the activity of the individual in the assimilation of educational information (the object of study, the content of the academic discipline). “The activity of the subject always meets some of his needs, is directed to an object that can satisfy this need. This object induces and directs the activity of the subject. By virtue of this understanding of activity, teaching is only an actual activity when it satisfies a cognitive need. The knowledge that the teaching is aimed at mastering acts in this case as a motive in which the cognitive need has found its substantive embodiment ... If there is no such need ... then he will either not learn, or will learn to satisfy some other needs. In the latter case, teaching is no longer an activity, since the acquisition of knowledge in itself does not lead to the satisfaction of the needs of the subject, but serves only as an intermediate goal. In this case, teaching is an action that implements another activity; knowledge, being the goal of action, does not perform the function of a motive, because the learning process is motivated not by them, but by what the subject learns for, which leads to the satisfaction of the need behind it. Regardless of whether the teaching is aimed at satisfying any need - specific to it or not, it is always realized by an action or a chain of actions. As can be seen from the above quotation, in psychology, teaching is considered as an activity only when the teaching satisfies the cognitive need of the individual, i.e. the need, realized by the subject, to learn something new about the chosen object. Otherwise, teaching is considered as an action in some other activity. With regard to teaching in a higher military school, it is impossible to argue so unequivocally, because if the teaching satisfies any conscious need of the subject, it is an activity. For example, the vital need to get a well-paid specialty may be associated with the study of such objects, which the subject of the study would never know on their own. Most likely, learning should be considered as an activity as an ideal of building learning, in which the subject of learning would not only perform the prescribed actions, but would also be able to realize that own (or future professional) need, which is satisfied when studying what is recommended by the teacher (the program of the academic discipline). ) of the object, i.e. consciously accept the object under study as a motive for learning, plan this activity taking into account their capabilities (or choose one of the recommended plans) and independently implement the actions included in this plan (or transformed taking into account the available funds and their own capabilities). Deviating from this ideal (for example, due to a limited time resource), the teacher can consciously assess the losses that will occur in the activity of the subject of the study, and provide measures to compensate for these forced losses. The possibility of a conscious choice, planning one's activities to master the educational material at least in time, taking into account the need to satisfy one's other needs, makes the subject of learning more active.
W. d. has a trace. general structure: need-task-motives-actions-operations. The need of U. D. is the desire of students to assimilate theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area (this knowledge reflects the patterns of origin, formation and development of subjects in the corresponding area; empirical-utilitarian knowledge, in contrast to theoretical knowledge, fixes only signs of objects that have already become). The specificity of the learning task lies in the fact that when solving it, students master in a general way solution of a whole class of homogeneous particular problems. The motives for learning actions concretize the need for teaching and learning, when the general desire of students to assimilate theoretical knowledge is aimed at mastering a well-defined general method for solving a certain class of particular problems.
Part learning activities includes: 1) acceptance or independent setting of a learning task; 2) transformation of the conditions of the learning task in order to discover some general relationship of the subject being studied; 3) modeling of the selected relation (see Modeling in training); 4) transformation of the model of this relationship to study its properties in a "pure form"; 5) building a system of particular problems that can be solved in a general way; 6) control over the implementation of previous actions; 7) assessment of mastering the general method as a result of solving a learning problem. Training operations, included in the actions, correspond to the specific conditions for solving individual learning tasks.
The structure of educational activity is formed in children of primary school age (preschoolers have only its prerequisites, one of which is cognitive interest). At this age, sport activity is the main and leading among other types of activity (artistic, playful, sports, etc.). The systematic implementation by younger schoolchildren of U. d. determines the emergence and development of psychological neoplasms a given age (the subject of this activity, the foundations of theoretical thinking, the arbitrariness of educational and cognitive actions).
primary form C.D. serves its collectively-distributed implementation by the whole class or its individual groups. In the process of internalization, a individual The indicator of which is the ability of its subject to independently and independently distinguish between known and unknown theoretical knowledge in the subject being mastered, to ask meaningful questions to peers and teachers, the ability not only to constantly participate in discussions, but also to be their initiator and organizer.
