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Urbanization concept

Urbanization (from the Latin Urbanus - urban, urbs - city) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities, urban lifestyle and urban culture in the development of society, associated with the spatial concentration of activities in relatively few centers and areas of primary socio-economic development.

Concretizing this definition, which has become too general from the standpoint of modern geo-urban studies, two important points should be added to it:

1. the city’s wide expansion beyond its official (which has become too tight) borders and the formation of post-urban urban systems - agglomerations, urbanized areas, megacities;

2. a significant change in the person himself in the city, meaning an increase in the diversity of needs, increased requirements for quality, level and lifestyle, a change in the value system, norms of behavior, culture, intelligence, etc.

The term “urbanization” first appeared in foreign literature in 1867 in Spain, in Russian - in 1957 (in the translation of the UN “Report on the World Social Situation”). This term began to be used more regularly in Soviet scientific literature from the late 1960s, i.e. a century later than for the first time abroad, and at the same time the phenomenon itself was often assessed negatively. Therefore, in studying the process of urbanization, especially in the first stages, Soviet science lagged noticeably behind Western science.

Urbanization as a complex, dynamic, multifaceted process is the object of interdisciplinary research. Representatives of different sciences, and sometimes even of the same science, have their own vision of this process. Therefore, there is still no single generally accepted definition of urbanization.

Keeping in mind the different contents that go into understanding urbanization, two types of its definition have been proposed:

1. Urbanization in a narrow sense means the growth of cities, especially large ones, and an increase in the share of the urban population;

2. in a broad sense - the historical process of increasing the role of cities, urban lifestyle and urban culture in the development of the city.

The ambiguity of the understanding of urbanization was largely facilitated by the very versatility of the process, covering a variety of problems and aspects of urban development: social, economic, demographic, ethnic, cultural, etc.

The essence of urbanization is the process of development of large cities (over 100 thousand inhabitants) and large agglomerations and vast urbanized areas formed on their basis, which are the main focuses of territorial development and the main carriers of the properties and features of modern urbanization. Therefore, only when urban processes are considered within a broader territorial framework than the city, using the agglomeration, urbanized area and other urban systems, do we get an idea of ​​the true scale of modern urbanization.

The particular importance of studying urbanization is explained by the fact that it is the resulting process that shapes the relationship between man, society and the environment. The most important result, the measure of urbanization, is now increasingly recognized by the person himself with the growth of his capabilities, abilities and creative potential in the context of the spread of the urban value system on a global scale.

The process of urbanization

The increasing role of cities in the life of society has accompanied humanity throughout its history. But only in the 19th century. a noticeable concentration of population in cities begins. At the beginning of the 20th century. it intensifies even more, but the scale of urbanization especially increases after the Second World War, when, according to G. Child, the “urban revolution” began. Since the 1950s the process is increasingly characterized not only by quantitative, but also by qualitative changes (the emergence of new forms of settlement, agglomeration, suburbanization, etc.). Thus, when the definition of “modern” is used in relation to urbanization, we usually mean its functioning since the middle of the last century.

With the deepening of urbanization, however, there is an inevitable evolution of socio-geographical ideas about it, especially noticeable in the second half of the 20th century. the emphasis in determining the essence of urbanization is gradually shifting from the growth of the urban population, its share in the population of a country or region, to the level of population concentration in large cities, agglomerations and supra-agglomeration settlement systems; then on the spread of the urban way of life, changing the norms of human behavior in the city, the quality of the urban environment and on the study of man in the city as a cultural phenomenon and, in a broader sense, of the entire civilization. These signs do not oppose each other; shifting the emphasis to one of them reflects only the successive stages of knowledge of urbanization as the process itself deepens and its study by science.

Urbanization as a classic global process

In modern science, global processes can be represented, firstly, as covering the entire world and, secondly, as systemic phenomena that permeate all human life.

The globality and universality of the modern urbanization process have deep historical roots. They manifest themselves today on two levels:

1. philosophical and worldview (interdisciplinary). Urbanization occupies one of the first places among the global problems of our time, since it is in the city, as the focal point, that most of the world's problems are concentrated and the prospects for the development of mankind are determined. Therefore, urbanization largely determines the development of earthly civilization from the time of the appearance of the ancient city to the present day.

