The Andean West subcontinent occupies the entire western part of the mainland. It is the longest (9 thousand km) and one of the highest mountain systems of continental land. The width of this mountain system reaches up to 500 km. In total, the Andes cover an area of about 3,370,000 km². The Andes Mountains go to the Caribbean Sea in a wide front, in the north. The eastern border with the countries of the Out-Andean East runs along the foothills of the Andean Ranges. The unity of the physical and geographical countries of the subcontinent is due to the fact that they are located within the fold belt on the border of lithospheric plates. Pacific Ocean and South America.
A complex system of orotectonic zones of predominantly submeridional strike is sustained from the northern coast of the mainland to. The uneven-aged ranges of the Coastal, Western and Eastern Cordilleras stretch throughout the Andes mountain system. Orogenic, especially active in the Paleogene and Neogene, continue to this day, accompanied by volcanic processes and earthquakes.
It unites the region and the position in the west of the continent, which limits the influence of the Pacific Ocean on the inner regions of the system and creates a contrast in the natural conditions of the western and eastern macroslopes.
The Andes are dominated by alpine relief, which determines a pronounced altitudinal zonation and the formation of a significant modern glaciation. The huge extent from north to south causes a big difference in heat supply and in humidification of individual parts of the system: the Andes mountains are located in several climatic zones, therefore, the structure of altitudinal zonation also differs. The orotectonic structure is also different.
Despite the mountainous nature of the subcontinent, its territory has long been and quite densely populated. The peoples of the Andean countries mastered the basins, intermountain valleys and high plains within the Andean mountain system and adapted to life in these conditions. The Andes are home to the highest cities, villages and cultivated land.
Within the Andes, a number of physical and geographical countries are distinguished: Caribbean, Northern (Equatorial), Central (Tropical), Chilean-Argentinean (Subtropical) and Southern (Patagonian) Andes. Tierra del Fuego is distinguished by some special features - this region is either considered as a separate country, or included in the Southern Andes.
Caribbean Andes
The Caribbean Andes are the northernmost part of the Andes mountains and the only one where the ridges have a sublatitudinal strike. Here the Andes Mountains stretch for 800 km along the northern coast of the Caribbean Sea from the river delta. Orinoco to the lowlands of Maracaibo. In the south, the region borders on the Orinoco plains, in the west, the ridges of the Caribbean Andes mountains are separated from the Cordillera de Merida in the Eastern Andes system by a tectonic valley occupied by one of the tributaries of the river. Apure. Unlike other parts of the Andean mountain system, the Caribbean Andes are formed within the Caribbean-Antilles folded region, which may represent the western part of the ancient Tethys Ocean and moved here as a result of the opening of the North Atlantic depression. The region is located on the border of the tropical and subequatorial belts in the zone of action of the northeast trade winds. Its nature differs significantly from the rest of the Andes mountains. This is the territory of Venezuela.
The relief of the country, compared with other Andean regions, is simple in structure: these are young folded mountains, consisting of two parallel anticline ranges (Cordillera da Costa - Coast Range and Sierrania del Interior - Inner Range), separated by a synclinal longitudinal depression. It contains Lake Valencia - one of the few drainless lakes on the mainland.
Folded structures are broken by transverse and longitudinal faults, so the mountains are divided into blocks by tectonic and erosional valleys. Frequent earthquakes testify to the youth and incompleteness of mountain building, but there are no active ones here. The height of the Caribbean Andes does not reach 3000 meters. The highest point (2765 meters) is located in the Coastal Cordillera near Caracas, the capital of Venezuela.
The region throughout the year is exposed to tropical air masses that come here with the northeast trade wind. Only the southern slopes of the mountains fall into the zone of influence of the equatorial monsoon in summer.
In winter, when the trade winds weaken somewhat, and the southwest monsoon is replaced by the northeast winter monsoon, a relatively dry period sets in. Since precipitation is mainly orographic, its amount on the coast and leeward slopes of the mountains is small - 300-500 mm per year. Windward slopes are obtained in the upper belts up to 1000-1200 mm. Temperature amplitudes are very small in the region - 2-4°С. Caracas, located in a transverse valley at an altitude of 900-1000 meters, is called the city of "eternal spring".
The Andes mountains are cut by numerous deeply incised valleys of short turbulent rivers, carrying a mass of detrital material onto the coastal plain, especially in summer during the rainy season. There are karst areas that are practically devoid of surface water.
The region is dominated by xerophytic vegetation. Monte formations (mesquite bush, cacti, spurges, prickly pear, etc.) are widespread at the foot of the mountains and in the lower belt. On the low coast, mangroves are common along the shores of lagoons. On the slopes of mountains above 900-1000 meters, sparse mixed forests of evergreen, deciduous and coniferous tree species grow. In some places they are replaced by xerophytic shrubs such as chaparral. Palm groves stand out as bright spots. Above are meadows, often overgrown. The upper border of the forests is artificially lowered, since the meadows are used as pastures, and in the border part of the forests, under conditions that are extreme for woody vegetation, it gradually disappears and does not recover.
The coastal strip and intermountain troughs of the Caribbean Andes are oil-bearing. The entire Caribbean coast with sandy beaches, a hot dry climate with stable weather conditions is a wonderful resort area. Coffee, cocoa, cotton, sisal, tobacco, etc. are grown on the gentle slopes of the mountains and in the valleys. Cattle are grazed in the mountain meadows.
This part of Venezuela is quite densely populated. In the Caracas region, the population density is over 200 people / km 2. Here are located big cities and ports. Nature has been largely modified by the various activities of people: flat areas and more or less gentle slopes have been plowed up, forests have been destroyed, and the coastal strip has been transformed. A network of national parks has been created here, used for the protection of landscapes and for tourism.
Northern Andes mountains
This is the northernmost part of the Andean system itself, extending from the Caribbean coast to 4-5 ° S. sh. The eastern border with the Orinoco plains runs along the foothills of the Andes, and the southern border is drawn along transverse tectonic faults. Approximately in the same area there is a border of climatic zones - tropical and equatorial with sharp differences in moistening conditions and the structure of altitudinal zonality on the slopes of the western exposure. Within the region are the western regions of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. The lower belts of the western mountain slopes and coastal plains are distinguished by a humid, hot climate of the equatorial type. But even in areas with subequatorial climatic conditions, at a certain height above sea level, they constantly grow moist forests- Hylaea, therefore the Northern Andes mountains are called Equatorial.
