Estimated available pressure in the heating system. “Concretization of indicators of the quantity and quality of communal resources in the modern realities of housing and communal services. Water supply scheme with parallel zoning

Q[KW] = Q[Gcal]*1160; Load conversion from Gcal to KW

G[m3/h] = Q[KW]*0.86/ ΔT; where ∆T- temperature difference between supply and return.

Example:

Supply temperature from heating networks T1 - 110˚ FROM

Supply temperature from heating networks T2 - 70˚ FROM

Heating circuit consumption G = (0.45 * 1160) * 0.86 / (110-70) = 11.22 m3 / hour

But for a heated circuit with a temperature graph of 95/70, the flow rate will be completely different: \u003d (0.45 * 1160) * 0.86 / (95-70) \u003d 17.95 m3 / hour.

From this we can conclude: the lower the temperature difference (the temperature difference between the supply and return), the greater the required coolant flow.

Selection of circulation pumps.

When selecting circulation pumps for heating, hot water, ventilation systems, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the system: coolant flow rate,

which must be provided and the hydraulic resistance of the system.

Coolant consumption:

G[m3/h] = Q[KW]*0.86/ ΔT; where ∆T- temperature difference between supply and return;

hydraulic the resistance of the system must be provided by specialists who calculated the system itself.

For example:

we consider the heating system with a temperature graph of 95˚ C /70˚ With and load 520 kW

G[m3/h] =520*0.86/ 25 = 17.89 m3/h~ 18 m3/hour;

The resistance of the heating system wasξ = 5 meters ;

In the case of an independent heating system, it must be understood that the resistance of the heat exchanger will be added to this resistance of 5 meters. To do this, you need to look at his calculation. For example, let this value be 3 meters. So, the total resistance of the system is obtained: 5 + 3 \u003d 8 meters.

Now you can choose circulation pump with flow rate 18m3/h and a pressure of 8 meters.

For example, this one:

In this case, the pump is selected with a large margin, it allows you to provide a working pointflow / head at the first speed of its work. If, for any reason, this pressure is not enough, the pump can be “dispersed” up to 13 meters at the third speed. The best option is considered to be a pump option that maintains its operating point at the second speed.

It is also quite possible to put a pump with a built-in frequency converter instead of an ordinary pump with three or one speed, for example:

This version of the pump is, of course, the most preferable, since it allows the most flexible setting of the operating point. The only downside is the cost.

It is also necessary to remember that for the circulation of heating systems it is necessary to provide two pumps without fail (main / backup), and for the circulation of the DHW line it is quite possible to supply one.

Drinking system. Selection of the feed system pump.

It is obvious that the boost pump is necessary only in the case of independent systems, in particular heating, where the heating and heated circuit

separated by a heat exchanger. The make-up system itself is necessary to maintain a constant pressure in the secondary circuit in case of possible leaks.

in the heating system, as well as to fill the system itself. The recharge system itself consists of a pressure switch, a solenoid valve, and an expansion tank.

The make-up pump is installed only when the pressure of the coolant in the return is not enough to fill the system (the piezometer does not allow).

Example:

The pressure of the return heat carrier from the heating networks Р2 = 3 atm.

The height of the building, taking into account those. Underground = 40 meters.

3 atm. = 30 meters;

Required height = 40 meters + 5 meters (per spout) = 45 meters;

Pressure deficit = 45 meters - 30 meters = 15 meters = 1.5 atm.

The pressure of the feed pump is understandable, it should be 1.5 atmospheres.

How to determine the expense? The flow rate of the pump is assumed to be 20% of the volume of the heating system.

The principle of operation of the feeding system is as follows.

The pressure switch (pressure measuring device with relay output) measures the pressure of the return heat carrier in the heating system and has

presetting. For this particular example, this setting should be approximately 4.2 atmospheres with a hysteresis of 0.3.

When the pressure in the return of the heating system drops to 4.2 atm., The pressure switch closes its group of contacts. This supplies voltage to the solenoid

valve (opening) and make-up pump (switching on).

The make-up coolant is supplied until the pressure rises to a value of 4.2 atm + 0.3 = 4.5 atmospheres.

Calculation of the control valve for cavitation.