2. on the problematic one. Urbanization in today's highly contradictory and differentiated world is characterized by the following general main problems:

Conflict between rapidly expanding urban areas and the resources of cultivated agricultural lands, forest areas, etc., necessary to maintain a balance between nature and society;

Cultural and economic conflict between urban and rural areas, degradation of the economy and demographic condition of the rural population under the influence of expanding urbanization;

The conflict between the explosiveness of the formally increasing urban population and the clearly non-urban level (for a significant part) of its culture and consciousness, the insufficient preparedness of the production and service sectors for such rapid urban growth; this is the problem of the so-called pseudo-or false urbanization that began in the mid-1930s. in the USSR;

A conflict of a socio-cultural and socio-ethnic nature within urbanized areas as a result of sharply increased property and other differences between the so-called old and new city residents, due to the replenishment of the low-skilled labor force due to emigrants.

Urbanization is a deeply spatial process, concentrated and clearly expressed when it is projected onto the territory and mapped. In the process of evolution, the areas of the urbanized environment expand and their qualitative changes occur.

The spatial evolution of modern urbanization is characterized by the following significant features:

1. concentration, intensification, differentiation and diversity of urban activities (functions), and recently, increasingly, agriculture in the suburban areas of large centers;

2. dissemination outside the centers and urbanized areas of the urban lifestyle with a special structure of communication, culture, and system of value orientations;

3. development of large urban agglomerations, urbanized areas and zones as a result of increased interconnections in settlement systems;

4. complication of forms and systems of urban settlement: transition from point and linear to nodal, strip, etc.;

5. an increase in settlement radii within agglomerations and urbanized areas, associated with places of employment, recreation areas, etc., and causing territorial growth of urban systems; Accordingly, there is an increase in the areas of highly urbanized territories due to the expansion of old and the emergence of new centers of urbanization.

The spatial development of urbanization is further characterized by the transformation of a network of urban settlements into settlement systems, the differentiation of urban space, the involvement of new territories in the sphere of influence of cities of various types and ranks, and the expansion of areas of the urbanized environment.

When determining the nature of urbanization of a country or region, the concepts of urban structure and territorial-urban structure are used. Urban structure is the ratio of settlements of different sizes (population) in their total number, the total population. The territorial-urban structure is understood as the relationship and relative arrangement of territories, which are characterized by:

1. development of urbanization in breadth (development of new cells) or in depth (increasing complexity of settlement forms and structures);

2. the expression and pattern of the network of supporting urban centers;

3. degree of maturity of urban agglomerations;

4. spatial differentiation of regional urban systems.

Urbanization is a comprehensive process; it covers in territorial terms not only urban, but increasingly also rural areas, largely determining its transformation - demographic, social, economic, spatial, etc. That is why many rural problems (mobility, change rural population structures, depopulation) are now very closely related to urbanization. Cities have a diversified influence on the surrounding rural area, gradually, as it were, “processing” it, reducing the size of the countryside. As a result, there is a rapid development of the suburbs of large cities - suburbanization (literally “urbanization of the suburbs”). At the same time, there is an introduction of some urban conditions and norms of life into rural settlements, i.e. Rurbanization (rural urbanization). Urbanization of rural areas also leads to qualitative changes: non-agricultural occupations of the rural population are growing, their commuting migration is increasing, especially to cities and suburban areas of large centers, the socio-professional and demographic structure of rural residents, their way of life, the level of improvement of rural settlements, etc. d. Vast zones of gravity of large centers are formed, in which close direct and reverse connections are formed between the city and the countryside.