The Andes mountains within the region consist of several chains separated by deep depressions. The northern part of the country has a particularly complex structure.
A narrow, low, strongly dissected Coastal Cordillera stretches along the Pacific Ocean, separated from the neighboring zone (Western Cordillera) by a tectonic valley of the river. Atrato. The Western Cordillera begins at the Gulf of Darien and stretches to the borders of the region. The Eastern Cordillera branches within the Northern Andes: at about 3 ° N. sh. it is divided into Central with the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta massif (up to 5800 meters high) in the north and Eastern, which, in turn, with two branches (Sierra Perija and Cordillera de Merida) covers an extensive depression with a lagoon Maracaibo. The graben-shaped valley between the Western and Central Cordillera is occupied by the river. Which, and between Central and Eastern - r. Magdalena. The entire mountainous region is 400-450 km wide. South of 3° N. sh. The Western and Eastern Cordillera are approaching, and within Ecuador, the system narrows to 100 km. Between the mountain ranges there is a zone of powerful faults. The main peaks of the ridges are, as a rule, extinct and active volcanoes (Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Sangay, etc.), covered with snow and ice. The area is also characterized by high seismicity. Earthquake epicenters are usually confined to the faults of the intermountain depression.
The region has a hot, constantly humid climate. The slopes of the Andes, facing the Pacific Ocean, receive 8,000-10,000 mm per year.
Unstable stratified, formed over the warm currents of the equatorial latitudes of the ocean, dominates here throughout the year. Climbing the slopes of the ridges, it gives off moisture in the form of heavy rains. The eastern slopes are under the influence of monsoon circulation, but orographic precipitation falls here in winter, although the annual amounts are slightly less - up to 3000 mm. Even the interior regions are not distinguished by aridity. A short dry period in winter occurs only in the north-east of the region.
In the northern Andes mountains, the system of altitudinal belts is most clearly and fully expressed.
The lower belt is tierra caliente ("hot land") with constantly high temperatures(27-29°C) and large quantity precipitation is occupied by hylaea, almost no different from the Amazonian selva. Due to unfavorable conditions for humans, the belt is poorly populated. Only in some places at the foot of the mountains the forests are reduced to plantations of sugar cane and bananas. Above 1000-1500 m, the tierra templada ("temperate land") begins. It is cooler here (16-22°C), precipitation is up to 3000 mm on the windward slopes and 1000-1200 mm on the leeward slopes. This is a belt of evergreen mountain hylaea or deciduous evergreen forests with best conditions for life. It is quite densely populated. Most of the population of the Northern Andes Mountains lives here, there are large cities, for example, the capital of Ecuador - Quito. More or less gentle slopes are plowed up, coffee tree, corn, tobacco, etc. are grown. The belt is called "coffee" or the belt of "eternal spring". Above 2000-2800 meters is tierra fria (" cold earth"). Average monthly temperatures here are 10-15°C. It is at these heights that orographic ones are constantly formed, so the high-mountain hyla from low-growing evergreen trees (oaks, myrtle, some conifers) with an abundance of ferns, bamboos, club mosses, mosses, lichens is called nephelogilea (“foggy forest”). It has a lot of vines, epiphytes. Cool weather with constant fogs and drizzling rains is unfavorable for life. A few Indian tribes live in hollows where they grow corn, wheat, potatoes, legumes, and are engaged in cattle breeding. From a height of 3000-3500 meters begins tierra elada ("frosty land"). Average monthly temperatures in this zone are only 5-6°С, daily amplitudes are more than 10°С, all year round there may be night frosts and snowfalls. In the subnival zone, the vegetation of mountain meadows (paramos) is formed from grasses (bearded wolves, feather grasses), low-growing shrubs and tall (up to 5 meters) strongly pubescent Compositae with bright flowers. In the periglacial zone, stony placers are common, sometimes covered with mosses and lichens. The nival belt starts from a height of 4500-4800 meters.
Among the natural resources of the Northern Andes Mountains, large reserves of oil in the depressions stand out. Especially rich are the oil and gas basin of the Maracaibo depression, where there are several dozen large deposits, and the tectonic valley of Magdalena. In the river valley The Kauks mine hard coal, and on the Pacific coast, alluvial gold and platinum. There are also known deposits of iron, nickel, molybdenum, copper ores and silver in mountainous regions. Emeralds are mined near Bogotá. The region also has good agro-climatic conditions for growing tropical crops. There are many in the mountain hyla valuable breeds trees, including cinchona, cola, balsa with light non-rotting wood. Balsa rafts once made long sea voyages. In our time, the Thor Heyerdahl expedition traveled several thousand kilometers on such a raft across the Pacific Ocean.
Intermountain valleys and basins of the Northern Andes Mountains at altitudes of 1000-3000 meters are densely populated and developed. fertile soils plowed up. Large cities are located in the graben valleys and basins, including the capitals of Ecuador (Quito - at an altitude of about 3000 meters) and Colombia (Bogota - at an altitude of about 2500 meters). The nature of the valleys, basins and mountain slopes of the Tierra Templad belt with favorable conditions for humans has been greatly changed. In the 60-70s. 20th century in Ecuador and Colombia, reserves were created and National parks for the protection and study of natural landscapes.
Central Andes Mountains
The central Andes mountains are the largest of the Andean physical and geographical countries. It begins south of 3°S. sh. The mountain system is expanding here, between the chains of the Western and Eastern Cordillera there are high-mountain plains on the middle massif. The total width of the mountainous region reaches 800 km. The southern boundary is drawn approximately along 27-28 ° S. sh., where the Eastern Cordillera wedges out, and the tropical climate characteristic of the Central Andes Mountains is replaced by a subtropical one. Within the region are mountainous parts of Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, and northwestern Argentina.
The orotectonic structure is distinguished by the presence of high mountain (3000-4500 meters) plateaus and plateaus - Pun (in Bolivia they are called Altiplano). The rigid median mass, within which these plains were formed, is divided into blocks, along the cracks there was an uplift of magma and outpouring of lavas.