When distributing the available pressure between the elements of the heating point, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of cavitation processes inside the body

valves, which over time will destroy it.

The maximum allowable differential pressure across the valve can be determined from the formula:

∆Pmax= z*(P1 − Ps) ; bar

where: z is the coefficient of cavitation initiation, published in technical catalogs for the selection of equipment. Each equipment manufacturer has its own, but the average value is usually in the range of 0.45-06.

P1 - pressure in front of the valve, bar

Рs – saturation pressure of water vapor at a given coolant temperature, bar,

towhichdetermined by the table:

If the estimated differential pressure used to select the Kvs valve is not more than

∆Pmax, cavitation will not occur.

Example:

Pressure before valve P1 = 5 bar;

Coolant temperature Т1 = 140С;

Z valve catalog = 0.5

According to the table, for a coolant temperature of 140C, we determine Рs = 2.69

The maximum allowable differential pressure across the valve is:

∆Pmax= 0.5 * (5 - 2.69) = 1.155 bar

It is impossible to lose more than this difference on the valve - cavitation will begin.

But if the coolant temperature were lower, for example, 115C, which is closer to the real temperatures of the heating network, the maximum difference

pressure would be greater:ΔPmax\u003d 0.5 * (5 - 0.72) \u003d 2.14 bar.

From this we can draw a quite obvious conclusion: the higher the temperature of the coolant, the lower the pressure drop is possible across the control valve.

To determine the flow rate. Passing through the pipeline, it is enough to use the formula:

;m/s

G – coolant flow through the valve, m3/h

d – conditional diameter of the selected valve, mm

It is necessary to take into account the fact that the speed of the flow passing through the pipeline section should not exceed 1 m/s.

The most preferred flow velocity is in the range of 0.7 - 0.85 m/s.

The minimum speed should be 0.5 m/s.

The criterion for selecting a DHW system is usually determined from the technical specifications for the connection: the heat generation company very often prescribes

type of DHW system. In case the type of system is not prescribed, a simple rule should be followed: determination by the ratio of building loads

for hot water and heating.

If a 0.2 - necessary two-stage DHW system;

Respectively,

If a QDHW/Qheating< 0.2 or QDHW/Qheating>1; needed single stage hot water system.

The very principle of operation of a two-stage DHW system is based on heat recovery from the return of the heating circuit: the return heat carrier of the heating circuit

passes through the first stage of hot water supply and heats up cold water from 5C to 41...48C. At the same time, the return coolant of the heating circuit cools down to 40C

and already cold merges into the heating network.

The second stage of the hot water supply warms up cold water from 41 ... 48C after the first stage to the prescribed 60 ... 65C.

Advantages of a two-stage DHW system:

1) Due to the heat recovery of the heating circuit return, a cooled coolant enters the heating network, which dramatically reduces the likelihood of overheating

return lines. This point is extremely important for heat generating companies, in particular, heating networks. Now it is becoming common to carry out calculations of heat exchangers of the first stage of hot water supply at a minimum temperature of 30 ° C, so that an even colder coolant merges into the return of the heating network.

2) The two-stage DHW system more accurately controls the temperature of hot water, which goes to the consumer for analysis and temperature fluctuations

at the exit from the system is much less. This is achieved due to the fact that the control valve of the second stage of domestic hot water, in the course of its operation, regulates

only a small part of the load, not the whole.

When distributing loads between the first and second stages of hot water supply, it is very convenient to proceed as follows:

70% load - 1 stage DHW;

30% load - 2nd stage DHW;

What does it give.

1) Since the second (adjustable) stage turns out to be small, then in the process of regulating the DHW temperature, temperature fluctuations at the outlet of

systems are small.

2) Due to this distribution of the DHW load, in the process of calculation we get the equality of costs and, as a result, the equality of diameters in the piping of the heat exchangers.

The consumption for DHW circulation must be at least 30% of the consumption of DHW analysis by the consumer. This is the minimum number. To increase reliability

system and stability of DHW temperature control, the flow rate for circulation can be increased to a value of 40-45%. This is done not only to maintain

hot water temperature when there is no analysis by the consumer. This is done to compensate for the “drawdown” of the DHW at the time of the peak analysis of the DHW, since the consumption

circulation will support the system at the moment the volume of the heat exchanger is filled with cold water for heating.

