These rules allow one journalist to use facts established by another journalist, preferably with reference to the original source. This approach makes investigations much easier for reporters because they can rely on their colleagues' previous work instead of starting over from scratch. This process is called "delegation of trust".
The Web has its own innovations in trust delegation, known as the “link economy.” In general, it refers to the exchange of traffic and information between blogs and websites. Let's say the Los Angeles Times reports that Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie are divorcing. Perez Hilton links to this post on his blog and shares his own thoughts. Then other blogs link to Perez Hilton's post and perhaps to the original Los Angeles Times. This is a legacy of the early blogosphere, when blogs lacked the resources to do original reporting. They relied on other media sources to construct their stories, citing them and commenting on them. This gave birth to the so-called link economy, which encouraged sites to link to each other regularly and consistently. Now I send you a link, then you send me a link, and so we do each other favors by doing reporting work.
The term “link economy” was popularized by Jeff Jarvis, who you are already familiar with. His track record as a blogger, journalism professor at New York University's Graduate School of Journalism, and author of books such as What Will Google Do? has made him incredibly influential. Unfortunately, he is also an idiot, and the link economy he advocates is a breeding ground for all sorts of shenanigans.
The link economy encourages blogs to point readers to other bloggers who say crazy things, borrow unverified material from each other, take more or less complete stories from other sites, add a layer of commentary, and turn them into their own posts.
To borrow a term from computer science, link economics is recursive in nature: blogs borrow information from previous blogs to create new content. Think about the extent to which home video creators rely on other clips to create something new to post on YouTube, or how Twitter users forward and comment on messages from other users.
The trade in fabricated stories up the chain clearly indicates that the media are no longer governed by a set of universal editorial and ethical standards. Even within a single article, the amount of evidence for a printed newspaper article can be very different from what would be enough to publish a blog post. As media channels face tighter deadlines and staff reductions, many of the old norms of corroboration and fact-checking are becoming too onerous. Every blog has its own editorial policy, but few disclose it to their readers. Material that one site borrows from another is unlikely to be considered credible if it is equally likely to meet low or high publishing standards.
The conditions under which delegation of trust can be justified in a link economy no longer exist. But old habits persist and often form an explosive mixture that leads to viral misinformation.
You may recall the time Crain's New York emailed me asking if American Apparel was going to close any of its Manhattan stores due to the financial crisis, to which I responded with a resounding "no." So they found a real estate agent who didn't work with American Apparel but said we could do it. Headline: American Apparel may divest some of its New York stores" (despite my categorical denial quote). The Crain's New York story received numerous links and was used as a source by the blog Jezebel, then by New York Magazine's The Cut, and then by the blog Racked NY. The Daily Finance blog on AOL turned it into a slideshow, "Top Ten Companies Closing Stores Due to the Financial Downturn." None of these sites bothered to contact me with questions, since Crain's New York had already asked and answered them; they could have just made a link. A week later, for some unknown reason, Crain's published the same article with a new headline: "Developing the topic: American Apparel may close its stores in New York," which, after appearing on Google Finance, started the whole cycle all over again.
More than a year has passed, but each of these publications is still in the public domain. The links still point to the old lies.
A few years ago, a young Irish student posted a fake quote from composer Maurice Jarre on his Wikipedia page shortly after his death. The quote included in the obituary read, in part: “When I die, let a farewell waltz play in my head that only I can hear.” I don't think the student understood at the time the effect of the interaction between link economics and delegation of trust. All this changed in an instant when the fake quote began appearing in the composer's obituaries around the world.
It was hard to pinpoint where it all started, but at some point a reporter or blogger saw this quote and used it in an article. The quote eventually made its way into The Guardian and has since become a reality. It perfectly reflected what the authors wanted to say about Maurice Jarre, and the fact that it appeared in the prominent and respected newspaper The Guardian made it the source of numerous new references. The chain began again, its origins were lost, and the more often it was repeated, the more real it became.
I'll show you where the link economy fails. Wikipedia editors could track and quickly remove a student's edit, but this would not automatically correct obituaries that already included a fictitious quote. Wikipedia administrators are unable to edit stories on other people's sites, so the quote remained in The Guardian until they came to their senses and corrected their article. The link economy is intended for support and confirmation, not for questions or corrections. In fact, the deception was discovered only after the student admitted to what he had done.
“I am one hundred percent convinced that if it were not for my speech, the quote would have remained in history as the original words of Maurice Jarre,” he said. “This was another example of how if something is published many times in the media without any questions asked, it becomes a fact.”