As a result, areas of peneplain, accumulative plains in relief depressions and lava plateaus with volcanoes are combined here. From the west, the plains are bounded by high young folded chains of the Western Cordillera with a lot of. In the east rise the ranges of the Eastern Cordillera on the Mesozoic and Paleozoic folded structures, many of whose peaks above 6000 meters are covered with caps of glaciers and snows. In the south (within Chile), a low Coastal Cordillera rises along the coast, separated from the Western depressions. One of them is the Atacama Desert.
The climate in most of the territory Central Andes characterized by dryness. The coastal part of the region is dominated by an extremely arid and cool tropical climate of the western coasts of the continents (the climate of the coastal, “wet” or “cold” deserts, as it is often called). At 20°S sh. the average of the warmest months is 18-21°С, the annual amplitude is 5-6°С. The flow of cold air from the south passes far to the north over the Peruvian current, reducing summer temperatures. There are very few rainfalls. Within the Central Andean Mountains, this climatic region has the greatest extent from north to south (from 3 ° to 28 ° S) and rises high on the mountain slopes of the western exposure.
The largest areas in the region are occupied by areas of high-altitude arid climate with desert and semi-desert landscapes.
The average temperatures of the summer months in the Central Andean High Plains are 14-15°C, during the day they can rise to 20-22°C, and at night they fall to negative values. This is due to the rarefaction and transparency of mountain air. In winter, average monthly temperatures are positive, but a large daily amplitude persists, and at night there are frosts down to -20°C. Some moderating influence has a large lake Titicaca. Not far from it is La Paz - the capital of Bolivia - the highest mountain capital in the world (3700 meters). The amount of precipitation in Pune is low and increases from west to east - from 250 mm to 500-800 mm. The windward slopes of the Eastern Cordillera receive up to 2000 mm due to the influence.
The soil and vegetation cover of the Central Andes is formed according to the distribution of precipitation and temperature.
In coastal deserts, plants adapt to a rainless regime and receive moisture from dews and fogs. Rare xerophytic shrubs and cacti make up the sparse vegetation cover. Peculiar bromeliads with hard gray leaves and weak roots and lichens are characteristic. In some places there is no vegetation, moving sands with dune and hilly relief are common. Where the annual rainfall (in the form of fog) reaches 200-300 mm. Lomas plant formations appear, represented by ephemera and a few perennial grasses and cacti. Lomas come alive in winter when evaporation decreases and dry up in summer. The interior plains are dominated by puna - the steppe with a predominance of fescue, reed grass, other poppies and individual low-growing shrubs and trees, such as prickly puya from bromeliads and kenoa, growing in the valleys. In the western arid regions, they are common with hard grasses, tola shrubs, cushion-shaped llareta plants, and cacti. In saline areas, of which there are many, wormwood and ephedra grow. On the eastern slopes, altitudinal zonality is expressed, which is characteristic of the humid regions of the Andes mountains. Even where the lower mountain belt is adjacent to the dry savannahs of the Gran Chaco, higher, at the level of formation of orographic clouds, wet mountain hylaia of the tierra templada belt appear, giving way to formations of the tierra fria and tierra elada belts.
The fauna of the Central Andes Mountains is interesting and unusual, rich in endemic species.
Of the ungulates - guanaco and vicuña, which have almost disappeared at the present time, the Peruvian deer. There are many rodents (viscacha, chinchilla, akodon, etc.), birds (from tiny hummingbirds in the lomas formation to giant predatory condors). Many animals, including birds, live in burrows, like the inhabitants of the highlands of Tibet.
The subtropical climate of the Pacific coast and the adjacent mountain slopes is distinguished by well-defined features of the Mediterranean type: dry summers and rainy winters with average monthly positive temperatures. As the distance from the ocean increases, the degree of continentality increases, the climate becomes drier.
On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera there is more precipitation, the eastern slopes facing the Pampian Sierras and the Dry Pampa are rather dry. On the coast, seasonal temperature amplitudes are small (7-8°C), in the Longitudinal Valley, temperature fluctuations are greater (12-13°C). The regime and amount of precipitation also varies from north to south. On the border with tropical climatic regions, the climate is extremely dry - 100-150 mm per year, and in the south, where the influence of the South Pacific baric maximum is weakened and the western transfer of temperate latitudes is enhanced, the annual precipitation reaches 1200 mm with a uniform regime.
Character surface runoff is also different and changes both from west to east and from north to south. In the northern regions of the country, river flows are mostly periodic. In the central part, a fairly dense network of rivers is developed with two rises in water - in winter, when it rains, and in summer, when snow and ice melt in the mountains. The river network is especially dense in the south of the region. The rivers here are full of water all year round, and the maximum flow occurs in the winter. Sometimes they give rise to rivers. In the south, at the foot of the Main Cordillera, there are terminal lakes dammed by lavas or moraines.
The natural vegetation in the region is poorly preserved. Under Mediterranean-type formations, similar to maquis or chaparral, brown soils have formed suitable for growing subtropical crops, so wherever possible, the land is plowed up. Even more fertile dark-colored chernozem-like soils are developed in the Longitudinal Valley on volcanic rocks. These lands are occupied by agricultural crops.
Only on mountain slopes that are inconvenient for plowing are thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs - espinal - preserved. On the Main Cordillera, up the slopes, they are replaced by deciduous and mixed forests, where teak, liter, overate, canelo, notofagus, honey palm, etc. grow. Above the forests (from a height of 2500 meters), a belt of mountain meadows begins, within which ordinary and for the alpine meadows of the Old World, buttercups, saxifrage, primrose, etc. There are practically no forests on the arid eastern slope. Semi-desert landscapes are also characteristic of the northern part of the region, including the north of the Longitudinal Valley. In the extreme south, hemihylaea appear with a predominance of evergreen notho-fagus on brown forest soils. In the forest belt of volcanic massifs, there are many plants brought from other parts of the world. Artificial tree plantations surround villages and fields.