Psychological and pedagogical research shows that at the end of the primary education existing in Russia (that is, by the age of 10 of a child's life), educational education does not yet acquire a truly individual form. There is a problem of prolonging it for 1-2 years, so that at the end of primary school age the child develops a desire and ability to learn, that is, the need for learning and the possibility of its individual implementation.
In subsequent ages, which correspond to certain levels of education (adolescence - basic school; early youth - senior classes of school; youth - high school), U. D. undergoes qualitative changes in the content of theoretical knowledge acquired by students, in the nature of its implementation students, according to the methods of organization by teachers and lecturers, according to their role in the development of psychological neoplasms inherent in each age. Thus, in adolescence, the educational process loses its leading character, but retains significant significance in the development of the theoretical thinking of students, which takes place in the process of assimilation by them of a wide variety of subjects in the humanities, natural sciences, and mathematics. Adolescents have an individual form of educational activity and, acting as its full-fledged subjects, can independently set educational tasks for themselves when mastering complex material, and when carrying out educational actions, perform various types of control (advanced, reflexive, etc.), taking At the same time, along with teachers, a certain participation in the organization of educational activities of their peers.
At senior school age leading again becomes U. d., but with a professional bias, allowing high school students to carry out professional orientation and outline their own life path. At a student's age, U. d. acquires a research character. The assimilation of already accumulated theoretical knowledge is woven into the process of their independent formulation of the results of individual or collective research, design and construction, produced in accordance with the requirements of various forms of cognition, which leads students to clarify scientific concepts, improve artistic images, deepen moral values, etc. P. U. D. becomes the basis for the development of predictive and research theoretical thinking in young men.
The possibilities and level of theoretical thinking of students are an essential characteristic of their personality; therefore, the development of this type of thinking in the process of implementing U. d. also indicates the development of important personal qualities in them. See Learning and development, Self-education, Consciousness of learning. (V. V. Davydov.)
LEARNING TASK(eng. learning task) - a task that requires students to discover and master in educational activities a general method (principle) of solving a relatively wide range of particular practical problems. Put U. z. - means to introduce students into a situation that requires orientation towards a meaningfully general way of solving it in all possible particular and specific conditions. (V. V. Davydov.)
TEACHING (learning)(English learning) - the process of acquiring and consolidating (or changing the existing) ways of an individual's activity. U.'s results are elements of individual experience (knowledge, skills, abilities).
Any interaction with the world not only satisfies the needs of the individual, but also leads to a more complete and accurate reflection of the conditions of activity, which ensures the improvement of the methods of its implementation. T. o., U. - a necessary component any activity and represents the process of changing its subject, due to its subject content. In this way, U. differs from changes in activity caused by the physiological properties of the organism (its maturation, functional state, etc.).
Ignoring the active nature of U. leads to the absolutization of the properties inherent in its particular forms. Such an approach is characteristic, in particular, of behavioral theories, each of which postulates its own “absolute” laws of behavior, deriving them, as a rule, from an analysis of animal behavior isolated from the activity of behavior. To overcome such one-sidedness, it is not enough just to accept the concept of activity, it is important what content is invested in it. Thus, a number of theories consider W. as a manifestation of the analytic-synthetic activity of the brain, which does little to reveal the actual psychological patterns of W., since the physiological activity of the brain determines W. for the second time, being itself determined by the activity of the subject. A scientific understanding of U. is possible only in the context of objective activity. From these positions, the theory of U. was developed by a number of owls. psychologists (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, V. V. Davydov and others). Viewed as a side of object-oriented activity, U. acts as a developing phenomenon: along with a change in the type of activity, the forms of U. and its most important characteristics naturally change.
