Units of the Russian language examples. Units of language and their relation to signs

The term "E. I." in a broad sense, they denote a wide range of heterogeneous phenomena that are the object of study of linguistics. They distinguish material units that have a constant sound shell, for example a phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence, etc., “relatively material” units (according to A. I. Smirnitsky), having a variable sound shell, for example, models of the structure of words, phrases, sentences, and units of meaning (for example, semes, etc.) that make up the semantic (ideal) side of material or relatively material units and do not exist outside of these units.

Material E. i. They are divided into one-sided, which do not have their own meaning (phonemes, syllables), and two-sided, which have both sound and meaning. The function of unilateral E. i. - participation in the formation and distinction of the sound shells of bilateral units. Sometimes to unilateral E. I. (“units of expression”) include the sound shells of bilateral units themselves (“sonema” - the sound shell of the morpheme, “nomema” - the sound shell of the word). Bilateral E. i. express a certain meaning (meaning) or are used to convey it (morphemes, words, sentences).

Material E. i. characterized by a variant-invariant device. One and the same E. I. exists in the form of a set of variants (see Variation), representing specific actually articulated (pronounced) sound segments. E. i. exist in an abstract form - as a class (set) of their options, as an abstract entity - an invariant. Invariant-variant device E. Ya. displayed in two series of terms: "emic", used to denote units as invariants (phoneme, morpheme, lexeme, etc.), and "ethical", denoting variants of units (fon, allophone, morph, allomorph, etc.). ). Emic and corresponding to them ethical E. I. form one level: phoneme / background, allophone form a phonemic level, etc. In some directions (American descriptivism, see Descriptive Linguistics), ethical and emic E. i. are assigned to different levels.

Relatively material units exist in the form of samples, models, or schemes for constructing words, phrases, and sentences, and have a generalized constructive meaning that is reproduced in all linguistic languages ​​formed according to a given model (see Model in Linguistics, Sentence).

E. i. can be simple or complex. Simple ones are absolutely indivisible (phoneme, morpheme), complex ones are indivisible within the levels of the language in which they are included (for example, compound and derivative words, sentences, etc.). Division of complex E. I. eliminates it as such and reveals its constituent units of lower levels (for example, a word is divided into morphemes, a sentence is divided into words).

Some areas of linguistics seek to dismember simple E. I. to even simpler ones, i.e., to identify “elements of elements”. Distinguishing features of phonemes are considered, for example, not as a property of a phoneme, but as its constituent parts, elements of semantic units are distinguished (see Component analysis method).

Different schools and areas of linguistics give different characteristics to the same E. I.: for example, a phoneme is considered either as the most “typical” or “important” sound from a set (family) of sounds (D. Jones, L. V. Shcherba), or as an invariant of sound (N. S. Trubetskoy, R. O. Yakobson); the morpheme is considered as “the smallest unit of the language” (L. Bloomfield), “the smallest meaningful part of the word” (J. A. Baudouin de Courtenay), a grammatical means “expressing the relationship between ideas” (J. Vandries).

Significant discrepancies in the interpretation and evaluation of E. Ya. different schools, discrepancies in the list allocated by E. I. make it difficult to compare and compare languages. This comparison and comparison is possible by identifying the universal properties of E. I. and displaying these properties in terms - the names of E. I. Such properties or characteristics of E. I. are their most common properties found in all languages, for example, a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar and functionally identical sounds, a morpheme is a two-sided E. I., which does not have syntactic independence, a word is syntactically independent E. I., a sentence is a speech system consisting of one or more words, expressing and communicating semantic information. The use of appropriately defined terms in the description of languages ​​makes the descriptions comparable and makes it possible to identify similarities and differences between languages.

E. i. in the most general view three types of relations are found: paradigmatic (see Paradigmatics), syntagmatic (see Syntagmatics), hierarchical (according to the degree of complexity, relations of occurrence of units of lower levels in higher ones). E. i. have the property of "level compatibility": only units of the same level enter into paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, for example, phonemes form classes and in a linear sequence are combined only with each other.

E. i. are combined in a speech chain, forming units of speech. However, phonemes and morphemes cannot be units of speech like words, which can be both units of language and units of speech (derivative and compound words can sometimes be freely formed in speech according to one or another “structural formula”); phrases (with the exception of phraseological units) and sentences are units of speech, since they are not reproduced, but are produced according to certain models. Combinatorics E. Ya. governed by grammatical rules. Units of a language obey these rules by virtue of their objectively inherent properties. Ultimately, the rules of the language are a manifestation of the properties of E. I., since these properties underlie the possible connections and relationships between E. I.

In the history of linguistics, there was a different approach to the question of the central E. I. It is known from the history of languages ​​that words historically precede morphemes. The last ones either former words, which have lost the ability to syntactic use, or truncated parts of words formed as a result of merging or adding words. Within the framework of the directions that consider the word to be the central unit of the language, the possibility of the existence of a language that does not have morphemes and consists only of words is theoretically allowed (cf. simplification of morphology in English, ancient Chinese and some other languages). Directions of linguistics (for example, descriptive linguistics), proceeding from the fact that morphemes are the smallest units of a language, regardless of whether they have syntactic independence or, conversely, do not, i.e., are parts of words, only derivatives and complex words are classified as words words as derivatives of morphemes. So, according to G. Gleason, the simple words of the English language dog, box and others are morphemes. For these directions, a language that does not have words, but consists only of morphemes, is theoretically acceptable.

• Vinogradov V. V., Russian language, M., 1947;
• Smirnitsky A. I., Syntax of the English language, M., 1957;
• Gleason G., Introduction to descriptive linguistics, translated from English, M., 1959;
• Jacobson R., halle M., Phonology and its relation to phonetics, trans. from English, in the book: New in linguistics, v. 2, M., 1962;
• Stepanov Yu. S., Fundamentals of linguistics, M., 1966;
• Bulygin TV, About some analogies in the ratio of semantic and sound units, "Questions of Linguistics", 1967, No. 5;
• Reformed A. A., Introduction to linguistics, 4th ed., M., 1967;
• Arutyunova N. D., On significant units of language, in the book: Studies in the general theory of grammar, M., 1968;
• Bloomfield L., Language, trans. from English, M., 1968;
• Units of different levels of the grammatical structure of the language and their interaction, M., 1969;
• Solntsev V. M., On the commensurability of languages, in the book: Principles for describing the languages ​​of the world, M., 1976;
• his own, Language as a system-structural education, M., 1977.

Language- a tool, a means of communication. This is a system of signs, means and rules of speaking, common to all members of a given society. This phenomenon is constant for a given period of time.