Urbanization of the population

Comparative analysis of the demographic aspects of the development of the urbanization process in different countries of the world is usually based on data on the growth of urbanization of the population - the share of the urban or so-called urbanized population. Since the criterion for identifying urban settlements varies significantly in individual countries, in order to obtain comparable data, the population of all settlements that have reached a certain level of population is often included in the urban population. In 2002, more than 1/3 of the world's population lived in settlements with a population of over 5,000 people (at the beginning of the 19th century - less than 3%), in settlements with a population of over 20,000 people. – more than 1/4. When using national criteria for identifying urban settlements, the dynamics of urbanization of the population is as follows. In 1800, the share of the urban population in the entire world population was about 3%, in 1850 - 6.4%, in 1900 - 19.6%. From 1800 to 2000 it increased almost 18 times (to 51.2%).

The faster growth of the urban and non-agricultural population compared to the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic feature of modern urbanization. In three parts of the world - Australia and Oceania, North America and Europe, urban residents predominate; they are being overtaken by rapidly urbanizing Latin America; at the same time, the population of Afro-Asian countries, due to their large numbers, creates an advantage in rural areas over cities on average in the world. Developed countries of the first world have the highest percentage of urban population: in Europe - Great Britain (91%), Sweden (87%), Germany (85%), Denmark (84%), France (78%), the Netherlands (76%), Spain (74%), Belgium (72%); in North America – USA (77%) and Canada (76%); in Asia – Israel (89%) and Japan (78%); in Australia and Oceania – Australia (89%) and New Zealand (85%); in Africa – South Africa (50%). When the share of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (as it approaches 80%) stops.

Urbanization is characterized by the concentration of population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (with a population of over 100,000 people), the new forms of settlement associated with them and the spread of the urban lifestyle that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization of the population.

Table 1 - Dynamics of the global urbanization process in the 19th - 20th centuries.

This table shows the dynamics of the global urbanization process, the increase in the share of the urban population due to an increase in the rural population, the growth of cities and urban infrastructure, the creation of new jobs and an improvement in the quality of life in cities.

Equipment and life

One of the most important areas of technical progress is the improvement of lighting means. At the beginning of the century, tallow or wax candles were used (in poor or rich homes, respectively). In the 30s, industrial production of cheap and simple stearic candles was established, and a little later - paraffin candles. In the first half of the 19th century. oil lamps with glass appeared, in which various types of oil were used, including cheap olive oil, called “wooden”. Since the 50s, industrially produced kerosene has been used for these purposes (initially in the USA). The revolution was the use of gas lighting in rooms and streets, which lasted until about the 70s. It was then replaced by electricity. Lamps were invented by Russian engineers176, so the new lighting was called “Russian light”. Means for lighting fire are also being created. In the 30s, phosphorus matches began to be produced (they are dangerous and not harmless), and from the 50s - the so-called “Swedish” ones, which were easy to use and safe.

Communications were laid in cities, and in the second half of the century cold water, electricity, and gas came to the house. Sewage systems are being built. New materials are being created that are widely used in construction: metal, glass, concrete and a fundamentally new structural material - reinforced concrete. Architectural techniques are changing, light, spacious public buildings made of glass and concrete are being erected: exhibition and retail premises, train stations, markets.

Of the inventions that had cultural significance, photography, the phonograph, and cinema were especially important. Photography (daguerreotype) was initially a complex process, and the equipment used for this was heavy and bulky177. Over the next decades, its technology was improved, and it began to be widely used in various fields: in science, art, and everyday life. Another miracle of that time was the phonograph178. It allowed you to record and play back voice and music. Ten years later, a gramophone appeared, where a record served as the sound recording medium. Repeatedly improved, mechanical sound recording has not lost its significance to this day. And finally, at the end of the century, a new art form was born - cinema. The first public screening of the film took place in Paris in 1895, and the first cinema was opened at the end of that year. Initially, cinema, this most “technical” form of art, was a type of some kind of attraction, and not an art or a means of communication.

Truly revolutionary changes are taking place in medicine. The causative agents of many diseases, such as tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, etc., were discovered. The method of pasteurization was discovered, vaccines were created to protect against a number of diseases, and vaccination techniques were developed. Anesthetics and antiseptics and blood transfusions are used. Medical devices such as a stethoscope, thermometer, blood pressure measuring device, and drill were invented. The social importance of medicine is growing, especially with regard to the prevention of infections, the development of sanitation and hygiene.