The complication in the course of evolution of animal activity leads to the appearance of more and more complex forms and types of U. Nevertheless, they constitute a qualitatively homogeneous stage in its development, since they are included in the same type (adaptive) activity, which predetermines the commonality of the essential characteristics of U. animals. Thus, analysis and generalization of the conditions of activity are possible only in relation to directly affecting stimuli that perform a signal function; The acts of behavior developed in the process of U. are based on instinctive reactions; U.'s attitude to its conditioned reflex mechanisms is of the same type: realizing U.'s process, they themselves do not undergo significant changes in it. Thus, U. in animals does not change the type of life activity of the individual, its function is reduced to the modification of hereditarily fixed methods of activity in accordance with the specific conditions for its implementation.
The restructuring of W. at the level of a person is due to the transition to labor activity. The methods of productive and transformative human activity are not fixed by the mechanisms of biological heredity and are transmitted to new generations in an objectified form (through tools and products of labor, language, etc.). Thus, U. begins to act as a process of assimilation by the individual of historically formed modes of activity. Since they are objectified in an implicit, folded form, in order to assimilate them, they must first be developed, ensuring the specific functioning of tools, signs, etc. learning, which is a necessary condition for U. human (U. animals can be carried out outside of training).
Approximate, executive and control components of a fundamentally new for the subject of action can be. originally reproduced by him only in external (material) form. In the future, all of them (or part of them) with the help of language are translated to the sign level and through speech are transferred to the mental (ideal) plane, being generalized, reduced and automated. At this level of development, orienting operations turn into a mechanism for obtaining knowledge about an object, acting in unity with the methods of its real or mental transformation. The internalization (transfer into an ideal plan) of material actions or their orienting-control components is a universal psychological mechanism of human mentality, the laws of which are described in the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions and concepts (Galperin). The specific form of their manifestation is determined by the conditions in which learning is carried out (the characteristics of the methods being assimilated, the nature of their development in training, the type of activity of the subject within which learning is carried out, etc.). In the most complete and "pure" form, the regularities of U. are manifested in its forms included in educational activity.
In the process of U., the psychological mechanisms that realize it are rebuilt and formed, which form the basis for the emergence and development of the abilities of the individual, which in turn become an important factor in U. T. O., U. constitutes a necessary condition and the main mechanism for the mental development of a person (in animals, developing U.'s function is very limited). See Educational psychology, Psychology of learning.
SCIENTIFIC IDIOTS(eng. idiots savants) - individuals who, according to formal criteria, are classified as mentally retarded, nevertheless they show a high development of individual abilities (for example, counting, linguistic, visual). Mentally retarded unique ones are known, who are called calendar counters, able to easily determine which day of the week a particular date falls on; at the same time, they experience difficulties with the most basic everyday skills. Psychological examination (Howe M. J. A ., Smith J., 1988) of one such unique person showed that he retains in memory a large amount of information about the distribution of days of the week in months, presented in the form of visual images. (B. M.)
USHINSKY KONSTANTIN DMITRIEVICH(1824-1870/71) - famous grew up. teacher, according to many - the founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia. A supporter of the democratization of schooling and the development of women's education. Particular attention was attracted by U. issues related to pedagogical and social thought, and first of all - the goals of education, which he understood not only as the acquisition of a stock of knowledge, but also as the development of the student's mental abilities, as well as the development in him of the desire and ability to further their own acquisition. W. saw the main tasks of the school in giving an idea of the diversity of reality and teaching methods of its cognition.
The range of scientific interests of U. in modern terminology embraces the theoretical and practical problems of pedagogy, general, pedagogical and practical psychology. The “anthropologism” and “psychologism” characteristic of U. manifested itself in understanding the content of school education, the problems of organizing education, the construction of curricula and programs, the requirements for educational books, etc. U. saw the key to solving all these and many other problems in reliance on psychological law of development of the human soul. In the works of U. develop general didactic principles and specific teaching methods, and to a greater extent he was interested in the initial stage of education; he even developed a sound method for simultaneously teaching reading and writing. Many of U.'s ideas have become the "basics" of pedagogical science and are now taken for granted (for example, the importance of studying the natural sciences for the development of observation, logic, and critical thinking), which by no means detracts from their value, and others. to this day remain misunderstood (for example, the role of teaching the native language and, in particular, the study of grammar, which contributes to the development of not only consciousness, but also self-awareness and, thus, “humanizes” a person).