Speech- the manifestation and functioning of the language, the process of communication itself; it is unique for every native speaker. This phenomenon is variable depending on the speaker.

Language and speech are two sides of the same phenomenon. Language is inherent in any person, and speech is inherent in a particular person.

Speech and language can be compared to a pen and text. Language is a pen, and speech is the text that is written with this pen.

The main functions of the language are as follows:

1. Communicative function Language as a means of communication between people. Thought-forming function means of thinking in the form of words.
2. Cognitive (epistemological) function Language as a means of knowing the world, accumulating and transferring knowledge to other people and subsequent generations (in the form of oral traditions, written sources, audio recordings).

Speech communication is carried out through language as a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express thoughts, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounces them with the help of speech organs. any language exists as a living language insofar as it functions. It functions in speech, in statements, in speech acts. The distinction between the concepts of "language" and "speech" was first put forward and substantiated in a clear form by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, then these concepts were further developed by other scientists, in particular Academician L. V. Shcherba and his students.

Language, therefore, is defined as a system of elements (language units) and a system of rules for the functioning of these units, common to all speakers of a given language. In turn, speech is a concrete speaking, flowing in time and clothed in sound (including internal pronunciation) or written form. Speech is understood as the process of speaking itself (speech activity) and its result (speech works fixed by memory or writing).

Language is the property of the entire speech community. Being an instrument of communication, it can perform this function only when it is relatively static, that is, it does not undergo fundamental changes. The language is systemic, that is, the organization of its units.

Basic units of language and speech. Traditionally, there are 4 basic units of language: sentence, word (lexeme), morpheme, phoneme. Each language the unit has its own special function, has special qualities. characteristics, then each unit in terms of this quality yavl. minimum (limit). It is a generalization (abstraction) from a variety of language factors. Phoneme - smallest unit the sound structure of the language, which itself does not matter, but isp. for the formation, identification and distinction of significant units. language: morphemes and words. Ch. f-i phonemes - make sense. Morpheme - minimum meaningful go. language, allocated as part of the word, i.e. non-independent, and Spanish. for word formation or word formation (form formation). lexeme - the smallest independent significant unit. language with a nominative (naming) function and having. lexical and grammar. know. Offer - the minimum communicative unit, which is built on the basis of grams. laws given language and expresses relates. finished thought. The language unit is related to the unit of speech as an invariant (union of variants) and a variant. Speech unit - the implementation of a language unit in specific conditions speech. The phoneme corresponds in speech to the allophone (phoneme variant). A morpheme appears in speech in the form of allomorphs (morphemes in their specific version in a specific word). A lexeme is a word in all sets of its meanings and forms. In speech, the word exists as a word form.

Language, culture, culture of speech are the basic concepts for humanity in general and for each individual in particular. Features of the national worldview, including the Russian one, are based on these pillars, they do not exist outside of them. That is why a person's love for himself and self-care should be manifested primarily in learning to live harmoniously in his environment, including cultural and linguistic, without being engaged in its subjective rationalization, reformism, etc. All these actions (however bitter to admit it) were experienced by our irresponsibility in our native Russian language, in connection with which both the speech and the culture of our contemporary cannot but cause fear and pain in a person who is not indifferent and reflective. It seems that the reason for the introduction of the course "Russian language and culture of speech" in the curriculum of the vast majority Russian universities there was concern about the moral, spiritual, intellectual health of the nation.

From our point of view, the main goal of this course is the formation of a moral position on speech as an innate mechanism of human life, providing knowledge of the world around and establishing relationships with its systems, and on language as an environment for the development and self-identification of a person, as well as the development of students' personal responsibility for their own speech activity and improvement of one's own speech culture. To achieve this goal and in accordance with the State Educational Standard, we have created this textbook, which in the process of work has acquired the form of a course of lectures. Our course of lectures is addressed primarily to students of non-philological specialties of all forms of education. (change word order), as well as teachers and specialists in the field of higher professional education.

1. The principle of consistency supply of material. We define system-forming, fundamental concepts as those indicated in the title of this discipline: (Russian) language - culture - speech, forming a kind of axiological triad

Language

Culture Speech

2. The principle of uniformity in the presentation of theoretical material and diversity argumentative and illustrative base.

3. Scientific principle, realized, firstly, in the representation of content according to the principle "from general to particular" - from an objective law, regularity to a particular case of its manifestation, a rule; secondly, in the consistent appeal of the authors to the competent opinion of well-known and authoritative Russian scientists.

4. The principle of accessibility , implying a logically consistent deployment of content, carried out in an understandable language, using visual aids (diagrams, tables, figures) and brief, but necessary, in our opinion, comments on the personalities mentioned in the training manual.

5. Dialogic principle necessary to activate the student's mental activity and informal mediated interaction between the authors of the textbook and the reader. This principle manifests itself not only in the system of problematic issues that organically accompany the presentation educational material, but also in the creative tasks that complete each subtopic of the lecture, questions for reflection or micro-research (in the text, these questions and tasks are indicated by the icon).

and abbreviated versions of their names in the texts of lectures

LECTURE #1

Subject: LANGUAGE AND SPEECH

Lecture plan

Introduction

1.1. Language is a natural sign system

1.2. Russian scientists about the essence and directions of the study of the native language

1.3. The essence of the concept of "speech"

1.4. Functions of language and speech

1.5. Properties of language and speech

Introduction

Since childhood, we have been studying our native language, thinking in mother tongue, we communicate in it, one of the main school subjects is the “Russian language”, however, the oral and written literacy of the vast majority of Russian-speaking people still leaves much to be desired, in general it is unsatisfactory. The axiomatic statement “Outside and without language and speech, a person does not exist” does not, unfortunately, contribute to the active development of the native language.

What is the reason for this? Much.

First, our ignorance of the purpose and misunderstanding of the essence of the language. But even Vladimir Ivanovich Dal warned: “ One cannot joke with language, with the human word, with speech; the verbal speech of a person is a VISIBLE, tangible connection, an allied LINK BETWEEN BODY AND SPIRIT: without words there is no conscious thought, but there is ‹…› only feeling and lowing. Without material means in the material world, the spirit cannot do anything, it cannot even manifest itself.

The second reason is our approximate, one might say, fantasy-fabulous, idea of ​​the birth of a language. How did it come about? This is one of the key questions of modern linguistics - what are the causes and conditions for the emergence of an infinitely harmonious, wise system, the laws of functioning of which have not been fully studied. After all, the probability that sounds arose on their own, then somehow combined into morphemes (or immediately into words?) Is very small and controversial, since it gives rise to a number of unanswered questions. For example: did the words themselves form by chance? Or do they have an author? It is known that any new word is formed according to the models existing in the language from the morphemes existing in the language. Then the following question is natural: how did word-formation models and morphemes (roots, suffixes, etc.) originate?