Land and agroclimatic resources- the main natural resources of the Chilean-Argentine Andes. They make it possible to grow here crops common to the Mediterranean (grapes, citrus fruits, olives, etc.). Extensive fields of wheat and corn. In the Longitudinal Valley, where the capital of Chile, Santiago, is located, half of the country's population lives (the population density here reaches 180 people / km 2), despite the fact that this is a seismic area where strong earthquakes are not uncommon. Nature here is changed to the greatest extent. In Chile and Argentina there are national parks and nature reserves created to protect mountain and lakeside landscapes and the natural flora and fauna that have survived so far.
Southern (Patagonian) Andes Mountains
This is the southern part of the Andean system, bordering in the east with.
South of 42°S sh. the Andes mountains are sinking. The coastal Cordillera passes into the islands of the Chilean archipelago, a longitudinal tectonic depression forms bays and straits along the coast. The territory of the Patagonian Andes, like the Chilean-Argentinean Andes, belongs to Chile and Argentina. Mountain-building processes in the region are still ongoing, as evidenced by modern active volcanism. The main (Patagonian) Cordillera is low (up to 2000-2500 meters, rarely - above 3000 meters) and strongly fragmented.
It is a chain of separate massifs within which glacial morphosculpture is widely developed. Unusual for South America is the type of coastline - these are fjords of glacial-tectonic origin. There are many extinct and active volcanoes in the Patagonian Cordillera.
The region is located in temperate latitudes. In the west, the climate is maritime with heavy rainfall (up to 6000 mm per year). The eastern slopes of the mountains also receive a large amount of rainfall. Here, along the vast depressions that separate the mountain ranges, they penetrate from the Pacific Ocean.
The average monthly temperatures on the coast in winter are 4-7°С, in summer - 10-15°С. In the mountains, already at an altitude of 1200 meters, the temperatures of the summer months drop to negative values. The snow line lies very low: in the south of the region it descends to 650 meters.
The Patagonian Andes are characterized big square modern glaciation - more than 20,000 km 2 (out of 33,000 km 2 - all the Andes). humid climate and low temperatures in the mountains contribute to the development of mountain-cover type glaciers.
The northern and southern glacial plateaus form continuous ice fields that cover the intermountain depressions. Outflow glaciers on the western slopes descend in places to the ocean level, producing icebergs. On the eastern slopes, mountain-type glaciation, and glacial tongues end with lakes located at the foot of the mountains at an altitude of 180-200 meters above sea level. Above ice sheets mountain ranges and nunataks rise, dividing them into separate fields. It is assumed that the severity of the huge masses of ice contributes to the overall lowering of the surface of the region. An indirect confirmation of this is the fact that there is a similar decrease in heights and a similar structure of the coastline in those regions of the Cordillera. North America, which are located in abundantly humid latitudes of the temperate zone and carry large masses of ice.
Glaciers and abundant rainfall feed many full-flowing rivers. Their valleys cut deeply into the surface, increasing the dissection of the mountainous terrain. The unique features of nature for South America include the abundance of lakes, which are generally few on the mainland. In the Southern Andes there are many small and several large glacial lakes, formed mainly as a result of the damming of river flows by moraines.
The slopes of the South Andes are overgrown with forests.
In the north, where it is warmer, the lower parts of the slopes up to a height of 500-600 meters are covered with humid evergreen subtropical forests with lianas and epiphytes. In them, along with teak, canelo, Perseus, notophagus, and others, bamboo and tree ferns grow. Higher up, dominance passes to nothofagus, sometimes forming pure dark stands without undergrowth or groves with an admixture of conifers (podocarpus, fitzroy and other species of Antarctic flora). Even higher rise crooked forests of deciduous nothofagus and mountain meadows, often swampy. To the south, the vegetation gives way to the Magellanic subantarctic forests of nothophagus with an admixture of some conifers. Similar forests grow on the eastern slopes of the South Andes. At the foot of the mountains, they are replaced by shrubs and steppes, characteristic of the Patagonian plateau.
The main natural resources of the Patagonian Andes are hydropower resources and forests. Natural resources are used insignificantly. This contributes to the good preservation of the natural landscapes of this part of the Andes. On the territory of Chile and Argentina there are several national parks where mountain, lake, glacial landscapes, fjord coast, forests of notofagus, fitzroyi, etc., endangered species of animals (pudu deer, chinchilla, viscacha, guanaco, pampas cat, etc.) are taken under protection. .).
Tierra del Fuego
This is an island physiographic country on the southern outskirts of the mainland, separated from it by a narrow winding Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of dozens of large and small islands with a total area of more than 70 thousand km2. The largest - about. Tierra del Fuego, or Big Island, occupies almost 2/3 of the area of the archipelago. The islands belong to Chile and Argentina.
The western part of the region is a continuation of the Andean mountain system. In many features of nature - in terms of geological structure and relief, the nature of the coastline, modern glaciation, mountain vegetation, etc., this part of the archipelago is similar to the Southern Andes. In the east of the Big Island, the rolling plains are a continuation of the Patagonian plateau.
The western part of the archipelago is heavily dissected. Many mountain ranges up to 1000-1300 meters high are separated by intermountain valleys, often flooded with ocean waters - fjords, straits. The highest point of the mountains (2469 meters) is located on the Big Island. The ancient and modern glacial relief dominates. There are many lakes dammed by moraines.
The climate is temperate maritime. Humidity varies from west to east.
The western part of the region receives heavy rainfall (up to 3000 mm) throughout the year, mainly in the form of drizzling rain. Rainy days per year up to 300-330. In the eastern part, washed by the cold Falkland current, precipitation is much less (up to 500 mm).
Summers are cool, average monthly temperatures are 8-10°С, winters are relatively warm (1-5°С). They say that summer here is like in the tundra, and winter (in terms of temperature) is like in the subtropics. With the ascent to the mountains, the temperatures quickly decrease, and already from a height of 500 m, negative values predominate.
Humid climate and relatively low temperatures contribute to the development of glaciation. The snow line in the west lies at an altitude of about 500 m. Outflow glaciers reach sea level, icebergs break off from them.