Main activities, ensuring the existence of a person and the formation of him as a person - this is communication, play, teaching and work.
Communication- the interaction of two or more people, including the exchange between them of information of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.
The game(children's) - a type of activity consisting in the reproduction by children of the actions of adults and the relationship between them, aimed at understanding the surrounding reality. The game is one of the most important means of physical, mental and moral education.
Doctrine- the process of acquiring and consolidating knowledge and methods of activity by an individual. Teaching is a necessary component of any activity and is a process of changing its subject.
Work- expedient human activity aimed at changing and transforming reality to meet their needs, the creation of material and spiritual values.
Specific feature games is that its goal is the game itself as an activity, and not the practical results that are achieved with its help. The stimulus of the game is the need for activity.
Doctrine- the specific activity of the subject, which has as its goal learning. It includes:
- assimilation of information about the significant properties of the world, necessary for the successful organization of certain types of ideal and practical activities (the product of this process is knowledge);
- mastering the techniques and operations that make up all types of activities (the product of the process is skills);
- mastering the ways of using knowledge in accordance with the conditions of the task and the goal (the product of the process is skills). Teaching is a specific human activity. Animals can only learn.
Work- activity peculiar only to a person with the use of tools, aimed at obtaining a specific result, product.
aim a person most often has something that is currently absent and must be achieved as a result of activity. The goal is represented in the brain as a dynamic model of the future result of activity. This outcome model governs human behavior and activities.
How this model develops in the brain and functions is not yet known for certain. But that such a preliminary presentation of future actions and their expected result takes place is beyond doubt. Otherwise the activity would be impossible.
The ability to predict future results of actions by a person arises due to one fundamental feature of the surrounding world - its laws. This means that various phenomena are connected by certain constant connections and relationships; objects have certain stable properties and structures.
Such stable (invariant) relations between objects and phenomena are called essential properties of objects and regularities of phenomena. It is precisely due to the presence of essential and stable properties and patterns that a person can anticipate the "behavior" of objects under certain conditions, as a result of certain influences on them. At the same time, external, objective activity is preceded by internal, ideal activity. Objective actions on objects are replaced by ideal (mental) operations on the essential properties of these objects.
The psychology of learning studies a wide range of issues covering the process of acquiring and consolidating the ways of an individual's activity, as a result of which an individual experience of a person is formed - his knowledge, skills and abilities. Teaching accompanies a person's whole life, as he receives knowledge from life itself, learning something new in any interaction with the world and improving ways to meet his needs. In other words, teaching is present in any activity and is a process of formation of its subject. This teaching differs from changes in the human body caused by its physiological maturation, functional state, etc. Thus, teaching - the concept is quite broad, including not only its organized forms (schools, courses, universities), but also the spontaneous processes of acquiring knowledge and experience by a person in everyday life.
From the point of view of the activity approach, psychology considers organized forms of learning as learning activities, having its own specifics, distinguishing it from other main activities - labor and play. Its main feature is that it forms the basis of any other activity, as it prepares a person for it.
Educational activity cannot be identified with the processes of assimilation of various knowledge and methods of action that occur during labor, play, sports and other activities. It, in contrast to these processes, is denoted by the general term "teaching". Learning activity is a part, a specific kind of learning, which is specially organized so that the student, by carrying out it, changes himself.
An important component of learning activity is the learning task. In the process of solving it, like any practical task, there are certain changes in the objects studied by the student or in ideas about them, but as a result, the acting subject itself changes. A learning task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes in the subject have occurred.
Learning activity has the following general structure: need - task - motives - actions - operations.