Such dramatic shifts in various areas give rise to a feeling of dynamic movement, constant change, and instability. Consciousness is getting used to the feverish speed of change, traditionalism is increasingly becoming a thing of the past. The changes taking place, however, are perceived differently, leaving few indifferent. Some strata (for example, the aristocracy, the peasantry) are wary or hostile towards technological progress, while others experience euphoria from its achievements179. New technology is being introduced into everyday life initially at the top of the social hierarchy, then among less affluent social groups. She creates new ideas about luxury, fashion, representation. Prestige is beginning to be identified with technology: for example, it is prestigious to own certain technical innovations. Nevertheless, to a much greater extent, technology contributes to the democratization of society, equalization, and unification of people, as happens, in particular, in transport. Different classes are introduced for passengers on a train or ship, their service is different, but the movement itself and its speed are the same for everyone, for the poor and for the aristocrat.

Living environment

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. cities are on the threshold of a new era - an era of urbanization and rapid industrial development, and some have already entered it. Along with colossal wealth, developing capitalism gives rise to mass poverty; the proletariat lives in dirty neighborhoods, in hopeless need and despair. The new industry also creates new “circles of hell” - accumulations of the poor. These could be places of concentration of modern industry - industrial cities like Manchester or Pittsburgh, countless small proletarian towns, or the outskirts of major capitals such as London, Paris, etc. Dust and smoke from industrial production forms thick smog in them, very little greenery, There are no sidewalks or paved streets.

Numerous documents from the 19th century. depict the appalling living conditions of factory and plant workers. Here are some examples taken from a survey of housing conditions in England (data from the workers' insurance society): in Bradford, overnight accommodations were “in six rooms for 10 and 11 people, in one for 12, in three for 13, in the other three for 16, in one - 17, in the other - 18 people." Further Belfordshire: “in the crowded rooms on single beds slept three adults with three children, a married couple with six children...” Buckinghamshire: “A young woman, sick with fever (implied scarlet fever), slept in the same room with father, mother, illegitimate child , two... brothers and two sisters, a total of 10 people." More examples can be given - they are well known180. The situation of the lumpen proletariat is the same or worse (if it is possible to talk about an even greater decline). Most of them, having no place to stay, are forced to spend the night on the streets, under bridges, in barrels or boxes. The luckiest ones find a place in flophouses called “tramp hotels.” Sometimes these were “rope hotels”: a thick rope was stretched in the room, and the tramps slept sitting, leaning their backs against it, as depicted in the lithograph “The Nochlezhka” by Honore Daumier. This is how society paid for the industrial rise, industrialization, which brought with it fundamental changes.

The changes that have occurred in the living environment over the course of a century are enormous. After all, even at the end of the 18th century, despite the luxury of the homes of the rich, a bathroom was the greatest rarity. All kinds of insects swarmed both in the houses of the poor and the nobility. Food was prepared in medieval style, using wood or charcoal. Middle-class homes did not always have an English flush toilet181. Gas was not yet known, and therefore candles, oil and whale oil were used for lighting. During the 19th century. Various technical systems for the supply of water, gas and electricity, and sewerage are being introduced. Naturally, wealthy citizens have access to the benefits of civilization

Living environment in the 19th century. changes not only under the influence of rapidly developing technological progress. Changes in prevailing tastes and preferences, fashion, expressed in the frequent change of artistic styles: from classicism of the beginning of the century to Biedermeier and further to the chaos of polystylistics - this is the development trend - have a great influence on the internal structure of the home, its design, and household items.

3. The concept of urbanization

Urbanization (from Latin urbanus - urban) is the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of their cultural and political functions, and the deepening of the territorial division of labor. Urbanization is characterized by an influx of rural population into cities and an increasing pendulum movement of the population from the rural environment and nearby small towns to large cities (to work, for cultural and everyday needs, etc.). The urbanization process is due to:

· natural increase in urban population;

· transformation of rural settlements into urban ones;

· formation of wide suburban areas;

· migration from rural to urban areas.

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