The border of forests covering the western slopes of the mountains sometimes reaches almost to the snow line. Forests of the same composition as in the Southern Andes. They are dominated by notophaguses, canelo (from magnolia), some conifers. In places above the forest belt, and in the east and on the plains, subantarctic meadows with peat bogs resembling tundra are common.
The animal world is similar to the Southern Andes (guanaco, Magellanic dog, rodents, including burrowing tuco-tuco living in Patagonia). The southernmost islands of the archipelago are inhabited by birds, and of the mammals, only a few species of bats and one species of rodents live there. One of the islands ends with Cape Horn - the southern tip of the entire mainland.
It was found on Tierra del Fuego, but the main occupation of the population that has long settled in the east of the region is sheep breeding. Despite the winter starvation, sheep give good incomes. Pastures here are richer than on the Patagonian plateau. In some places they are degrading due to the destruction of natural vegetation. Several national parks have been created on the islands.
The Andes Mountains serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern and western slopes.
Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. The Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. The mountains of South America are divided into 3 main clusters: the Northern Andes, the Central Andes and the South Andes. There is also a so-called subcluster, which is called the Peruvian Andes.
"Andes" in the language of the Incas - copper, copper mountains. Indeed, in the Andes there are significant deposits of various minerals: copper, tin, lead, zinc ores. silver, tungsten, vanadium, as well as oil, saltpeter and others.
The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world and is still growing. The length of the mountain range is 8000 kilometers. In the extreme south of America, the Andes mountains seem to slide into the ocean. Giant icebergs are breaking off from glaciers. Cape Horn and the most treacherous strait on earth. Thousands of kilometers from the southern tip of Chile, the slopes of the Andes are covered with dense forest.
In the south of the Andes it is very cold, this surprised the pioneers, in the northern hemisphere Venice and the south of France lie at the same latitude, and here the San Rafael glacier. At the same time, the glacier moves, cutting down the slopes of the mountains, their peaks become steeper and sharper. Only in 1962 was its source found; the entire region is cooled by an ice sheet of enormous size.
After the last ice age, the ice retreated, but the mountains continue to grow. The peaks rise above the clouds. In the mountains, the air from the Pacific Ocean cools, moisture falls in the form of rain or snow, and dry air goes further east.
At Mount Torres del Paine, where there is a lot of melt water, an amazing oasis arose. Mountains almost 8 kilometers high are the highest after the Himalayas, but the Andes are half the age of the Himalayas and continue to grow. Over the past hundred years, the Andes have grown by tens of meters; over time, some peaks may become higher than Chomolungma. The Andes mountains along the coasts of Chile and Peru rise from the sea, and there they are no less than on land, measured from the bottom. The Andes are already the highest mountains on earth, measuring 16 kilometers from base to summit.
Between the ocean and the mountains lies a lifeless strip of land - the Atacama Desert. There are places where it never rained. This is the driest place on the planet, the rains fall on the other side of the Andes, unable to cross the mountain range. The sands stretch for thousands of kilometers to the very tropics. Near the sea, the rising cold fog is the only source of moisture for plants.
The largest salt lake in the world from Argentina and Chile to Bolivia and Peru. Like islands in the middle of the ocean, mountain peaks rise in the middle of a desert of salt. The water in the Altiplano lakes is poisonous like alkali, it seeps from volcanoes saturated with poisonous salts. Mountains rise up around the lakes, peculiar islands in the world of salt, 9 months a year there is no rain here. Altiplano lies in the tropics, but with the advent of darkness, the temperature drops from +30 to -15 C, dry rarefied air does not hold heat. Some flamingos keep themselves warm in hot springs and hydrogen sulfide vapors. Grass grows along the banks of mountain streams, ice binds them at night, but with the onset of morning they murmur again.
At the equator fire and snow met, at the northern end of the mountain chain 2000 volcanoes. Like fortress towers, they divide the world into two parts, guarding the Altiplano. It doesn't rain in the Altiplano or in the Atacama Desert. The clouds, having passed all of Brazil from the Atlantic, are unable to overcome the Andes, climbing the eastern slope of the mountains, pouring rain, the earth is saturated with water like a sponge.
In the tropics at an altitude of 5000 there is a fierce cold, the situation is aggravated by high humidity. Millions of streams carry their waters to the largest river on earth - the Amazon. The rainforests of Ecuador and Colombia are the wettest places on earth, with 12 meters of rain per year.
From the distance from the equator, as well as from the height above sea level, equatorial, tropical, and also subtropical forests grow in the Andes, which have an abundance of vegetation (bananas, palm trees, ficuses, cocoa trees, evergreen trees, bamboos and shrubs), and forests with temperate climate. Tundra vegetation and subarctic forests are characteristic of southern latitudes and high altitudes. Many important agricultural crops, such as potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, come from the Andes.
The fauna of the Andes has many unique species. For example, Andean llama, vigoni, alpaca, and guanaco camels are found nowhere else in the world. The Andes are home to more than 900 amphibian species, approximately 600 mammal species, and 1,700 bird species.
Condors, living mainly in the Andean highlands, are among the most large birds on the ground. Their wingspan reaches 3 m. Powerful wings allow these giants to travel more than 3 km a day in search of food.
Today, in times of active tourism, when everyone can visit any corner of the planet if they wish, climbing the Andes is gaining popularity. In some countries where the Andes are located, there are specialized centers that will prepare and guide you to admire the majestic slopes of the mountains. Of course, you won’t climb to a height of 6 km, but I think you don’t need such an unearthly height. To enjoy all the delights of a picturesque view, 1.5 km will be enough. It cannot be said that the Andes were notable for the special difficulties of climbing, some sections can be climbed without special climbing equipment.
Andes mountain range in South America
Or the South American Cordillera, a mountain system stretching in a narrow strip on the western outskirts. The ridges of the Andes, when crossing with each other, form peculiar nodes with the highest peaks. There are many active and extinct here.
Andes
The Andes are composed of meridional ridges. Due to the huge length from north to south, the Andes are located in several. In the mountains, altitudinal zonation is clearly manifested. The sequence of changes in altitudinal zones depends on the position of the foothills of the Andes in a particular natural zone, as well as on the height, width and direction of the slopes of the ridges. Many intermountain valleys and slopes have long been inhabited and mastered by man. Here are the highest mountainous cities in the world - (3690 m), Sucre (2694 m).