Need manifests itself in educational activities as the student's desire to master theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area. Theoretical knowledge reflects the laws and patterns of origin, formation and development of objects in a certain area. They can be assimilated only in the process of organized educational and theoretical activity, while empirical-utilitarian knowledge, fixing the features of objects, is acquired in the course of practical activity, that is, outside of specially organized training.
The most important element of the structure of educational activity is learning task, solving which, the student performs certain educational actions and operations. Motives for learning activities may be different, but the main motive, specific to her is cognitive interest.
The implementation of educational activities is a consistently performed by the student educational actions or operations to solve an educational problem, driven by a certain motive. Target this activity - the assimilation of theoretical knowledge.
If the solution of any practical problem leads to a change in individual individual objects, and this is the goal, then the solution of the educational problem sets the goal not of the changes in the object themselves, although they can occur, but of mastering the method of action to introduce these changes.
The student, as a subject of educational activity, must master the most general way of solving a relatively wide range of particular practical problems. And the teacher, who has set the learning task for the student, must introduce him to a situation that will orient him to this general method of solution in all sorts of particular and specific conditions.
One cannot count on a genuine assimilation of a scientific discipline, on a real mastery of science, until the entire learning process has been transformed into a system for solving learning problems. In other words, learning activity should consist not of episodic, but of systematic solution of learning problems in applying the theory being studied to reality, if we mean by learning activity the active activity of the student himself, and not the transfer of ready-made knowledge to him by the teacher or their receipt from the book.
The very process of solving problems for students is learning activities, which include the following elements:
a) setting a learning task by the teacher in front of the student or the student himself in front of himself;
b) acceptance of the task by students for solving;
c) the transformation by the student of the educational task in order to discover in it some general relationship of the subject being studied (recognition of the general in this particular task);
d) modeling of a distinguished relation (in mathematics, this can be drawing up, for example, an equation, and in psychology, drawing up a diagram of the logic of reasoning from the point of view of an activity approach, etc.);
e) transformation of the model of this relationship to study its properties in a “pure form” (for example, transferring the logical scheme of reasoning to the analysis of a specific activity for studying the problem of creative thinking in a psychology course);
f) building a system of particular tasks on a given problem, solved in a general way (such tasks can be compiled by both the teacher and offer them to students, and the student himself, taking them from life);
g) control over the execution of the previous action in order to correctly proceed to the next action; and finally
h) assessment (self-assessment) of the success of all actions as a result of mastering the general way of solving a learning problem (in psychology, such a result can be a confident mastery of the method of reasoning when solving creative problems).
The ability to learn is the ability to independently perform learning activities, which is impossible without conscious acceptance and creative fulfillment of a learning task with mandatory reflection - introspection and self-assessment of the degree of success of one's own actions. Learning to learn means mastering the ability to perform learning activities, which is the most important task for any student, including students.
Assimilation is a key concept in all psychological theories of learning (learning activity, learning). It is very close in content to such concepts as "training", "teaching", "teaching". Each of these terms describes certain facets of the processes by which an individual acquires new cognitive capabilities, new components of the repertoire of behavior and activity. It is easy to see that these concepts are very close in content, and despite the fact that their semantic fields overlap, the difference between them is very obvious.
In this context, by the term "learning" we mean a specially organized process of interaction between the teacher and the student, and by the term "learning" - the process of cognitive activity of the individual. Both of these processes are aimed at mastering knowledge of generalized methods of action (skills and abilities), organizing and stimulating the cognitive, research activity of the subject, and forming his worldview.
If the terms "training" and "learning" describe mainly the process of acquiring experience by an individual, then the term "assimilation", covering the process, characterizes its result to a greater extent. Assimilation is a complex of processes of acquiring, consolidating, modifying and reproducing the cognitive experience and ways of an individual's activity. The term "learning" widely used by behaviorists is very close to it in content. It also describes both the process and the result of the enrichment of individual experience. However, they should not be identified. If in the term "assimilation" there is a clear emphasis on the result, then the term "learning" is more focused on the process of acquiring individual experience by an individual.