There are cases of incorrect calculation of the DHW system, when instead of a two-stage system, a single-stage one is designed. After installing such a system,

in the process of commissioning, the specialist is faced with extreme instability of the DHW system. It is appropriate here to even talk about inoperability,

which is expressed by large temperature fluctuations at the outlet of the DHW system with an amplitude of 15-20C from the setpoint. For example, when the setting

is 60C, then in the process of regulation, temperature fluctuations occur in the range from 40 to 80C. In this case, changing the settings

electronic controller (PID - components, stroke time, etc.) will not give a result, since the DHW hydraulics are fundamentally incorrectly calculated.

There is only one way out: to limit the flow of cold water and maximize the circulation component of hot water. In this case, at the mixing point

less cold water will mix with more hot (circulating) water and the system will work more stable.

Thus, some kind of imitation of a two-stage DHW system is performed due to the circulation of DHW.

The available pressure drop to create water circulation, Pa, is determined by the formula

where DPn is the pressure created by the circulation pump or elevator, Pa;

DRe - natural circulation pressure in the settlement ring due to water cooling in pipes and heaters, Pa;

In pumping systems, it is allowed not to take into account DPe if it is less than 10% of DPn.

The available pressure drop at the entrance to the building DPr = 150 kPa.

Calculation of natural circulation pressure

The natural circulating pressure that occurs in the calculated ring of a vertical single-pipe system with lower wiring regulated with trailing sections, Pa, is determined by the formula

where is the average increase in water density with a decrease in its temperature by 1 °C, kg / (m3??C);

Vertical distance from heating center to cooling center

heater, m;

Water consumption in the riser, kg / h, is determined by the formula

Calculation of pump circulation pressure

The value, Pa, is selected in accordance with the available pressure difference at the inlet and the mixing factor U according to the nomogram.

Available pressure difference at the inlet =150 kPa;

Heat carrier parameters:

In the heating network f1=150?С; f2=70?С;

In the heating system t1=95?C; t2=70?C;

We determine the mixing ratio by the formula

µ= f1 - t1 / t1 - t2 =150-95/95-70=2.2; (2.4)

Hydraulic calculation of water heating systems by the method of specific friction pressure losses

Calculation of the main circulation ring

1) Hydraulic calculation of the main circulation ring is performed through riser 15 of a vertical single-pipe water heating system with bottom wiring and dead-end movement of the coolant.

2) We divide the FCC into calculated sections.

3) For the preliminary selection of the pipe diameter, an auxiliary value is determined - the average value of the specific pressure loss from friction, Pa, per 1 meter of pipe according to the formula

where is the available pressure in the adopted heating system, Pa;

Total length of the main circulation ring, m;

Correction factor taking into account the proportion of local pressure losses in the system;

For a heating system with pump circulation, the share of losses due to local resistances is equal to b=0.35, to friction b=0.65.

4) We determine the flow rate of the coolant in each section, kg / h, according to the formula

Parameters of the heat carrier in the supply and return pipelines of the heating system, ?С;

Specific mass heat capacity of water, equal to 4.187 kJ / (kg?? С);

Coefficient for accounting for additional heat flow when rounding in excess of the calculated value;

Accounting coefficient for additional heat losses by heating devices near external fences;

6) We determine the coefficients of local resistance in the calculated sections (and write their sum in table 1) by .

Table 1

7) In each section of the main circulation ring, we determine the pressure loss due to local resistances Z, po, depending on the sum of the local resistance coefficients Uo and the water velocity in the section.

8) We check the reserve of the available pressure drop in the main circulation ring according to the formula

where is the total pressure loss in the main circulation ring, Pa;

With a dead-end scheme of coolant movement, the discrepancy between pressure losses in the circulation rings should not exceed 15%.