Understanding the origins of language, obviously, should determine not only the direction of development of the science of language (linguistics), but also the attitude of an individual to language - as a teacher or as a subordinate. What is created by man can hardly be called absolutely perfect, so it can be modified, changed. But if we begin to correct what we have not created, the laws of existence of which we do not understand (for example, nature), then we get grief from our “mind”. On this occasion, it is appropriate to recall the words of another sage - S.Ya. Marshak: " Man found words for everything that he discovered in the universe". Note: found, but not invented, not created, not invented and not even found. polysemantic word to find denotes in Russian two counter, opposite concepts at the same time: 1) to acquire, to search, to discover, to come across, going to hit; 2) invasion from above, descent, inspiration - influx.

The third question is: why did language arise? Suggested instant response: "For communication." Of course, this is true, but still think: communication is our main life task, which language helps to solve? If this is so, then, obviously, we mean thoughtful, non-aggressive, without condemnation, gossip, ridicule, idle talk, retelling of platitudes, foul language, verbal interaction of people. Let's be honest: this is not always how we communicate, to put it mildly. And the sages, who were aware of the weightiness and unprimitivity of the word, were generally more silent, or even completely stopped talking.

On the other hand, is communication itself limited to conversations with their own kind? Of course not. Language allows us to conduct an internal dialogue (here is your task: explore your inner speech, its quality), communicate with nature, with technology, read books (that is, talk with people in time and space), turn to God ...

These are the questions that we must find answers to, realizing how important it is to understand each word, how important the language itself is for us. By the way, the research of modern physicists allowed them to draw the following conclusion: DNA is the same text as the text of a book, but it can be read with any letter, because there is no break between words. Those who read this text with each subsequent letter receive more and more new texts. Moreover, the text can be read in the opposite direction if the row is flat. And if the chain of text is expanded in three-dimensional space, as in a cube, then the text is read in all directions. This text is non-stationary, it is constantly moving, changing, because our chromosomes breathe, oscillate, giving rise to a huge number of texts. Academician P.P. Garyaev, for example, states: A human being is a self-readable text structure… A program that is written on DNA could not have arisen as a result of Darwinian evolution: to record such a huge amount of information, it takes time that is many times longer than the existence of the Universe».

A.S. Shishkov wrote: "There are no empty sounds in the language." The words "far from being empty sounds, they contain the mind of it (language) and thoughts that not to know is to alienate oneself from knowledge of the language." What information, in your opinion, can be gleaned by studying the following system of single-root words: on the cha lo - con ec - rank- behind con- on the cha flax?

1.1. Language is a natural sign system

The Russian language, like any other language, is a structure and a system. A system is a combination of elements that are in relationships and connections and form integrity, unity. Therefore, each system:

a) consists of many elements;

b) the elements are connected with each other;

c) the elements form a single whole.

The main units of the language (its signs) are presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

Basic language units

Notes:* Varieties of morphemes: root, prefix (prefix), suffix, postfix, ending.

** The grammatical level includes two sublevels: syntactic and morphological.

The level (horizontal) association of language signs reveals its structure. The systemic nature of the language lies in the fact that within it there is a hierarchy of inclusion, that is, the semantic connection and conditionality of language units: a large unit includes a smaller one, and the meaning (content, purpose, etc.) of a larger unit predetermines the choice of one or another smaller language unit . For example, changing the sound in words du X and du sh a resulted in a change in the meaning of the word. What "forced" to prefer one sound to another? The meaning (purpose) of the root. In the same way, the meaning of the higher unit, the word, forces the choice of morpheme: raft Morpheme - derivational level

Phoneme - phonetic level

Rice. 1.1. Structural connection of language units

The interrelationship of linguistic elements can be illustrated by comparing two sentences from a linguistic point of view: From here you can see the sea and From here you can see the sea. The informative content of these sentences is almost identical, and the linguistic difference is obvious only at the phonetic level: homograph words it is seen and it is seen differ in stressed syllables. However, further analysis (at the level of school analysis by the composition of the word, by parts of speech and by members of the sentence) leads us to the result presented in Table 1.2.

VP Timofeev LANGUAGE AS A PHENOMENON. LANGUAGE UNITS

Language is not an object, but a phenomenon - multifaceted, multidimensional, multi-qualitative (in the diagram - clockwise):

3. Acoustic 4. Semantic

2. Physiological 5. Logical

6. Aesthetic

1. Mental4^

7. Social

This idea of ​​the language has developed historically, it is the result of its study by individual linguists, schools and trends. In order to understand this single phenomenon of the realization of the human ability to speak, it is conditionally distinguished in language - in our scheme 3.4 facets and speech - 1.2.5-7 facets.

Each of the facets of language (speech) as a single phenomenon has its own discrete units, and each unit is studied by a special linguistic discipline (branch of linguistics).

The mental unit of language is the psycheme, determined by the activity of thinking, will and temperament, as well as the sociology of character. The sciences about this side of the language are psycholinguistics, ethnopsycholinguistics, linguodidactics.

The physiological unit of language (speech) is the kinema. The science devoted to it should be independent and be called kinematics. Now kinema is reflected in terms that characterize the sound of the language at the place of formation, and as such has been the subject of phonetics since ancient times.

The acoustic units of a language are all units from the acusma to the texteme. Thus, the materialized facet of language is the most essential: in it, in its units, all the qualities of the language are fixed. Akusma and sound as units characterized by the method of formation of sound matter (strength of voice, noise, tone, timbre, rhythm, meter, intonation) are studied by phonetics; phoneme - actually the first speech-linguistic unit - is studied by phonology; morpheme - morphemics, morphonology, form and word formation as sections of morphology; lexeme - a word - an object of lexicology, lexicography, morphology; phrase, sentence members, sentence, text theme are studied

syntax. Such an enumeration may seem trivial if considered outside the context of these prolegomena.

The semantic, semantic, ideal is embodied in linguistic units of a special kind: the seme is the subject of the science of semiotics; sememe - for semasiology, onomasiology, lexicology, lexicography; the gramme, which manifests itself in two varieties, the mothologeme - in the morphology, the syntaxeme - in the syntax; expresseme - its meanings are more often considered in stylistics.

The logical unit should be called a logem, concretized in the subject of speech - the essence of the subject; in the general predicate - the essence of the predicate; in secondary predicates - the essence of the secondary members of the sentence - definitions, additions, circumstances; and in judgment, the essence of the constructions of affirmation, negation, question, and exclamation. The science of logem must be logolinguistics.