Proponents of the link economy reject such examples. They say that publications can be updated; that's the beauty of the Internet. But to my knowledge, there is no technology that issues a warning for every trace or every reader who reads a misrepresented article, and there never will be such a technology. The evolution of news is in many ways similar to biological evolution. It jumps, undergoes interspecific crossing and develops simultaneously in many places. It cannot be accurately tracked or corrected.
Senator Eugene McCarthy once compared the journalists who covered his 1968 presidential campaign to birds on telegraph wires. When one bird flies to a nearby wire, the others follow. When another bird flies back, the others follow suit. These days, this metaphor also needs updating. Birds still flock to the one that flies first, but the wires are not always actually there. Birds often land on illusory wires, as happened to blogs when they repeated the fictitious words of Maurice Jarre.
The illusion of links
In the link economy, the blue stamp of an HTML tag looks like it adds extra weight (as it did with a link to an article with a fake quote from The Guardian). If I wrote on my blog that Thomas Jefferson, in his own words, admitted to committing acts that were considered criminal offenses in the state of Virginia, you would want to see some evidence before you were convinced that I was right. Now imagine that I added a link to the words “acts that were considered criminal offenses.” This link can take you anywhere, even to a dictionary definition of "felony offenses" or to a pdf of the entire Virginia Penal Code. One way or another, formally I acted in accordance with the standards of the link economy. I relied on the authority of the source and referred to it, and now the task of discrediting this link is entrusted to the readers.
Bloggers know this and abuse it to the fullest. They have long operated on the principle that references imply credibility. Even Google exploits this illusion. The search engine, created by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were students at Stanford, replicates the standard academic practice of using a series of citations in a research paper to indicate its influence or credibility. But scientific articles are reviewed by scientists and editorial boards, so questionable citations rarely go unnoticed.
Online links are similar to quotations, but they are rarely citations in the true sense of the word. Using unreliable and unverified sources, bloggers make fantastic statements that spread well on the Internet and collect a lot of comments. Some people are afraid to do something openly, so excuses like “I’m not the first to talk about this” look very attractive. This is a way to shift the burden of responsibility onto another blogger or reader.
People consume content online, flipping through pages and skimming headlines. To again use an ornithological metaphor, they can be compared to what William Zinser called “the restless birds nesting on the thin edge of attention.” Only 44 % of Google News users view real articles. Hence the conclusion: almost no one even clicks on interesting links. Or, if this does happen, readers are not conscientious enough and do not bother to make sure that the new material confirms the last article they read.
If readers only spend mere seconds on websites scanning headlines, how much effort do they spend wondering whether the blogger cares about evidence for what he says? The number of articles that we read carefully, like some kind of amateur editor and fact-checker rolled into one, is far inferior to the number of publications that we take on faith without any evidence. Material from one site quickly finds its way to others. Scandalous claims spread wider and faster, and their dubious nature is better masked by links when they go viral. Who knows how many times you and I have walked past false claims that looked legitimate because of a bright little link?
Flawed Doctrine
As I tell my clients, everything that begins in vague form ends in real time and then becomes established fact. This means that the vague mention of something “possible” on the first site becomes a reality by the time the information comes full circle. The next time bloggers mention your name, they will look back and add the past tense to their last statement, regardless of what actually happened. This is the recursive principle in action, officially sanctioned by the rules of the link economy.
In such circumstances, new mistakes are very easily piled on top of previous ones, and real reporting work is based on lies and manipulations, since the analysis is carried out on the most shaky foundations. As one reporter put it, "the finished mixture can be incorporated into another mixture."
The link economy encourages bloggers to repeat what others say and link to them instead of doing their own research and analysis. With this approach, news turns from events that happened into someone's words about supposedly happening events. Needless to say, these are not the same thing.
One of my favorite books is Being Wrong: Adventures on the Edge of Error by Katherine Schultz. Although media errors are not the topic of the book, Schultz convincingly explains why the media often reaches the wrong conclusions. According to her, scientists reproduce the experiments of their colleagues in order to confirm or refute their findings. On the other hand, journalists reproduce the conclusions of their colleagues (which are often erroneous) and base their reasoning on them.
The news has always been riddled with errors because it is based on recursive references rather than self-criticism. Errors do not appear as isolated incidents, but travel in waves across news channels, sometimes with dire consequences. Because blogs and the media are closely intertwined and interdependent, a lack of common sense or poor analysis in one place affects many others.