The hydraulic calculation of the main circulation ring is summarized in Table 1 (Appendix A). As a result, we obtain the pressure loss discrepancy

Calculation of a small circulation ring

We perform a hydraulic calculation of a secondary circulation ring through the riser 8 of a single-pipe water heating system

1) We calculate the natural circulation pressure due to the cooling of water in the heaters of the riser 8 according to the formula (2.2)

2) Determine the water flow in the riser 8 according to the formula (2.3)

3) We determine the available pressure drop for the circulation ring through the secondary riser, which should be equal to the known pressure losses in the MCC sections, adjusted for the difference in natural circulation pressure in the secondary and main rings:

15128.7+(802-1068)=14862.7 Pa

4) We find the average value of the linear pressure loss according to the formula (2.5)

5) Based on the value, Pa/m, the flow rate of the coolant in the area, kg/h, and the maximum allowable speeds of the coolant, we determine the preliminary diameter of the pipes dу, mm; actual specific pressure loss R, Pa/m; actual coolant velocity V, m/s, according to .

6) We determine the coefficients of local resistance in the calculated sections (and write their sum in table 2) according to .

7) In the section of the small circulation ring, we determine the pressure loss due to local resistances Z, po, depending on the sum of the coefficients of local resistance Uo and the water velocity in the section.

8) The hydraulic calculation of the small circulation ring is summarized in Table 2 (Appendix B). We check the hydraulic balancing between the main and small hydraulic rings according to the formula

9) We determine the required pressure loss in the throttle washer according to the formula

10) Determine the diameter of the throttle washer by the formula

On the site it is required to install a throttle washer with a diameter of the internal passage DN = 5mm

The task of hydraulic calculation includes:

Determining the diameter of pipelines;

Determination of pressure drop (pressure);

Determination of pressures (heads) at various points in the network;

Coordination of all network points in static and dynamic modes in order to ensure acceptable pressures and required pressures in the network and subscriber systems.

According to the results of hydraulic calculation, the following tasks can be solved.

1. Determination of capital costs, consumption of metal (pipes) and the main scope of work for laying a heating network.

2. Determination of the characteristics of circulation and make-up pumps.

3. Determination of the operating conditions of the heating network and the choice of schemes for connecting subscribers.

4. The choice of automation for the heating network and subscribers.

5. Development of operating modes.

a. Schemes and configurations of thermal networks.

The scheme of the heat network is determined by the placement of heat sources in relation to the area of ​​consumption, the nature of the heat load and the type of heat carrier.

The specific length of steam networks per unit of calculated heat load is small, since steam consumers - as a rule, industrial consumers - are located at a short distance from the heat source.

A more difficult task is the choice of the scheme of water heating networks due to the large length, a large number of subscribers. Water vehicles are less durable than steam ones due to greater corrosion, more sensitive to accidents due to the high density of water.

Fig.6.1. Single-line communication network of a two-pipe heat network

Water networks are divided into main and distribution networks. Through the main networks, the coolant is supplied from heat sources to the areas of consumption. Through distribution networks, water is supplied to the GTP and MTP and to subscribers. Subscribers rarely connect directly to backbone networks. Sectioning chambers with valves are installed at the distribution network connection points to the main ones. Sectional valves on main networks are usually installed after 2-3 km. Thanks to the installation of sectional valves, water losses during vehicle accidents are reduced. Distribution and main TS with a diameter of less than 700 mm are usually made dead-end. In case of accidents, for most of the country's territory, a break in the heat supply of buildings up to 24 hours is allowed. If a break in heat supply is unacceptable, it is necessary to provide for duplication or loopback of the TS.

Fig.6.2. Ring heating network from three CHPPs Fig.6.3. Radial heating network

When supplying large cities with heat from several CHPs, it is advisable to provide for mutual blocking of CHPs by connecting their mains with blocking connections. In this case, a ring heating network with several power sources is obtained. Such a scheme has a higher reliability, provides the transfer of reserving water flows in case of an accident in any section of the network. With diameters of lines extending from the heat source of 700 mm or less, a radial scheme of the heat network is usually used with a gradual decrease in the diameter of the pipe as it moves away from the source and the connected load decreases. Such a network is the cheapest, but in the event of an accident, heat supply to subscribers is stopped.

b. Main calculated dependencies

General principles of hydraulic calculation of pipelines of water heating systems are detailed in the section Water heating systems. They are also applicable to the calculation of heat pipelines of heat networks, but taking into account some of their features. So, in the calculations of heat pipelines, the turbulent movement of water is taken (water velocity is more than 0.5 m / s, steam - more than 20-30 m / s, i.e. quadratic calculation area), the values ​​​​of the equivalent roughness of the inner surface of steel pipes of large diameters, mm, accepted for: steam pipelines - k = 0.2; water network - k = 0.5; condensate pipelines - k = 0.5-1.0.