Basic forms of assimilation
The process of assimilation is permanent, it begins from the moment of birth and is carried out throughout a person's life, being the basis for the development of the psyche and behavior. The mechanisms of assimilation operate continuously throughout life, regardless of whether it proceeds spontaneously or in specially modeled conditions of educational systems.
The word "form" denotes the external expression of some content. The main forms of assimilation are due to the peculiarities of the maturation and functioning of the human psyche, as well as the specifics of its interaction with the outside world. Naturally, in different psychological theories they are interpreted differently. Thus, the concepts of associationists, behaviorists, cognitivists discussed above offer their own ideas about the specifics of forms and about the allocation of stages of assimilation.
In Russian psychology, it is customary to interpret the forms of assimilation based on the cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygodsky. It is argued that these forms were formed historically, and subsequently were enshrined in cultural and educational traditions. When they are singled out, the "theory of leading types of activity" (A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin) is taken as the basis. The value of this or that type of activity for an individual is determined by its content and depends on what aspects of reality a person discovers and assimilates in the process of implementation.
V. P. Zinchenko and B. G. Meshcheryakov argue that on the basis of modern data on the development of the human psyche in ontogenesis, the following types of leading activities can be distinguished:
- - direct communication of the infant with adults;
- - object-manipulative activity, characteristic of early childhood (in the process of its implementation, the child learns historically established ways of acting with certain objects);
- - role-playing game, typical for preschool age;
- - educational activities of younger students.
When describing the leading activity of adolescents in modern domestic psychology, there are significant differences. So, D. B. Elkonin argued that this is "communication with peers"; according to D. I. Feldstein and V. V. Davydov, this is “a socially useful (pro-social) activity”; other authors believe that this is "self-determination", "role experimentation", referential-significant activity, etc. Despite the discrepancies presented, it is easy to see that all of them, one way or another, are reduced to the processes of active interaction of a teenager with society.
For adults, this is "actual labor activity."
The authors emphasize that the presented activities are interrelated and complement each other. Describing the paths or factors of assimilation that dominate at each age, the authors of this approach (V. P. Zinchenko, I. A. Zimnyaya, B. G. Meshcheryakov, and others) propose to consider them as forms of assimilation. Indeed, each of these leading types of activity has both its own content and its own external expression (form). It is also noteworthy that all this is closely connected with the stages of personality development in ontogeny.
A number of modern researchers quite seriously and reasonably criticize the "theory of leading activities." Consideration of these issues goes beyond the discussion of the problem of assimilation. However, the factors of assimilation of new experience by an individual can also be considered independently, without reasoning about the existence or absence of leading activities. These factors include:
- – interaction of an individual with the objective world;
- - interaction of the individual with society;
- - game;
- - teaching and other activities.
In addition, in educational psychology, each of the paths or factors of assimilation identified above is studied. The features of assimilation of what is happening in the form of educational activity have been studied and described in the most detail. This is due to the fact that in educational activities, assimilation is considered as the main product. On the contrary, in play, in interaction with the objective world and society, in the labor activity of an individual, assimilation is usually regarded as a by-product.
Learning tasks serve as a specific way of carrying out educational activities; they are designed to direct the student's activity to acquire the necessary theoretical knowledge, practical skills and abilities. In the course of solving educational problems, students with the help of teachers form cognitive activity that is adequate to that which was carried out by people when creating concepts.
The task as an object of thinking and a way of carrying out educational activities
Thinking in psychology is most often considered as a process that unfolds in a situation of problem solving. In this context, the concept of "task" has an extended interpretation. A task is a goal set under certain conditions and requiring achievement.
Usually, in the minds of most people, the concept of "task" is limited to the framework of educational tasks well known to everyone in school education. This is natural, because most of us associate the word "task" with the school, where mainly deliberately created situations that require resolution are used (learning tasks, game tasks, etc.). They are compiled on the basis of the use of certain laws or rules.
In the psychology of thinking, the term "task" has a much broader interpretation, here we are talking not only about artificial, but also about real problems solved by a person in various fields of knowledge and practice.