In the scientific community, researchers often compete with each other, and everyone strives to refute the results of their colleagues in the profession. This process effectively eliminates errors and falsifications. There is no such culture in journalism. Reporters strive to beat their competitors in developing similar topics, often adding new sensations to existing stories. Meanwhile, experts like Jeff Jarvis bluntly advise online publications and aspiring bloggers not to waste time trying to “copy the work of other reporters.” In the era of links, this is unnecessary and completely ineffective, he says. Don't waste precious resources comparing your competitors' stories, testing and confirming or disproving them, as a scientist might. Instead, start where they left off and see where you can get. Don't be a perfectionist, he urges: join the link economy and delegate trust.
When I hear people talk about interconnectedness and interdependence—like one reporter who suggested that his colleagues use the hash tag NR (“neutral retweet”) to preface tweets they post on their accounts but don’t endorse—I can’t help but I'm reminded of the subprime mortgage crisis. I'm thinking of one bank passing on subprime loans to another bank, which in turn collects large packages of loans and hands them over to a third bank to manage. Why retweet content you don't trust? I think of the rating agencies that were supposed to be watching the subprime market but were too overwhelmed by the disaster to do their job. I think about falling dominoes and wonder why we are doing this again, multiplying the domino effect in the digital world.
Of course, repeat studies are expensive. But this is a known price that people who make money from news must pay. This is protection and at the same time a deterrent. There is an unknown price to pay for the collapse of banks, trust or sources of information, and it is paid by everyone, not just banks and companies.
When Jarvis and others zealously advocate new concepts that they do not understand, it is both ridiculous and dangerous. Online gurus try to tell us that in this widespread, crowdsourced version of reality, fact-checking and research become more accurate because more people participate. But I side with Descartes and believe more in the scientific approach, where everyone is responsible for their own work and questions the conclusions of others, which encourages everyone to be honest and extra careful.
The old media system was far from perfect, but its expensive business model, so despised by online gurus, at least had a resemblance to scientific replication of research findings. She found independent confirmation wherever possible. She advocated editorial independence instead of risky interdependence. Sure, it's expensive and definitely old-fashioned, but it's one step above the pseudoscience of link economics. It was certainly better than what we have on the Web, where blogs produce nothing more than "[some other blog] says..." and unconfirmed information floats from one place to another under the justification of " I referred to the place where I stole it from.”
Knowing the source of the information, or even the fact that it came from somewhere else, does not eliminate the problem of delegation of trust. In fact, this is the dark side of the link economy. It creates the appearance of a solution, although in reality it solves nothing. Some other blogger talked to the source (“don't believe me, here's the link”), so now others don't have to check anything. This is not enough for me. We deserve better. I'm lucky that CNN decided not to pursue its untested story. I appealed to their common sense and humanity, and it worked. Almost two years have passed since then. I still consider this incident an unexpected stroke of luck and I think that I will never be so lucky again. And no one else either.
After reading this article you will learn how to write a conclusion.
You have written and you need to write a conclusion. Read on to find out how to do this...
The first thing to note is that, as a general rule, the optimal length of a conclusion is 2-3 pages.
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Since this problem is the subject of an independent study that goes beyond the scope of our work, we will limit ourselves to considering...
We deliberately pay attention to (do not include) the study..., because...
Without going into discussion... let's note that...
The above highlights the need to carefully consider the issue of...
Based on the thesis that..., we draw attention to the fact...
Without going into details of the analysis of the work, we note that...
The results of our analysis allow us to draw some particular conclusions that are of interest to our research: ...
Developing the concept... that... we can conclude that...
The above leads us to believe that... (allows us to conclude that...)
In conclusion, I would like to emphasize the following: ...
Along with this, the following should be noted: ...
As a result of considering this issue, we can say that...
However, it should be emphasized that...
Deserves to be noted...
In light of the above, important (justified) ...
As a result of the study, material was obtained, the analysis of which allowed us to conclude that...
From what has been said, it becomes obvious that...
Analyzing (substantive, procedural, motivational) aspects.... we come to the conclusion about the necessity (expediency)...
Analysis... allows us to draw the following conclusions:...
Thus, we can state the unity of views of all researchers on...
Experience... deserves attention and helps us draw appropriate conclusions about the state...
Designed...
Experimentally verified... (it is shown that...) (it is established that...)
The developed methods allow...
Based on... research has been conducted...
The influence...
Defined...
Patterns have been identified...