Estimated coolant costs for individual sections of the heating network are determined as the sum of the costs of individual subscribers, taking into account the scheme for connecting DHW heaters. In addition, it is necessary to know the optimal specific pressure drops in pipelines, which are preliminarily determined by a feasibility study. Usually they are taken equal to 0.3-0.6 kPa (3-6 kgf / m 2) for main heating networks and up to 2 kPa (20 kgf / m 2) - for branches.

In hydraulic calculation, the following tasks are solved: 1) determination of pipeline diameters; 2) determination of the pressure drop-pressure; 3) determination of the operating pressures at various points in the network; 4) determination of permissible pressures in pipelines under various operating modes and conditions of the heating system.

When carrying out hydraulic calculations, schemes and a geodetic profile of the heating main are used, indicating the location of heat supply sources, heat consumers and design loads. To speed up and simplify calculations, instead of tables, logarithmic nomograms of hydraulic calculation are used (Fig. 1), and in recent years, computer calculation and graphic programs have been used.

Picture 1.

PIEZOMETRIC GRAPH

When designing and in operational practice, piezometric graphs are widely used to take into account the mutual influence of the geodetic profile of the area, the height of subscriber systems, and the existing pressures in the heating network. Using them, it is easy to determine the head (pressure) and available pressure at any point in the network and in the subscriber system for the dynamic and static state of the system. Consider the construction of a piezometric graph, while we assume that the head and pressure, pressure drop and head loss are related by the following dependencies: Н = р/γ, m (Pa/m); ∆Н = ∆р/ γ, m (Pa/m); and h = R/ γ (Pa), where H and ∆H are head and head loss, m (Pa/m); p and ∆p - pressure and pressure drop, kgf / m 2 (Pa); γ - mass density of the coolant, kg/m 3 ; h and R - specific pressure loss (dimensionless value) and specific pressure drop, kgf / m 2 (Pa / m).

When constructing a piezometric graph in dynamic mode, the axis of network pumps is taken as the origin; taking this point as a conditional zero, they build a terrain profile along the route of the main highway and along characteristic branches (the marks of which differ from the marks of the main highway). On the profile, the heights of the buildings to be attached are drawn on a scale, then, having previously assumed a pressure on the suction side of the collector of network pumps H sun \u003d 10-15 m, a horizontal A 2 B 4 is applied (Fig. 2, a). From point A 2, the lengths of the calculated sections of heat pipelines are plotted along the abscissa axis (with a cumulative total), and along the ordinate axis from the end points of the calculated sections - the pressure loss Σ∆Н in these sections. By connecting the upper points of these segments, we get a broken line A 2 B 2, which will be the piezometric line of the return line. Each vertical segment from the conditional level A 2 B 4 to the piezometric line A 2 B 2 denotes the pressure loss in the return line from the corresponding point to the circulation pump at the CHP. From point B 2 on a scale, the necessary available pressure for the subscriber at the end of the highway ∆N ab is laid up, which is taken to be 15-20 m or more. The resulting segment B 1 B 2 characterizes the pressure at the end of the supply line. From point B 1, the pressure loss in the supply pipeline ∆N p is postponed upwards and a horizontal line B 3 A 1 is drawn.

Figure 2.a - construction of a piezometric graph; b - piezometric graph of a two-pipe heating network

From the line A 1 B 3 down, the pressure losses are laid off in the section of the supply line from the heat source to the end of the individual calculated sections, and the piezometric line A 1 B 1 of the supply line is built similarly to the previous one.

With closed DH systems and equal pipe diameters of the supply and return lines, the piezometric line A 1 B 1 is a mirror image of the line A 2 B 2 . From point A, the pressure loss is deposited upward in the boiler CHP or in the boiler circuit ∆N b (10-20 m). The pressure in the supply manifold will be N n, in the return - N sun, and the pressure of the network pumps - N s.n.