Northern Andes
They consist of several ridges separated by deep troughs. There are more than 30 active and many extinct volcanoes, among which the most famous are Cotopaxi and Chimborazo.
In the altitudinal zone of humid tropical mountain forests at an altitude of 1 to 3 km, where average monthly temperatures (+16 - +22 ° C) are lower than on neighboring plains, most of the population of the Northern Andes lives. Here, at an altitude of more than 2500 m, are the cities of Santa Fe de Bogota and. Coffee, corn, and tobacco are grown on gentle mountain slopes.
Central tropical Andes
The widest part of the mountain system. There are internal high plateaus bordered on the east and west by mountain ranges.
The plateaus have long been inhabited by Indian tribes. On one of them is an ancient city - the capital of the state of the Incas. In the Western Cordillera there are large active volcanoes, including Llullalyaco, with a height of 6723 m.
In the southern part of the Central Andes, the Coastal Cordillera is separated from the Western Cordillera by a narrow depression. It stretches for 1000 km. In this depression is one of the most arid - Atacama. It receives less than 100 mm of precipitation per year, and heavy rains occur 2-4 times in 100 years. In Atacama it is much colder than in other areas located at the same latitude: the average annual temperatures are much lower than +20°C.
Southern Andes
Two ridges are well expressed in the relief: the Main Cordillera with the top of Aconcagua and the Coastal Cordillera. Between 33 and 55 °S is the third volcanic region of the Andes.
The slopes of mountain ranges in the subtropical zone up to a height of 2.5 km were once covered with heat-loving forests. At present, almost all of them have been cut down, and wherever the steepness of the slopes allows, subtropical crops are grown: olive trees, grapes, citrus fruits. The western slopes of the Andes in the temperate zone are covered with moisture-loving forests of beeches, magnolias, conifers, with bamboo, ferns and lianas.
Copper Mountains - that's what the Incas call these longest mountains in the world. We are talking about the Andean Cordillera, known to us as the Andes. This mountain range is not comparable in length to any of the existing ones on our planet. The Andes are about 9,000 km long. They originate from the Caribbean Sea and reach Tierra del Fuego.
Width and height of the Andes
Aconcagua (pictured below) is the highest peak of the Andean Cordillera. The height of the Andes at this point is 6962 meters. Aconcagua is located in Argentina. What are the prevailing ones have a number of large peaks. Among them, Mount Ritakuva (5493 meters), El Libertador (6720 meters), Huascaran (6768 meters), Mercedario (6770 m) and others should be noted. There are sections where mountains reach 500 km in width. As for their maximum width, it is about 750 km. The main part of them is occupied by the Puna plateau, which has a very high snow line, which reaches 6500 m. The average height of the Andes is approximately 4000 m.
Age of the Andes and their formation
According to experts, these mountains are quite young. A few million years ago, the process of mountain building ended here. Even in the Precambrian period, the origin of fossils began. Land plots then began to appear in place of the boundless ocean. The area where the modern Andean Cordillera is located was for a long time either sea or land, and the height of the Andes changed significantly. The mountain range completed its formation after uplift rocks. Huge folds of stone were pushed to an impressive height as a result of this process. By the way, this process is not finished. It continues in our time. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes sometimes occur in the Andes.
Rivers originating in the Andes
The longest mountains on our planet are at the same time considered the largest inter-oceanic watershed. The famous Amazon originates precisely in the Andean Cordillera, as well as its tributaries. It should also be noted that the tributaries of the large rivers of the states of Paraguay, Orinoco and Parana begin in the Andes. For the mainland, mountains are a climatic barrier, that is, they protect the land from the west from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and from the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.
Relief
The Andes are so long that it is not surprising that they are located in six climatic zones. Unlike the southern slopes, the amount of precipitation is high on the western slopes. It reaches 10 thousand mm per year. Consequently, not only the height of the Andes, but also their landscape varies significantly.
The Andean Cordilleras are divided by relief into 3 regions: the Central, Northern and Southern Andes. The main Cordilleras are separated by the depressions of such rivers as the Magdalena and the Cauca. There are many volcanoes here. One of them, Huila, reaches 5750 m. The other, Ruiz, rises to 5400 m. Cumbal, which is now active, reaches a height of 4890 m. The Ecuadorian Andes, belonging to the Northern, include a volcanic chain marked by the highest volcanoes. Chimborazo alone is worth something - it rises to 6267 m. The height of Cotopaxi is not much less - 5896 m. The highest point of the Ecuadorian Andes is Huascaran - 6769 m is the absolute height of the mountain. The Andes South are divided into Chile-Argentine and Patagonian. The highest points in this part are Tupungato (about 6800 m) and Medcedario (6770 m). The snow line reaches six thousand meters here.
Volcano Llullaillaco
It's very interesting active volcano located on the border of Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the Peruvian Andes (Western Cordillera range). This volcano is located in the Atacama Desert, which is one of the driest places on our planet. The absolute height of the Andes at the point is 6739 m. It is the highest of all the existing ones. In the region of this volcano, the Andes mountains are very peculiar. Its relative height reaches 2.5 km. On the western slope of the volcano, the snow line exceeds 6.5 thousand meters, which is its highest position on the planet.
Atacama Desert
In this unusual place, there are areas where it has never rained. The Atacama Desert is the driest place on earth. The fact is that the rains cannot overcome, therefore they fall on the other side of the mountains. The sands in this desert stretch to the very tropics for thousands of kilometers. The cold fog rising from the sea is the only source of moisture for native plants.
San Rafael Glacier
Another interesting place, which I would like to talk about, is the San Rafael glacier. It should be noted that in the south of the Alpine Cordillera, where it is located, it is very cold. At one time, this surprised the pioneers very much, since the south of France and Venice lie at the same latitude in the northern hemisphere, and here they discovered the San Rafael glacier. It moves along the slopes of the mountains, the peaks of which become sharper and steeper over time. Only in 1962 was its source discovered. An ice sheet of gigantic size cools the entire region.