Discovered...
For the first time... (received, developed, ...)
Possibility shown...
The use of... methods for...
Data received about...
The data obtained about... showed the possibility...
A comparison has been made ... (of the experimental data obtained with the data corresponding to the existing theoretical models)
Methods for solving...
A method has been developed to solve...
A model has been built (proposed)...
A methodology and program has been developed for...
The mechanism (individual sides of the mechanism) has been clarified...
Created... complex...
New results have been obtained on (data about) ...
Possibility shown...
Studied in detail...
Patterns identified
The use of... methods for...
The data obtained about... showed the possibility...
New results have been obtained based on (data about)…
Possibility shown
Based on... it was revealed that...
Summarizing what has been said, we can conclude that. can be done
The conclusion is that
Based on research conducted
A comparison was made ... (received
Experimental data with data corresponding to
Available theoretical models)
In conclusion we can say that
Thus, we can conclude (conclude) that...
Thus, we can say with reasonable certainty that...
PRACTICE, EXPERIMENT
In practice (in terms of taking into account this provision), work was carried out on. ..
Here is a fragment of a lesson on the topic...
Numerous studies (experiments) show that the determining influence on the emergence (development...) ... has...
CONCLUSIONS
Theoretical analysis of the literature shows that the problem has been considered quite widely. At the same time, a number of specific (methodological) issues related to... remain poorly developed. These issues include, first of all,... There are practically no studies on... There is only one (several) works on...
The works cited above (did not) address the issue of the need...
Theoretical analysis of the literature allows us to highlight a promising direction of development: ...
The listed studies have made a serious contribution to..., but the problem is still relevant...
Despite the significance of the works of these researchers, they do not exhaust many problems, the importance of which has increased recently due to...
The definition of such an approach to research..., as well as the results of the theoretical analysis of psychological and pedagogical (methodological...) literature allows us to begin solving the problem as follows:...
Thus, a retrospective analysis of studies devoted to the development of the problem... allows us to draw the following conclusions; ...
In understanding... pedagogical science and practice has gone through a rather difficult path
The analysis allowed us to come to the following conclusions:
The author's definition of the concept of “persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant” is formulated. This is a group of people in need of social protection, directly or indirectly affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, recognized as such in the manner prescribed by law and, the number of which is constantly and unpredictably increasing, with their inherent specific needs of a social, psychological, economic and other nature. Moreover, this term is collective in nature, since it includes, along with the actual citizens who suffered from the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, family members of these persons, as well as other categories of people (persons who donated bone marrow to save the lives of others; foreign citizens and persons stateless, legally residing in the territory of the Russian Federation).
Social security for persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant represents the totality of social relations that develop between persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, on the one hand, and state bodies, local governments, organizations, on the other hand, regarding the provision to them at the expense of special funds and (or) budget funds for medical care, pensions, compensation payments and other types of support in the event of life circumstances (death, disability and others) entailing loss or decrease in income, increased expenses, poverty, and associated with the consequences of the Chernobyl accident NPP
Social protection of persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is the activity of the state and local governments, public associations, organizations, other individuals and legal entities to provide various types of social protection to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (cash payments, services and in-kind provision, etc.).
Regulatory legal acts of federal government bodies on the social protection of persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant are characterized by a fairly large number, including laws and regulations. At the same time, certain areas in the field of social protection can be regulated in the text of a special law dedicated to victims of the Chernobyl accident (for example, in the field of social support), or can be regulated by regulations that extend their effect to a number of categories of the population (for example, in the field pension provision).
Moreover, by-laws at the federal level of legal regulation can be divided into several groups: 1) regulations that approve target programs, including those related to issues of social protection of persons affected by the Chernobyl accident; 2) documents defining cash payments, services and in-kind provision provided to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant; 3) sources of law relating to procedural issues that determine the procedure and conditions for individuals to exercise their right to social protection, including acts establishing the list of bodies and institutions, as well as their powers in this area, including issues of conducting examinations
The pension system for persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is a structure of interconnected and interacting financial sources, bodies and institutions performing management functions in this area, subjects and types of support, as well as regulatory legal acts governing emerging relations in the sphere of implementation by citizens of their pension rights. Moreover, this system consists of two subsystems: the labor pensions subsystem and the state pensions subsystem. Taking this into account, we can state the fact of the existence of two subsystems of pension provision for persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which together represent a unified pension system for this social group of the population.