It is important to note that with direct connection of local systems, the return pipeline of the heating network is hydraulically connected to the local system, while the pressure in the return pipeline is completely transferred to the local system and vice versa.

During the initial construction of the piezometric graph, the pressure on the suction manifold of the network pumps Hsv was taken arbitrarily. Moving the piezometric graph parallel to itself up or down allows you to accept any pressure on the suction side of the network pumps and, accordingly, in local systems.

When choosing the position of the piezometric graph, it is necessary to proceed from the following conditions:

1. The pressure (pressure) at any point of the return line should not be higher than the permissible operating pressure in local systems, for new heating systems (with convectors) the operating pressure is 0.1 MPa (10 m of water column), for systems with cast-iron radiators 0.5-0.6 MPa (50-60 m water column).

2. The pressure in the return pipeline must ensure that the upper lines and devices of local heating systems are flooded with water.

3. The pressure in the return line in order to avoid the formation of a vacuum should not be lower than 0.05-0.1 MPa (5-10 m of water column).

4. The pressure on the suction side of the network pump should not be lower than 0.05 MPa (5 m w.c.).

5. The pressure at any point of the supply pipeline must be higher than the flashing pressure at the maximum (calculated) temperature of the heat carrier.

6. The available pressure at the end point of the network must be equal to or greater than the calculated pressure loss at the subscriber input with the calculated coolant flow.

7. In summer, the pressure in the supply and return lines takes on more than the static pressure in the DHW system.

Static state of the DH system. When the network pumps stop and the water circulation in the DH system stops, it changes from a dynamic state to a static one. In this case, the pressures in the supply and return lines of the heating network will equalize, the piezometric lines merge into one - the line of static pressure, and on the graph it will take an intermediate position, determined by the pressure of the make-up device of the DH source.

The pressure of the make-up device is set by the station personnel either by the highest point of the pipeline of the local system directly connected to the heating network, or by the vapor pressure of superheated water at the highest point of the pipeline. So, for example, at the design temperature of the coolant T 1 \u003d 150 ° C, the pressure at the highest point of the pipeline with superheated water will be set equal to 0.38 MPa (38 m of water column), and at T 1 \u003d 130 ° C - 0.18 MPa (18 m water column).

However, in all cases, the static pressure in low-lying subscriber systems should not exceed the permissible operating pressure of 0.5-0.6 MPa (5-6 atm). If it is exceeded, these systems should be transferred to an independent connection scheme. Lowering the static pressure in heating networks can be carried out by automatically disconnecting tall buildings from the network.

In emergency cases, with a complete loss of power supply to the station (stopping of network and make-up pumps), the circulation and make-up will stop, while the pressures in both lines of the heating network will equalize along the line of static pressure, which will begin to slowly, gradually decrease due to leakage of network water through leaks and cooling it in pipelines. In this case, boiling of superheated water in pipelines is possible with the formation of vapor locks. The resumption of water circulation in such cases can lead to severe hydraulic shocks in pipelines with possible damage to fittings, heaters, etc. To avoid this phenomenon, water circulation in the DH system should be started only after the pressure in the pipelines is restored by feeding the heating network at a level not lower than static.

To ensure reliable operation of heating networks and local systems, it is necessary to limit possible pressure fluctuations in the heating network to acceptable limits. To maintain the required pressure level in the heating network and local systems at one point of the heating network (and in difficult terrain conditions - at several points), a constant pressure is artificially maintained in all operating modes of the network and during static conditions using a make-up device.

The points at which the pressure is kept constant are called the neutral points of the system. As a rule, pressure fixing is carried out on the return line. In this case, the neutral point is located at the intersection of the reverse piezometer with the static pressure line (point NT in Fig. 2, b), maintaining a constant pressure at the neutral point and replenishing the coolant leakage are carried out by make-up pumps of the CHP or RTS, KTS through an automated make-up device. Automatic regulators are installed on the feeding line, operating on the principle of regulators “after themselves” and “befores themselves” (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 1 - network pump; 2 - make-up pump; 3 - network water heater; 4 - make-up regulator valve

The heads of the network pumps N s.n. are taken equal to the sum of the hydraulic pressure losses (at the maximum - estimated water flow): in the supply and return pipelines of the heating network, in the subscriber's system (including inputs to the building), in the CHP boiler plant, its peak boilers or in boiler room. Heat sources must have at least two network and two make-up pumps, of which one standby.