Aesthetic units are style and poetem, and in it are paths and figures. Their sciences, respectively, are stylistics and linguistic poetics. At the junction of facets - idiolectology, the language of the writer, the language of works of art.

The social unit is the sociem. It reflects the linguistic and speech characteristics of an individual, nation, class, gender, age, profession and relations of speakers in society. The sciences about this are sociolinguistics, stylistics, rhetoric, and etiquette.

Linguistic facets, individually and collectively, together with language-speech units, constitute the structure of the language. In connection with the conditional division of a single language into language and speech, they also speak, conditionally, about units of language and units of speech, but it must be borne in mind that all units of speech are constructed on the material variety of linguistic units and on their meanings (3.4 edges). This essence of linguistic-speech activity has not yet been satisfactorily studied by linguistics, and, for example, poetics is still in literary criticism and is not even divided into literary-artistic and linguistic.

All facets of language-speech and language-speech units are in relationships and dependencies, but the psychic and social facets are decisive: a person owes them his exclusive destiny in the living world - to become a Human. All other facets of language-speech are specifically social and controlled by consciousness - the highest form of the psyche. All connections and relationships of language-speech facets and units in their totality determine the nature of the language-speech system.

Language has three essential features - form, content and function, without each of which it cannot be realized. The same features, of course, are inherent in all its constituent units, and in each of them the form,

content and functions will be independent. In the history of linguistics, the most noticeable linguistic units, under the influence of sensations and spelling, were material, perceptually given linguistic units from kinema and akusma to textemes, and even those were not discovered all at once, but one after another and little by little. Before listing them, it must be borne in mind that they, linguistic units, are specifically human in everything - both in articulation, and in sound quality, and in construction, and in function (role, purpose); and they cannot be equated with another sounding but non-speech nature, therefore the originality of their qualities is exceptional.

Kinema (the term of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay from the Greek ksheta - movement) is an article as a single action of one speech organ for the production of akusma - a share of sound (Greek akivikov - auditory, also a term of Baudouin de Courtenay). When we indicate the place of sound formation in phonetic analysis, this is the fixation of the kinema: p - labial-labial sound, f - labial-tooth, l - anterior-lingual - dental, lateral; k - posterior-lingual, root ... Kinemas have not yet been fully studied: their names so far only take into account the articulatory organs, although the entire speech apparatus from the chest-abdominal barrier to the brain is involved in the production. The laryngeal kinema is rarely taken into account as a sign of voiced consonants and all vowels.

Akusma is the sound effect of a kinema as an oscillating tone in space. When we name the method of sound formation during phonetic analysis, this is an indication of akusma: n - deaf, hard, short; f - voiceless, fricative, hard, short; l - voiced, smooth, hard, short; k - deaf, explosive, hard, short.

Sound is a kinematic-acoustic unit, to which acoustic distinguishers are added - voice, strength, height, tone, timbre, as well as speech features of vowels - stress, unstressedness; and then the combination of sounds into syllables with their qualities of openness-closedness, rhythm and meter - the effects of the way they follow in speech. The sound of a language, although it has speech features, is not conventionally recognized as a linguistic unit because, supposedly, it is not a semantic distinguisher or a semantic expression.

But the phoneme (Greek riopesh - sound, also a term by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay) - it distinguishes significant units of the language, morphemes and words: som - tom - com - house - scrap ... Such a terminological transformation of sound is so strong in modern linguistic theory, it is impossible to somehow achieve unanimity on this issue today. When characterizing a phoneme as a linguistic unit, we will call its form the positional sound, how it differentiates the meaning (without expressing it!), and this is one of its functions, the other lies in the constructive role: phonemes independently

are not used, but, combined with each other on the basis of differential positions, they create a larger linguistic unit - a morpheme. The arena for the functioning of the phoneme is thus the morpheme, and it is within these limits that morphonology chooses its subject of study. This is the phonemic level, or tier of the language.

Morpheme (Greek shogye - form, also a term of Baudouin de Courtenay) is the first language unit in which essential features and units, and language: form, content, functions. The form of a phonemorpheme is, firstly, a phoneme-on, that is, a morpheme consists of a phoneme or of phonemes: house-a. The form of the morpheme is also considered its position: the root is in the center of the morphemic association; before the root - a prefix (prefix); behind the root - a suffix or ending (inflection); infix - internal morpheme; postfix - an external morpheme with its own qualities. The content of a morpheme consists of three types of meanings: lexical, grammatical, expressive-emotional. Lexical - subject, material content of the morpheme: garden#. The grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning, it accompanies the lexical meaning of another morpheme: sad-s, where Ы expresses the meaning of plurality, nominativity. Morphemes expressing lexical meaning turn out to be derivational: pilot; morphemes expressing grammatical meaning turn out to be form-building, although they can also form new words: new, where inflection turns out to be word-building. The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings is easy to notice, for example, when declining a noun, where the word will retain a single lexical meaning, for example, spring is the season, and will vary without touching the lexical content: spring - spring; spring, springs, to spring, spring, spring, about spring ... The so-called expressive-emotional, subjective meanings of diminutiveness / magnification, petting / humiliation, neglect can also be expressed in suffixes: voice, neck, sock, cockerel. Morphemes express meanings without naming objects and their relationships. The function of morphemes, the first, as with all subsequent language units, is semantic-expressive - it is necessary to express lexical, grammatical or expressive-emotional meanings. The second function of morphemes is constructive, that is, the creation of a larger language unit - the word. Morphemes are not used independently, but only in combination with each other, in a homogeneous series, based on the harmony of their content and constancy of positions, creating a morphemic level, or tier.

The word is the central linguistic unit: it implements all the laws of existence of its smaller linguistic units - phonemes and morphemes, it predetermines the essence

all subsequent larger language units - phrases, sentence members, sentences and texts. Among hundreds of definitions of a word, there is one reasonable one: it is a segment of text between two spaces in a letter... interjections. All of them will be unequally characterized from the point of view of the essence of linguistic units, and in the general system of their features they will have unequal exceptions. I will talk about words-names.