In accordance with the provisions of the Law on State Pensions, it is possible to assign three types of pensions: old age, disability and survivors. The size and conditions for assigning each type of pension are determined depending on the category of the person affected by the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident, as well as other socially significant circumstances established by the norms of the current legislation of the Russian Federation (the presence of work experience of a certain duration, the state of kinship, property or marital relations with a deceased breadwinner).
Persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant may be provided with an old-age labor pension on a general basis with a reduction in the retirement age depending on the category of the person, or an early old-age labor pension on the basis of subparagraph 1 of paragraph 1 of Article 27 of the Law on Labor Pensions in RF. The conditions for granting this pension include: reaching a certain retirement age and having an insurance period of at least 5 years in total. The size of the old-age labor pension is determined on the basis of the general provisions of the Law on Labor Pensions in the Russian Federation (Articles 14, 30, 30.1., 30.2 of the Law on Labor Pensions). At the same time, the provision of labor pensions for disability and in the event of the loss of a breadwinner to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is carried out in accordance with general standards
An analysis of the legislation of the Russian Federation showed that the features of providing benefits for temporary disability to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant include: an increased amount of benefits in the amount of 100 percent of average earnings, taken into account when calculating insurance contributions for compulsory social insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity to the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation, regardless of the length of the insurance period, as well as provision to family members of a person affected by radiation exposure in the case of caring for a sick child under the age of 15 years for the entire period of outpatient treatment or joint stay with the child in an inpatient in a medical institution, a temporary disability benefit in the amount of 100 percent of average earnings taken into account when calculating insurance contributions for compulsory social insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity to the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation, regardless of the length of the insurance period.
The analysis of the benefit system allows us to conclude that for persons affected by the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident, no additional types of benefits are established, but there is a tendency to improve the conditions for receiving existing benefits, either by introducing them in an increased amount or on a more preferential basis . In this case, all types of benefits can be divided into two groups. The first is benefits provided within the framework of a mixed system - social insurance and state security, for example, temporary disability benefits, the essence of which is that the total amount of the benefit is financed from the Social Insurance and Benefits Fund, and the additional (increased amount - for budget account The second group is benefits provided from the federal budget (in particular, funeral benefits, moving benefits).
Compensation payments can be characterized as provided to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, and in cases established by the legislation of the Russian Federation and to members of their families, monthly, lump sum or annually cash payments, the types and amount of which depend on the category of the recipient in order to compensate for harm to their health or property, as well as providing additional material support.
The main forms of providing housing to persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant are: one-time provision of social payments to persons registered as needing to improve their living conditions from the federal budget, certified by a housing certificate; extraordinary entry into housing construction cooperatives and extraordinary provision of land plots for individual housing construction (provided they are recognized as in need of improved housing conditions).
The current legislation of the Russian Federation on the social protection of persons affected by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant contains a fairly extensive list of guarantees provided when they exercise their right to work. These guarantees relate to the right to rest and employment, including during procedures for reducing numbers or staff, the amount of wages received, in situations related to the medical characteristics of the human body, as well as the conditions and nature of work.
come or come
In Russian, the word “come” is written with the letter “y” - come .
Confusion in the spelling of this word arises because there are forms of " go», « I'm coming», « will come».
In addition, there used to be a norm for writing “to come,” which is mentioned in the explanatory dictionary edited by Ushakov. In some literary works of the last century, the spelling “to come” is also found. However, this way of writing is outdated, as is similar pronunciation.
Today we speak and write this word without the letter “d” - “ come».
Word writing rule
Spelling of the infinitive " come"is based on the morphological principle, that is, it depends on the composition of the word. Thinking about the question of how to “ come" or " come", you should carefully consider the structure of the word. It consists of the prefix at-, root – th– and verb suffix – you. (Wed: u-y-ti, for-y-ti, you-y-ti, re-y-ti and etc.)
According to the rules of the Russian language, after the vowel sound of the prefix, the root sound “i” turns into a short “y”. It was this sound that remained from the previous root -id- (the word looked like “pri-id-ti”). Since the language strives for euphony and brevity, the sound [d] gradually merged with the suffixal sound [t]. Therefore, they began to write and say “ come».
Examples
- The director first apologized to his subordinates for not being able to come earlier, and only then began the performance.
- Opportunity come Veronica, under this innocent pretext, attracted him so much that he forgot about his previous plans for the evening.
- Before come To this conclusion, the investigator looked at the photographs for a long time and checked every detail on them.
