which the adaptive activity of newborn animals to their characteristic environmental factors, have all the above features and are architecturally mature at the time of birth. It follows from this that the unification of the FS parts (the principle of consolidation) should become functionally complete at some period of fetal development even before the moment of birth.

Significance of the FS theory for psychology. Starting from its first steps, the theory of functional systems has received recognition from natural science psychology. In the most convex form, the significance of a new stage in the development of Russian physiology was formulated by A.R. Luria (1978).

He believed that the introduction of the theory of functional systems allows a new approach to solving many problems in the organization of the physiological foundations of behavior and the psyche.

Thanks to the FS theory:

There has been a replacement of a simplified understanding of the stimulus as the only causative agent of behavior with more complex ideas about the factors that determine behavior, with the inclusion of models of the required future or the image of the expected result among them.
- the idea of ​​the role of “reverse afferentation” and its significance for the further fate of the performed action was formulated, the latter radically changes the picture, showing that all further behavior depends on the performed action.
- the concept of a new functional apparatus was introduced, which compares the initial image of the expected result with the effect of the real action - the "acceptor" of the results of the action. The acceptor of the results of action is a psychophysiological mechanism for predicting and evaluating the results of activity, functioning in the decision-making process and acting on the basis of correlation with the model of the expected result in memory.

PK Anokhin came close to the analysis of the physiological mechanisms of decision-making. The FS theory is a model of the rejection of the tendency to reduce the most complex forms mental activity to isolated elementary physiological processes and an attempt to create a new doctrine of the physiological foundations of active forms of mental activity. However, it should be emphasized that, despite the importance of the FS theory for modern psychology, there are many debatable issues regarding the scope of its application.

Thus, it has been repeatedly noted that the universal theory of functional systems needs to be specified in relation to psychology and requires more meaningful development in the process of studying the psyche and human behavior. Very solid steps in this direction were taken by V.B. Shvyrkov (1978, 1989), V.D. Shadrikov (1994, 1997). It would be premature to claim that the FS theory has become the main research paradigm in psychophysiology. There are stable psychological constructs and phenomena that do not receive the necessary justification in the context of the theory of functional systems. We are talking about the problem of consciousness, the psychophysiological aspects of which are currently being developed very productively.

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