In terms of form, all words have phonemic and morphemic forms; the latter also applies to service words and interjections. But words-names, that is, parts of speech, in addition, have correlative forms with each other, characteristic of narrow or wide grammatical categories: the category of case, where the system of forms is called declension; a category of a person, where the system of forms is called conjugation, and then - non-broad forms of gender, number, degrees, type, tense, mood, voice, differently presented in parts of speech. Correlative systems of forms are called a paradigm - this is the original form of words as linguistic units. Functional words, in addition to phonemic immutability, themselves participate in the creation of forms: prepositions - in the creation of forms of names in the case paradigm; particles are like auxiliary affixes: something - a prefix, -or, -something - suffixes, the same is characteristic of the particle -sya; conjunctions form coordinating phrases and coordinating / subordinating sentences; articles are additional indicators of gender, number, and certainty/uncertainty; ligaments - a term form of compound nominal and complex predicates. Introductory-modal constructions are a complicating sentence structure. Interjections are always predicative - this is their positional form. Adverbs are inflectionally invariable, this is their form, like the zero form of nouns m.r. with a solid base. Their secondary position as members of the sentence - circumstances distinguishes them, as-form, from the same non-inflectional class of words as instatives (words of the state category).

The form of the word also includes formative prefixes and suffixes, heterogeneous formations (I - me, we - us), repetition of roots (reduplication), stress, word order.

The content of the word as a linguistic unit is just as diverse and differentiated. First, the meaning is distinguished by four structural-semantic classes: parts of speech each have their own nominative meanings, called general grammatical ones: nouns name objects; adjectives - passive signs; numerals - a sign of a number; pronouns - indicative; verbs - an active, effective sign; adverbs - a sign of a sign;

instatives - state; in service words - prepositions, derivational and formative particles (something, -either, -something, -sya, -by); articles, copulas express grammatical-morphological meanings; unions - grammatical-syntactic meanings (see the meanings of phrases and sentences); introductory-modal constructions - modal-volitional meanings; interjections - sensual-emotional. Each of these values ​​is divided into several particular varieties. In nouns, the named objects can have the property own name and common noun, material and abstract, animate and inanimate; in adjectives there are signs of qualitative, relative, possessive; they can also be represented in the degree of positive, comparative, excellent, etc.; in numerals there are quantitative, ordinal, fractional values ​​...; in pronouns there are as many particular meanings as are fixed in digits; in the verb - varieties of actions, movements and states; in adverbs and instatives, the meanings in grammar books are listed by category, where there will be the meanings of the circumstances and the predicate (lexico-syntactic meanings).

In functional words, their morphological and syntactic meanings will also vary in paradigms. There are categories of particular meanings for modal words and interjections (see grammar books). Now it should be said that the words-names have their own meaning, not equal to the sum of the meanings of their morphemes: for example, in the word pod-snow-nik, not a single morpheme even hints at a flower from the amaryllis family ... This is its own, lexical the meaning of the word as a linguistic unit. The word has more than one lexical meaning, even many terms. In these meanings there is the first and all the others, they are the second, portable. Lexical meanings can simply distinguish words, they can bring them together (these are synonyms) or oppose them on the axis common sense(antonyms). As you can see, the word expresses many types of meanings and their varieties, it is this set that is called polysemy.

The function of a word is again determined by two tasks: to express all the meanings it has, and for significant words - the expression of a lexical meaning is called its nominative function; and then - to construct a larger language unit - a phrase. Words are not used separately from each other, they necessarily need to be combined in one row on the basis of the harmony of their meaning and the interaction of their forms (that is, on the basis of a predetermined valence). Such a combination of words is realized in a phrase.

The phrase is a syntactic unit and it could be called a syntagme as something connected (Greek sintagma), although under such a name the combination of phonemes, morphemes suggests itself ... The division of words by F.F. Fortunatov into those that have a form and those that do not have it convinced M.N .Peterson that the combination of words on this basis, that is, the phrase is the only subject of syntax. Then there will be more members of the sentence, the sentence and the texteme ... The accusation of F.F. Fortunatov and his student M.M. Peterson in formalism closed the theory of the word combination. Only since 1950, after the articles by V.P. Sukhotin and V.V. Vinogradov in the collection "Questions of the Syntax of the Modern Russian Language" (Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1950), and then after the first Soviet Academic Grammar (1952), the theory of the phrase unfolded throughout latitude, and some scientists, unable to tear themselves away from the word, tilted phrases towards nominative units (V.P. Sukhotin and others), and V.V. Vinogradov, assuming a sentence, found it possible to talk about predicative phrases, although it is clear that predicativity is a term of the level of members of a sentence and a sentence, that is, it refers to other language units as a definition ... And so far there is no unity of opinion in determining the features of a phrase, and each scientist's own understanding seems to be true. I liked the definition of the phrase, given sometime in the 50s at a lecture by prof. S.E. Kryuchkov, my supervisor: "A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, grammatically organized according to the laws of a given language, single in meaning and dissectedly denoting objects, phenomena, their signs and relationships in objective reality." From this definition it follows that the combination of a functional word with a significant one is not a phrase and that in a phrase the plural meaning of a word is narrowed to a specific given meaning, that is, in a phrase words are always used in the same meaning, and ambiguity in the same case is either aphasia or a means of humor . Phraseologists of the Chelyabinsk school consider a word form with or without a preposition to be phraseologically idiomatic, which is possible, but this is a property of another process in the language - lexicalization ...

So, the form of a phrase as a linguistic unit is primarily a word-form realization of the connection of significant words - composition and subordination, which is why phrases are called coordinating and subordinating. In coordinating phrases, the first formal feature is the correlative, correlative forms of the combined words: thunder and lightning, where the words are correlated by the singular and nominative case. In such phrases, as their formal sign, as their form, service words appear - unions that separate compositions.

noun phrases into the following formal varieties: connecting without a union or with the union And: both a sling and an arrow; adversative, with the union BUT or A, YES in the meaning of BUT; separating with unions OR-OR; comparative with unions HOW MANY-SO MANY, AS-SO AND. In subordinating phrases, syntactic links of agreement, complete and incomplete, are the form; management, direct or indirect; adjunction of a word with a zero form.

The content of phrases is precisely the meaning that is reflected by tradition in their names-terms: composition, subordination, and in composition - connection, opposition, separation, comparison; in submission - coordination, control, adjunction - this is the elusive syntactic meaning of phrases introduced into them by unions and the relationship of word forms. In general, the meaning of phrases is concretizing, which in a word is a generalizing meaning.

The function of phrases is to express their own meaning as special language units and only together with this - the meanings of the smaller language units included in them, and then and at the same time to be embodied component by component into larger language units - members of the sentence. Unfortunately, no one looks at the members of a sentence from the standpoint of form, content, and their function as independent linguistic units, although, when discussing them, they list all their essential features. What are they?