Vegetation
The Andes are a unique place on our planet, and not only because of the impressive values \u200b\u200bthat the width and height of the mountains have. The Andes are extremely picturesque. In different places they have their own zest. In the Andes of Venezuela, for example, shrubs and deciduous forests grow on red soils. Equatorial and tropical rainforests cover the lower slopes from the Northwest Andes to the Central. Bananas, ficuses, cocoa trees, palm trees, creepers and bamboos are found here. However, there are also rocky lifeless spaces, and many moss swamps. In places where the average height of the Andes exceeds 4500 m, there is an area of \u200b\u200bperpetual ice and snow. The Andean Cordillera is known as the birthplace of coca, tomatoes, tobacco and potatoes.
Animal world
The fauna of these mountains is no less interesting. Llamas, alpacas, pudu deer, vicuñas, spectacled bears, blue foxes, sloths, hummingbirds, chinchillas live here. Residents of our country can find all these animals only in zoos.
One of the features of the Andes is a large variety of amphibian species (about 900). About 600 species of mammals live in the mountains, as well as about two thousand species of birds. Diversity freshwater fish also great. There are about 400 species of them in local rivers.
Tourism and locals
Andean Cordillera, except for remote and difficult areas, is not an untouched corner of nature. locals almost every piece of land is cultivated here. However, the road to the Andes for most tourists means a "departure" from modernity. For centuries, these places have maintained an unchanged way of life, which allows tourists to feel like they are in the past.
Travelers can follow ancient Indian trails, where, however, sometimes you need to stop to let a herd of guanacos, sheep or goats go ahead. No matter how many times you have already visited these local places are always mesmerizing. Meetings with the locals also turn out to be unforgettable. Their way of life is far from familiar to us. The huts in these places are built of raw bricks. Local residents often do without electricity. In order to get water, they go to the nearest stream.
Hiking in the mountains is not mountaineering in the usual sense of the word. Rather, it is walking along steep trails. However, they should be performed only by absolutely healthy and well-trained people with special equipment.
The Andes are a major inter-oceanic divide. To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The Andes originate the Amazon itself and many of its major tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. To the west of the Andes flow mainly short rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean.
The Andes also serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.
The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones:
- equatorial
- subequatorial,
- tropical,
- subtropical,
- moderate.
They are distinguished by sharp contrasts in moistening of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.
Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes.
The Andes stretched through the territories of 7 states of South America:
- Venezuela,
- Colombia,
- ecuador,
- Peru,
- Bolivia,
- Chile,
- Argentina.
Vegetation and soils
The soil and vegetation cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains, a significant difference in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonality in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three altitudinal belts - tierra caliente, tierra fria and tierra elada.
In the Andes of Venezuela, deciduous forests and shrubs grow on mountainous red soils.
The lower parts of the windward slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountain moist equatorial and tropical forests on lateritic soils (mountain hylaea), as well as mixed forests of evergreen and deciduous species. The external appearance of the equatorial forests differs little from the external appearance of these forests in the flat part of the mainland; various palm trees, ficuses, bananas, cocoa tree, etc.
Higher (up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m), the nature of the vegetation changes; Bamboos, tree ferns, coca shrub (which is the source of cocaine), cinchona are typical.
Between 3000 m and 3800 m - alpine hylaea with stunted trees and shrubs; epiphytes and creepers are widespread, bamboos, tree-like ferns, evergreen oaks, myrtle, heather are characteristic.
Above - predominantly xerophytic vegetation, paramos, with numerous Compositae; moss swamps on flat areas and lifeless rocky spaces on steep slopes.
Above 4500 m - a belt of eternal snow and ice.
To the south, in the subtropical Chilean Andes - evergreen shrubs on brown soils.
In the Longitudinal Valley there are soils resembling chernozems in composition.
The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows of paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - dry alpine-tropical steppes of halka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation (in the Atacama Desert - succulent vegetation and cacti). Many surfaces are saline, which hinders the development of vegetation; in such areas, mainly wormwood and ephedra are found.
Above 3000 m (up to about 4500 m) - semi-desert vegetation, called dry puna; grow dwarf shrubs (tholoi), cereals (feather grass, reed grass), lichens, cacti.
To the east of the Main Cordillera, where there is more rainfall, there is steppe vegetation (puna) with numerous grasses (fescue, feather grass, reed grass) and cushion-like shrubs.
On the humid slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, tropical forests (palm trees, cinchona) rise to 1500 m, stunted evergreen forests with a predominance of bamboo, ferns, and lianas reach 3000 m; at higher altitudes - alpine steppes.
A typical inhabitant of the Andean highlands is polylepis, a plant of the Rosaceae family, common in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Chile; these trees are also found at an altitude of 4500 m.
In the middle part of Chile, the forests are largely reduced; once forests rose along the Main Cordillera to heights of 2500-3000 m (mountain meadows with alpine grasses and shrubs, as well as rare peat bogs, began higher), but now the mountain slopes are practically bare. Nowadays, forests are found only in the form of separate groves (pines, araucaria, eucalyptus, beeches and plane trees, in the undergrowth - gorse and geraniums).
On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38°S. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are many mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42°S - mixed forests (in the region of 42 ° S there is an array of araucaria forests). Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes - mostly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes - tundra vegetation.
In the extreme southern part of the Andes, in Tierra del Fuego, forests (from deciduous and evergreen trees- for example, southern beech and canelo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; above the forest border, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peat bogs are common.
The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other valuable plants.
Animal world
The fauna of the northern part of the Andes is part of the Brazilian zoogeographic region and is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains.
The fauna of the Andes south of 5 ° south latitude belongs to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion. The fauna of the Andes as a whole is characterized by an abundance of endemic genera and species.
The Andes is inhabited by llamas and alpacas (representatives of these two species are used by the local population for obtaining wool and meat, as well as pack animals), chain-tailed monkeys, a relic spectacled bear, pudu and gaemal deer (which are endemic to the Andes), vicuña, guanaco, Azar fox , sloths, chinchillas, marsupial opossums, anteaters, degu rodents.