The amount of make-up of closed heat supply systems is assumed to be 0.25% of the volume of water in pipelines of heat networks and in subscriber systems connected to the heat network, h.

For schemes with direct water intake, the amount of make-up is assumed to be equal to the sum of the estimated water consumption for hot water supply and the amount of leakage in the amount of 0.25% of the system capacity. The capacity of heating systems is determined by the actual diameters and lengths of pipelines or by aggregated standards, m 3 /MW:

The disunity that has developed on the basis of ownership in the organization of operation and management of urban heat supply systems has the most negative effect both on the technical level of their functioning and on their economic efficiency. It was noted above that the operation of each specific heat supply system is carried out by several organizations (sometimes "subsidiaries" from the main one). However, the specificity of DH systems, primarily heating networks, is determined by the rigid connection of the technological processes of their functioning, unified hydraulic and thermal modes. The hydraulic regime of the heat supply system, which is the determining factor in the functioning of the system, is extremely unstable by its nature, which makes heat supply systems difficult to control compared to other urban engineering systems (electricity, gas, water supply).

None of the links of the DH systems (heat source, main and distribution networks, heating points) can independently provide the required technological modes of operation of the system as a whole, and, consequently, the end result is a reliable and high-quality heat supply to consumers. Ideal in this sense is the organizational structure, in which heat supply sources and heat networks are under the jurisdiction of one enterprise-structure.

On a piezometric graph, the terrain, the height of the attached buildings, and the pressure in the network are plotted on a scale. Using this graph, it is easy to determine the pressure and available pressure at any point in the network and subscriber systems.

The level 1 - 1 is taken as the horizontal plane of pressure reading (see fig. 6.5). Line P1 - P4 - graph of the pressure of the supply line. Line O1 - O4 - graph of the pressure of the return line. H o1 is the total pressure on the return collector of the source; Hсн - pressure of the network pump; H st is the total head of the make-up pump, or the total static head in the heating network; H to- full pressure in t.K on the discharge pipe of the network pump; D H m is the pressure loss in the heat-preparation plant; H p1 - ​​full pressure on the supply manifold, H n1 = H to - D H t. Available pressure of network water at the CHPP collector H 1 =H p1 - H o1 . Pressure at any point in the network i denoted as H n i , H oi - total pressure in the forward and return pipelines. If the geodetic height at a point i there is Z i , then the piezometric pressure at this point is H p i - Z i , H o i – Z i in the forward and reverse pipelines, respectively. Available pressure at the point i is the difference between the piezometric pressures in the forward and return pipelines - H p i - H oi. The available pressure in the heating network at the subscriber's connection point D is H 4 = H p4 - H o4 .

Fig.6.5. Scheme (a) and piezometric graph (b) of a two-pipe heating network

There is a pressure loss in the supply line in section 1 - 4 . There is a pressure loss in the return line in section 1 - 4 . During operation of the network pump, the pressure H st of the feed pump is regulated by a pressure regulator up to H o1 . When the network pump stops, a static head is set in the network H st, developed by the make-up pump.

In the hydraulic calculation of the steam pipeline, the profile of the steam pipeline can be ignored due to the low steam density. Pressure loss at subscribers, for example , depends on the connection scheme of the subscriber. With elevator mixing D H e \u003d 10 ... 15 m, with elevatorless input - D n be =2…5 m, in the presence of surface heaters D H n = 5…10 m, with pump mixing D H ns = 2…4 m.

Requirements for the pressure regime in the heating network:

At any point in the system, the pressure must not exceed the maximum allowable value. Pipelines of the heat supply system are designed for 16 atm, pipelines of local systems - for a pressure of 6 ... 7 atm;

To avoid air leaks at any point in the system, the pressure must be at least 1.5 atm. In addition, this condition is necessary to prevent pump cavitation;

At any point in the system, the pressure must not be less than the saturation pressure at a given temperature in order to prevent water from boiling.