Each member of the sentence has either unified in use, that is, central forms, or possible, not so predominant, but also real: for example, Im.p. nouns and personal pronouns - the subject form, although it can be a nominal part of a compound predicate or an application; conjugated verb - only the predicate, the same - comparative; the same - instatives, being always predicates; and the same adverbs, being almost always circumstances. The form of the subject is a special form in the language: substantiating, expressing the subject of the action or known, any element can become the subject language system, any dash of a letter, any handwriting and, finally, any object or phenomenon named in a speech by a predicate word can become a subject-subject: "Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ..." In nominative sentences of all types, not the subject, which supposedly the subject is named, but nothing is said about it, but - the predicate-predicate! .. The form of the predicate is also specific: simple verb, compound verb, compound nominal, complex polynomial. The secondary members of the sentence are secondary predicates, which also have predominant forms of parts of speech, but, most importantly, their own forms: definition - agreed, inconsistent; addition - direct, indirect; circumstance in

dependent in meaning or form of a prepositional case or invariable structure. The form of the members of the proposal should also be called their positions, which are known from the phrase "direct and reverse order words", which is formulated incorrectly, because the order in the sentence does not concern the words-lexemes, but the words-members of the sentence. When the members of the sentence are updated, their form becomes a logical stress.

The content of the sentence members is determined by their logical nature: for the subjects, the meaning is the subject; for predicates - the meaning of the predicate, although the content of the main members is also reflected in their terms: the subject - is subject to disclosure, the predicate - speaks about it, this is known and unknown, which is the goal, the basis of any speech; definitions have an indirect predicate in the form of a definition; for additions - an indirect predicate in the form of a complementary value; circumstances have an indirect predicate indicating the circumstances in which the sign appears: where, when, how, to what extent, to what extent, for what ... When V.V. Vinogradov spoke about predicative, semi-predicative and non-predicative phrases, and others began to talk, after this, about attributive, additional and adverbial phrases, this was a fact of mixing the level of phrases and sentence members: the components of phrases do not have such relations, these are the properties of sentence members ... The content of sentence members should be called conceptual and predicative , this is determined by the nature of their purpose.

The function of the members of the sentence is to express their informational meaning and the content of all the smaller constituent units included in them, and at the same time, to unite, on the basis of the harmony of meaning and intended positions, into a larger language unit - the sentence.

The form of the sentence is, first of all, the presence of the composition of the members of the sentence: if there is one predicate (one subject does not exist in a normal sentence), the sentence is one-part, and there are eight of them in descending order of the meaning of the person and the form of the predicate: definitely personal, generalized personal , indefinitely personal, impersonal, infinitive, nominative, nominative, vocative; if there are two main members - subject and predicate, this is a two-part sentence; depending on the presence or absence of secondary members of the proposal, the form of the proposal will be widespread or non-common; if the sentence consists of one predicative pair, it is simple; if of two, it is complex; from the presence in the form of a proposal of alliances, it can be allied or non-union; the intonation of a sentence serves as a form of expression of the actual role of one or another member of the sentence or the will and emotion of the speaker. AT

the written form of speech the form of the sentence will be set off by punctuation marks.

The content of the sentence as a linguistic unit is predicativity, which is specified in the affirmation or denial of the connection between the main members of the sentence; the relevance of one or another member of the proposal; modality as an expression of the speaker's will, relation to what was said; and, finally, emotionality, without which there can be no proposal. The content of the sentence is expressive-communicative, because it serves the function of the sentence - to express a thought and establish a connection between the speaker and the interlocutor. The semantic core of a sentence is the judgment embodied in it. The function of the sentence to express a thought and communicate it to another was considered the last for a long time, the last among the language units was the sentence. That is, if there is another thought, still say a sentence. Etc. And if so, then the speaker seemed to no longer need units of some higher level than the sentence, and he does not create them. It turns out that the proposal can not be lonely in speech! A second, reciprocal sentence is necessarily necessary - such is the law of the existence of speech, that is, language. Speech is possible in the presence of an interlocutor and his response speech reaction. Such an understanding of the conditions for the existence of sentences naturally prompted researchers to search for and approve a larger linguistic unit - the text.

The texteme, therefore, is the constructive unit of the language that sentences create, being used in the same row with each other on the basis of the need to express the actual adequate content, the interaction of the formal composition, united by a single intonation of the message, description or reasoning.

The volumetric form of textemes is indicated in the school textbook of syntax, being taken out of the Russian language course, because the authors are perplexed that these are textemes: direct and indirect speech, dialogue, monologue... Before that, inside the syntax, as a kind of sentence structure, the so-called incomplete sentence is considered, which is, in fact, a part, the second sentence of the text. In prose, a paragraph is, of course, part of a text; in oral speech - a long pause, a pause, with which the speaker considers it necessary to divide his speech. In the drama, the form of the texteme looks like a stage and is fixed by the author's remarks. In verse, textemes fit into a stanza, in a combination of stanzas, and in a small genre - throughout the entire poem. The form of the verse system is both meter, and rhyme, and sound writing, the structure of tropes and figures. In oral speech, it is limited to that moment of dialogue, after which the speakers can disperse or both become silent. All these are technical forms of the texteme; they are due to the genres of oral and writing; by the way, oral/written is also a form of a texteme... But a texteme also has purely linguistic

formal features: same shape tense of verbs-predicates or simply predicates in sentences included in the text ( different time it can be like this artistic medium images: quick change of events, etc.); the presence of anaphoric pronouns and words in the following sentence; the presence of synonyms and antonyms placed in different sentences of the text; words that have something in common with some meaning in the sentences that make up the texteme; intonation of the message, description or reasoning; the intonation of the dialogue or monologue completes the form of the texteme.

The content of the texteme as a linguistic unit first corresponds to the quality of the form: message, description, reasoning, and in general is defined as informative and thematic. It is especially brightly emphasized by the words of one lexical-thematic group. The content of the texteme should include only its inherent semantics - pathos: triumph, pathos, despondency, humility, humor, irony, sarcasm, etc. Here is the text - an inscription on a monument from the times of the Civil War, erected on Revolution Square in Shadrinsk: "Here lie selfless fighters for communism, victims of Kolchak's gangs. Lenin's cause will not die! On the bones of the best and brave, millions of calloused hands are building the world Commune." In 1978, I heard in a broadcast from Seoul my Komsomol youth song "When the soul sings ..." performed by a choir of nuns; they sang humbly, sadly, subtly, pleadingly, submissively, conscientiously: "When the soul sings And the heart asks to fly, On a distant road, the high sky Calls us to the stars ... Keep the fire of your soul in your heart, Let them shine, If cloudy days will suddenly meet ... "The pathos of cheerfulness and enthusiasm is replaced by the pathos of angelic complacency ...

The function of a texteme is to create a text in the genres of oral and written speech with all its expressive essence.