In the south - the blue fox, the Magellanic dog, the endemic rodent tuco-tuco, etc. There are many birds, among them hummingbirds, which are also found at altitudes of more than 4000 m, but are especially numerous and diverse in the "foggy forests" (the tropical rainforests of Colombia, Ecuador , Peru, Bolivia and the extreme northwest of Argentina, located in the fog condensation zone); endemic condor, rising to a height of up to 7 thousand meters; and others. Some species (such as, for example, chinchillas, which were intensively exterminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries for the sake of obtaining skins; wingless grebes and the Titicaca whistler, found only near Lake Titicaca; etc.) are endangered.
A feature of the Andes is a large species diversity of amphibians (over 900 species). Also in the Andes, there are about 600 species of mammals (13% are endemic), over 1,700 species of birds (of which 33.6% are endemic) and about 400 species of freshwater fish (34.5% are endemic).
Ecology
One of the main environmental issues Andes is the reduction of forests, which are no longer renewed; The humid tropical forests of Colombia, which are being intensively reduced to plantations of cinchona and coffee trees, and rubber plants, have been particularly hard hit.
With a developed agriculture, Andean countries face problems of soil degradation, soil pollution with chemicals, erosion, and desertification due to overgrazing (especially in Argentina).
Environmental problems of coastal zones - pollution of sea water near ports and large cities (caused not least by the release of sewage and industrial waste into the ocean), uncontrolled fishing in large volumes.
As elsewhere in the world, the Andes are facing an acute problem of greenhouse gas emissions (mainly from electricity generation, as well as from the iron and steel industry). Significant contribution to pollution environment oil refineries, oil wells and mines also contribute (their activities lead to soil erosion, pollution groundwater; the activity of mines in Patagonia adversely affected the biota of the area).
Due to a number of environmental problems, many animal and plant species in the Andes are endangered.
Attractions
- Lake Titicaca;
- national park Lauka;
- Chiloe National Park; to Cape Horn National Park;
- Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the 16th-18th centuries, National Museum of Colombia;
- Quito: Cathedral, Museum musical instruments, Museum of Del Banco-Central;
- Cusco: Cusco Cathedral, La Campa-nya Church, Haitun-Rumiyok Street (remains of Inca buildings);
- Lima: the archaeological sites of Huaca Hualyamarca and Huaca Pucllana, the archbishop's palace, the church and monastery of San Francisco;
- Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachacamac, the ruins of the city of Caral, Sacsayhuaman, Tambomachay, Pukapukara, Kenko, Pisac, Ollantaytambo, Moray, the ruins of Pikiljakta.
- Bolivia's capital, La Paz, is the highest mountain capital in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3600 m above sea level.
- 200 km north of the city of Lima (Peru) are the ruins of the city of Caral - temples, amphitheatres, houses and pyramids. It is believed that Caral belonged to ancient civilization America and was built approximately 4000-4500 years ago. Archaeological excavations have shown that the city traded with vast areas of the South American continent. It is especially interesting that archaeologists have not found any evidence of military conflicts for about a thousand years in the history of Karala.
- One of the most mysterious monuments history in the world - the monumental archaeological complex of Sacsayhuaman, located northwest of Cusco, at an altitude of approximately 3700 meters above sea level. The fortress of the same name of this complex is attributed to the Inca civilization. However, it has not yet been possible to establish how the stones of these walls, weighing up to 200 tons and fitted to each other with jewelry accuracy, were processed. Also, the ancient system of underground passages has not yet been fully explored.
- The archaeological complex of Morai, located 74 kilometers from Cusco at an altitude of 3500 meters, is still admired not only by archaeologists. Here, huge terraces, descending, form a kind of amphitheater. Studies have shown that this building was used by the Incas as an agricultural laboratory, since different height terraces made it possible to observe plants in different climatic conditions and experiment with them. It used different soils and a complex irrigation system, in total, the Incas grew 250 plant species.
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire in the Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of a highly developed civilization that appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and who died at the hands of illiterate aliens, still worries humanity.
The era of the great geographical discoveries(XV-XVII centuries) made it possible for European adventurers to quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often cruel and unscrupulous, the conquistadors rushed to America not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchange between civilizations.
The fact that the papal throne in 1537 recognized the Indians as spiritualized beings did not change anything in the methods of the conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the "humane" papal decision, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro had already managed to execute the Inca emperor Atahualpa (1533), defeat the Inca army and capture the capital of the empire, the city of Cuzco (1536).
There is a version that at first the Indians mistook the Spaniards for gods. And it is quite possible that the main reason for this misconception was not the white skin of the aliens, not that they were riding on unseen animals, and not even that they possessed firearms. The Incas were struck by the incredible cruelty of the conquistadors.
At the first meeting of Pizarro and Atahualpa, the Spaniards ambushed thousands of Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like this at all. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifice, believed that human life is the highest gift, and that is why the human sacrifice to the gods was the highest form of worship. But in order to simply destroy thousands of people who did not come to the war at all?
That the Incas could offer serious resistance to the Spaniards is beyond doubt. After the murder of the captive Atahualpa, for whom the Indians paid a monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to plunder the country, mercilessly melting the works of Inca jewelry into ingots. But the brother of Atahualpa Manco, appointed by them as the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and led the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupac Amaru, was only able to be executed by Peruvian viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572, and even after that, the leaders of new uprisings were named after him.
Not much has survived from the Inca civilization to this day - after the death of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both at the hands of the Spaniards and from work in the mines, hunger, European epidemics, there was no one to maintain irrigation systems, high mountain roads, beautiful buildings. The Spaniards destroyed a lot to get building material.
A country whose inhabitants were accustomed to supplies from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagabonds, for many years after the arrival of the conquistadors became a zone of human disaster.
Different theories determine the age of the Andean mountain system from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for people living in the Andes, the process of formation of these mountains is still ongoing.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, glaciers in the Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin observed the eruption of the Osorno volcano from the island of Chiloe. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the cities of Concepción and Talcahuano and claimed numerous victims. Such events in the Andes are not uncommon.
So, in 1970, a glacier in Peru literally in seconds buried the city of Yungay under itself with almost all the inhabitants, about 20,000 people died. In 2010, an earthquake in Chile claimed several hundred lives, left millions homeless, and caused enormous property damage. In general, serious disasters occur in the Andes with a frightening cycle - once every 10-15 years.