In order to move further in considering the task as a psychological category, we need to correlate its content with similar concepts - "problem" and "problem situation". As you know, the term "problem" comes from a word borrowed from ancient Greek - problema, direct translation - task or task. At first glance, it may seem that the circle is closed, we define one concept through another, but this happens only at the linguistic level, both in logic and in psychology, the concepts of "problem" and "task" are not identical, they are clearly differentiated.
The problem situation, as is commonly believed, is genetically primary in relation to tasks and problems. Therefore, both the problem and the task originate in a problem situation. In this case, we understand a problem situation as a psychological model of the conditions for generating thinking on the basis of a spontaneously (situational) emerging cognitive need. In the course of theoretical reasoning or practical activity, a person encounters an obstacle - such a situation is usually classified as problematic.
This obstacle causes only the initial stage of the mental interaction of the subject with the object. As a result of this primary interaction, a cognitive motive is born, and preliminary hypotheses are put forward regarding the possible resolution of the problem situation. Further verification of the put forward hypotheses is required, it leads to the fact that the problem situation is transformed either into a problem or into a task.
The problem arises when in a cognizable object the desired object is outlined, which must be found by transforming certain conditions. This feature of tasks is especially pronounced in educational and game tasks. In this case, the task acts as a symbolic model of the problem situation.
Unlike the task, the problem is perceived as a contradictory situation. Its main distinguishing feature is the dialectically connected, opposite positions that arise when explaining the nature of the same objects, phenomena and relationships between them. This is not a formal-logical contradiction, as is often the case in a problem, but a dialectical contradiction within a single object, phenomenon or process. Here we are really confronted with a bifurcation into opposites and the requirement to construct a theory with the help of which the resolution of this contradiction can be carried out. Transforming a problem situation into a task or series of tasks is an act of productive thinking.
The resolution of dialectical contradictions is the core of the problem. The same circumstance makes the problem a source of development of scientific theories. Thus, in a problem situation, the central element is the subject, in the task - a sign object, and in the problem - a contradiction. In order to solve a problem, it must be transformed into a creative, cognitive task that allows you to check the models of certain conscious or intuitive solutions.
The task becomes a psychological category when it is presented to the subject and accepted by him. It acts as an object and as a subject of human mental work. As a result, the subject begins to solve the problem, which indicates the inclusion of the thinking process. Therefore, thinking is often considered as a process of solving problems.
The task has a certain structure. Usually it includes requirements - "goal", conditions - "known" and desired - "unknown". These elements are naturally interconnected. Features of the structure of the task affect the activity to solve it. The full cycle of productive thinking includes the setting and formulation of the task by the subject himself, which occurs when he is presented with tasks, the conditions of which are of a problematic nature.
Tasks can be real, i.e. arising in the course of life and activity, and can be artificial, compiled specifically to achieve certain goals, most often pedagogical. Artificial tasks include tasks used in training - training and gaming.
Since these tasks are created on purpose, artificially, general rules are needed according to which they can be created. When developing these rules, reliance is placed on the main functions of the learning process. Since it is from them that these rules follow, and in accordance with them they can be considered from three points of view: informational, developmental and motivational. Thus, in the most general form, the learning task should help in mastering new knowledge, develop thinking and other cognitive functions, and motivate interest in further study of the subject.
Therefore, the first rule for a learning task is that the task should be based on material that provides new knowledge and forms a scientific picture of the world.
Since not only the external information material on which the task is built is important in terms of learning, but also the process of solution itself, the solution should be complex, it should not be clearly read, the true intention should be hidden. Sometimes different methods are even used for this: a paradoxical first move is introduced, which contradicts the rules for conducting this type of activity; the appearance of a departure from the decision is created; the so-called "false trail" is given.
The next rule is that the decision should be dynamic, sharp, unexpected.
The fourth rule is that the idea must be original.
And, finally, the fifth - the task must satisfy aesthetic requirements.