As you can see, all language units, of course, correspond to the main features of the language - they have form, content and function. These features are manifested in the interaction of linguistic units in a homogeneous series, which is called a level or tier: phonemic level, morphemic, lexical, etc. This is a horizontal indicator of the language system. But there is also a vertical system, when language units of different levels-tiers interact: phonemes with morphemes, morphemes with words, words with subsequent language units, entering into each other, like a nesting doll in a nesting doll. The theory of all national languages. Each language has its own structure as a set of facets and linguistic units in their systemic connections and relationships.

The stated understanding of language as a phenomenon and the totality of its constituent units that are in structural and systemic relationships, of course, is not equal to language, but it helps research orientation and educational practice.

Language is a system of signs organized hierarchically, which means that each level is the predecessor of another, and each subsequent level is based on the previous one.

LANGUAGE LEVEL - a set of homogeneous units and rules that regulate the behavior of these units.

Traditionally, the following language levels are distinguished:

1) Phonological

2) Morphological

3) Lexical

4) Syntactic (phrases + sentences)

5) Text level.

It is important to remember that each level contains both a unit of language and a unit of speech.

All units of the language are abstract.

1) Phoneme- the smallest one-sided unit of language (it has a plane of expression and no plane of content), which has a sound expression, but does not have a meaning. Performs 2 functions:

Distinctive (distinguishing) - meadow-hatch, fox-forest, buy-guy, fox-box, good, food.

Construction (constitutive). (*k, l, a - do not have a meaning, but perform a function in the formation of a language *) - is building material for units over high level. Monophthong - when a diphthong, the value changes in longitude, brevity. Suit - suite (see the meaning of why they sound differently)

Background- a sound uttered by a specific person in a speech. The sound in speech reflects the specifics of a particular person, the timbre of the voice, defects, melodiousness.

2) Morpheme - the smallest, meaningful unit of the language, has both form and meaning; double sided unit has a plan of expression and a plan of content. It performs a construction function and partly nominative.

Positional classification of morphemes: morphemes are root and affix; both of them have a meaning, BUT their meaning is different (the position in relation to the knight). The meaning of the root is lexical, it is more specific. The meaning of the affix (according to the position in relation to the root: prefixes and postfixes) is either grammatical or lexical-grammatical and it is more abstract (* water - is part of the words water, underwater, and betrays the meaning - associated with water, is related to water. On the other hand, "n", "nn" - the morpheme forms an adjective as a part of speech, but by this morpheme we cannot determine in advance the meaning of the adjectives they are included in, i.e. their meaning is abstract and it is grammatical. forms verbs with a reflexive meaning, forms passive verbs, has a lexical and grammatical meaning.

Consider the classification of morphemes by position in the word:

Suffixes are an affixal morpheme following the root.

Prefixes are an affixal morpheme preceding the root.

Endings - located at the absolute end of the word.

Interfixes are an affixal morpheme that connects the components of a compound word. (handIcraft, stateSman, nowAdays).

Confixes are a complex affix consisting of two parts - the first part precedes the root, and the second part follows the root. They form grammatical forms of words and nouns with a collective meaning (ge mach-t - 3rd form from the verb to do). The Polynesian language has the word ke_pulau_an - archipelago, pulau - island. Window sill, Transbaikalia, genomen; a prefix and a suffix are added at the same time (both in Russian and German).

Infixes are an affixal morpheme that wedged into the root. Stand - stood - stood (N - infix). Available in Lithuanian:

Transfix - (Arabic - faqura - was poor, afqara- became poor, ufqira - brought to poverty; the same consonants that carry lexical meaning, vowels express grammatical meaning, they reflect time, and can also carry derivational meaning.). When an affix that breaks the root, consisting of consonants and with the help of vowels reflects the grammatical meaning, and the consonants represent the root and carry the lexical meaning.

Morph is a textual representative of a morpheme (ber-beer, ros-rast, mak-mok).

3) A lexeme is a word, in the aggregate of all its lexical meanings. The lexeme is presented in dictionaries. The word "brush" is a part of the hand, an artist's drawing tool. In speech, only one meaning of the word will be realized each time, and this will already be a word form (spring). There is semantic independence; positional and semantic independence.

Word form - a word in speech, in the aggregate of all its grammatical meanings.

4) Phraseme - an abstract unit of language, represented by a combination of at least two words, significant parts of speech. In speech, phrases are realized in the form of a phrase.

Similarity: the word is a nominative function, phrases are also a nominative function.

Phrases are: coordinating and subordinating (* mom and dad, a fork with a spoon, she *).

Coordinating phrases are characterized by the equal status of both components, which means that we can swap these components without compromising the meaning.

Subordinating phrases are characterized by the unequal status of both components, it is always possible to single out the main word and the dependent.

Ways to formally express a relationship:

In subordinating phrases, the following types of syntactic connection are distinguished:

Agreement - the likening of a dependent word to the main expression of all grammatical meanings (in English there is no gender, but there are words that refer to men or women and with the help of 5 suffixes refer to the female gender). It is not typical of the English language, this is theese

Adjacency - consists in the simple location of the main and dependent components side by side without any changes in the dependent component (go fast).

Management - when managing, the main word puts the dependent in a certain grammatical form, most often it is a case (I see a boy).

In English - when a preposition is required for a verb - look for.

A sentence is one or more words.

The difference between a phrase and a sentence is predicativity - the assignment of content to reality and reality; expression with the help of linguistic means of the relationship of the content of the statement to reality.

Intonation, actual division of the sentence and communicative types of sentences - they are narrative (

proposition- a block diagram of a sentence or a syntactic pattern on which any statement can be built. The minimum sentence scheme is represented by the subject and the predicate, while the main characteristic of the sentence is predication.

Predication- attributing the content of the statement to reality (reality). It is expressed in terms of tense, face and mood.

Unit of speech- statement. Unlike a sentence, an utterance has modality- the attitude of the speaker to the subject of the message. Statements are usually divided into different communicative types:

Declarative sentences(reporting a fact).

Interrogative sentences (requesting information).

Motivating sentences (induce to action).

Obtative sentences (express desire - If only the rain would end soon.)

Sometimes intermediate communicative types are also distinguished when the form of the sentence does not correspond to its meaning. How much can you talk about it! - this is a question in form, but incentive in function.

Frontier offers - there are encourages,

but asks for something.

Text- a sequence of sentences that are characterized by the following features - they have a theme, stylistic features and modality. M. Ya. Bloch calls such a text a dicteme.

Theoretically, the minimum text can coincide with 1 sentence, and the maximum text can be a whole work of art.

Paragraph (=supertime unity) is a sequence of sentences that are united by thematic unity and formal means of communication i.e. there is a common theme and a certain connection that bind it into a single whole.

Bloch also singles out Diktem.

Morphemes (affixes):

word-building

Inflectional (endings) city - cities, walks - walked. Work - worked

Fundamentals.

Lexical level (word level).

LECTURE 4 10/18/11

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

The phoneme performs 2 functions: semantic and constructive.

PHONETICS- a section of linguistics that studies the sounds of speech from acoustic and articulatory vision.

Acoustic aspect phoneme studies - studies sound as a physical phenomenon, as a sound wave propagating from the speaker to the listener.

Articulatory aspect- studies the sounds of speech from the point of view of their formation by the organs of speech and perception by the organs of hearing.

PHONOLOGY studies sounds from the point of view of their functioning in the language.

ACOUSTIC ASPECT:

Sound is an oscillatory motion transmitted through the air and perceived by the human ear.

If the vibrations are uniform and periodic, then vowel sounds or TON occur. If the vibrations are uneven, non-periodic, then consonant sounds or noises occur.

There are sonorant consonants (l, m, n, p, d, w) in which both tone and noise are present, so these consonants in some languages ​​can form a syllable (in English table, pupil).

When characterizing sounds, it is necessary to take into account following parameters:

1. Sound pitch - the number of vibrations per unit of time

2. The strength of sound - the amplitude of vibrations

3. Longitude of sound - duration of sound

4. Timbre -

ARTICULATION ASPECT:

Vowel classification:

By language work:

Lower (a)

Middle (uh, oh)

Upper (and, y)

By the movement of the tongue horizontally:

Front vowels (i, e)

Middle vowel(s)

Back vowels (a, o, u)

By the participation of the lips:

Rounded (labialized) (o, y, w)

Undestroyed

By longitude:

(neither in English nor in Russian there is a clear cut of a long short sound; in Russian, under stress, vowels sound longer).

Consonant classification:

By place of education:

Labial (p, b, m)

Labio-dental (f, v)

Dental (d, t)

Anterior lingual (t,d,)

Back-lingual (k, g, x)

By the way the barrier is formed:

Stopping (explosive) (b, p, d)

Slotted (in, f, z, s)

Affricates - combine the signs of stop and fricative (c, h)

Palatalization (softening) - raising the front or middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (l ')

· Velarization is a process opposite to softening - raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate (there is in Eastern languages ​​and Ukrainian G).

SOUND CHANGES:

1. Combinatorial (combination)

1) Accommodation (sound likening) - likening a vowel sound to a consonant and vice versa (the path and port - o and y are rounded and under the influence of these sounds the sound P becomes labialized).

2) Assimilation (sound likening) - likening a vowel sound to vowels or a consonant sound to consonants (fur coat - a dull sound K deafens the previous sound B, sew; birds - a voiced sound d likens itself to s and it turns out z).

Progressive - the previous sound affects the next one (similarity forward, as in birds).

Regressive - the next sound affects the previous one (fur coat, shits).

happens - verb

3) Dissimilation (dissimilarity of sound) - a phenomenon in which 2 identical or similar sounds become different for ease of pronunciation (easy - GK explosive, one of them turns into a slot. It happens contact and distact.

Dialects and ancient words

4) Metothesis - TV - plate Rearrangement

5) Haplology - the reduction of words as a result of dissimilation. Tragicomedy - tragicomedy.

2. Positional (position) - due to the position of the sounds in the word. These changes affect the sounds at the end of the word and unstressed.

Reduction is a qualitative and quantitative change in sound. With a quantitative change, the sound simply drops out, or reduces the duration of the sound.

With high-quality - the pronunciation of the sound becomes less clear (without stress - water, water, but water).

The distribution of a phoneme is the totality of all those positions in which a phoneme occurs.

There are phonemes with unlimited (wide) distribution - they are found in all positions (y) (pen, crane, put on, morning, threw). The phoneme Y - is characterized by limited distribution. Does not occur at the beginning of a word (excludes borrowed words) Settlement in Yakutia - Ynykchan; not meeting after soft consonants).

Free variation of the phoneme - the use of different phonemes in the same word in the same position, the meaning of the word does not change (galoshes, galoshes; putty, putty).

Phoneme opposition - the opposition of phonemes on one or more grounds (/deafness, hardness/softness).

Binary - 2 sounds are opposed on 1 basis (sonority, deafness).

Ternary - 3 sounds are opposed on several grounds (English b, d, g - b labial, d anterior lingual, g posterior lingual).

Group - opposition of all vowels to all consonants on the basis of the presence of tone, noise

Neutralization of the phoneme - the disappearance of the distinguishing feature of the phoneme, the stunning of voiced at the end of the word (snowdrift; not in English).

There are 4 syllable theories:

1. Theory of the expiratory push - the number of syllables corresponds to the number of exhalations with force, pushes (cow - push 3).

2. Theory of sonority - sonorous sounds are formed in the word, i.e. those in which tone is present (vowels and sonorant consonants)

3. The theory of Academician L.D. Shcherby - syllable = arc of muscular tension.

TYPES OF syllables:

Arakin came up with a pancake

1) Fully closed syllable (cat)

2) Fully open (a, and)

3) Close the syllable (starts with a vowel, ends with a consonant; he, at)

4) Covered - a syllable that starts with a consonant and ends with a vowel (but, before, go, know, far).

Integral features- features that cannot be used to distinguish between the phonemes "h" softness is not an integral feature, because in Russian there is no solid "h".

Differential signs- signs by which some phonemes differ from others.

Maslov – page 64-65 (phoneme opposition)

Observation of proportionality - if the relationship between members is proportional to the relationship between other members of the opposition. This attitude is repeated in other relationships. (Softness-hardness / sonority-deafness).

4. Ilchuk Elena Vechaslavovna

Privative - one phoneme has a feature that the second phoneme does not have.

Gradual - strengthening of one or another sign. The degree of expression of a particular feature.

Equivalent - all phonemes are equal and their signs are different. They are united by 1 common feature- b / d / g - sonority.

Phoneme options:

1. Mandatory - when the phoneme cannot be replaced by another option.

2. Positional (specific) depending on the position - mushroom and mushroom.

Phoneme distribution - the position that a phoneme can occupy

1.contrast tom, com, catfish, house.

2. additional does not occur in the same environment and do not distinguish between meanings.

"seven" allafon more closed "sat down" less closed

3.free variation. They occur in the same environment but do not distinguish between their meanings.

Examples and definitions

Prosthesis -

Epentheza -

Substitution -

Diareza -

Ellisia -

K.r. to the phonemic level

Lecture 6

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