After the end of the Second World War, India experienced the rise of the national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 according to religious curia, which aggravated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:
The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states on religious grounds and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan "the land of the pure."
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a large number of Muslims supported the program of the Inc. The vast majority of the population spoke out against British domination.
The INC included representatives of various social strata, was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was established. The Muslim League refused to enter the government and proclaimed the start of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in the Hindu quarters, in response, the Muslim quarters of the city flared up. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, developing into a massacre, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India the rights of a dominion on the condition that it be divided along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they entered. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
A huge number of refugees moved from the Pakistani parts to the Indian regions and vice versa. Hundreds of thousands were killed. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims who remained in India. This caused attacks, accusations of betraying the interests of the Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was killed by a member of one of the religious organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the founding of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. Leader of the Muslim League becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 principalities, the vast majority joined India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territory, neither economic ties between regions, nor geographical boundaries, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textile and sugar industries remained on Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was supposed to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population were Muslims. In autumn 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But the western part of the principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main causes of the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. 20th century won the INC. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.
In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs, the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These killings are connected with the activation of the nationalist and separatist
movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. The INC has lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of the Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the overall successful development of the country, continue.
Declaration of Independence
June
1947
was
achieved
final
agreement,
allowing
British
Parliament
enact the Indian Independence Act,
which entered into force on August 15-August 1947. In
this document set out the principles
section, according to which a number of areas
provided
possibility
make up your mind - join the Indian Union
or Pakistan and the right of each of these dominions to self-government was declared
with the right to withdraw from the Commonwealth.
stopped
also
suzerainty
English monarchy over Indian
principalities,
a
also
action
agreements concluded with them. Population
East Bengal and West Punjab
made a choice in favor of Pakistan, and
residents of West Bengal and East
Punjab voted for joining
composition of the Indian Union.
Proclamation
independence
India after independence
Partition consequences
Immediately after gaining independence inIndia
It was
formed
government headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. There have been
unprecedented clashes between
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.
Happened dilo
massive
resettlement
Muslims to Pakistan, and Hindus to
India. To intercommunal hostility and
clashes were added economic
and
political
difficulties,
caused
section.
iron
and
highways and systems
irrigation canals were cut
state
borders,
industrial enterprises are cut off
from
sources
raw materials,
disunited
civil services, police and army,
necessary
for
ensure
normal government of the country and
security of citizens. January 30, 1948
when violations of public order
go to decline, was a Hindu fanatic
killed by Gandhi.
Effects
section
Jawaharlal Nehru
Partition consequences
The rulers of 555 principalities were todecide whether to join them as a member of India
or Pakistan. Peaceful integration
the vast majority of small
principalities did not cause complications. But
Muslim deputy heading
the richest and most populous
principality of Hyderabad, where numerically
dominated by Hindus, declared his
desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948 in
Hyderabad were introduced by Indian
troops, and under pressure from the central
Nizam of the Indian Government
signed an agreement to join
composition of the Indian Union.
Principality of Hyderabad
Partition consequences
A serious situation arose in the north,where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir,
territory
With
predominantly
Muslim
population
was
Hindu Maharaja.
Pakistan
rendered
economic pressure on the principality,
to achieve its connection. AT
October 1947 about 5,000 armed
Muslims entered the borders of Kashmir.
In dire need of the help of the Maharaja
signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. obvi-nila india
the Pakistani side in aggression and
referred the question of Kashmir to the discussion in
United Nations Security Council. The UN had
decided
recognize
in
quality
demarcation line actual
ceasefire line according to its condition
on January 1, 1949. November 17, 1956
The Constituent Assembly of Kashmir was
the Constitution was adopted, in accordance with
which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared an integral part of India.
Partition consequences
Disputed territory of Kashmir
Partition consequences
Relations with Pakistan became the mainissue of Indian foreign policy.
The protracted dispute over Kashmir interfered
India to take a leadership role in the Movement
non-alignment. When the prime minister
India J. Nehru refused to cooperate with
USA in the fight against Soviet expansion,
The Americans entered into a military alliance with
Pakistan. This made the Indian
management expand contacts with
China and the USSR. Indian-Soviet ties
noticeably
got stronger
after
conclusions
major trade agreement of 1953 and
exchange of visits of the heads of the two
states.
USSR
welcomed
Indian Non-Aligned Policy,
which coincided with his strategic
line to limit US influence in
Afro-Asian region.
Partition consequences
1954 Meeting J. Nehru.
On the left I. M. Kharchenko.
Development and reforms
January 26, 1950 India was proclaimedrepublic. The constitution of 1950 reflects
cautious
position
guides
and
achievements achieved over time are consolidated
independent
development
countries.
Relatively
simple
procedure
amending the constitution on the basis of
majority decisions in parliament
expanded
capabilities
further
implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru,
who was also head of the planning commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy
focused on creating a mixed
economy and opened up prospects for
cooperation with private capital,
although in leading
industries allowed
only state property.
This rule affected enterprises of the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering,
mining, etc.
Development and
reforms
Flag of India
Emblem of India
Development and reforms
Wellon the
stimulation
development
industry was combined with politics
cautious reforms in the agrarian sector.
Planned
commission
us-too
recommended to the states
guarantee
for-shield
right
land users,
in
particular
limit rental rates,
install
"ceiling"
for
area
individual
land-holdings
and
reorganize on a cooperative basis
credit and sales system, and in more
distant
future,
Maybe,
and
agricultural production.
FROM
1953
started
implementation of the community development program,
which set, in particular, the task of organizing
network of distribution agencies in
advanced agricultural village
experience, as well as the creation in the countryside
cooperative associations and panchayats.
Development and
reforms
Peasants
10. Moderate course boundaries
The government delayed the achievementcompromise on the issue of re-organization
territorial-administrative
divisions on a linguistic basis, and
when in 1956 based on the dominant languages
14 states were formed, manifested
dissatisfaction with other ethnic communities. AT
1960 serious unrest in Bombay state
forced the central authorities to go
meet the demands for its separation
into two new states, Gujarat and
Maharashtra. Sikhs managed to achieve
success when the Punjab was divided in 1965
to the state of Punjab, where the Sikhs
formed the majority, and the state of Haryana, with
predominantly Hindu population.
The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in
northeastern border strip, where
some local tribes demanded
independence and raised for this purpose
armed uprisings.
The borders of moderate
course
New administrative divisions
11. Moderate course boundaries
Compromise with leading castes seriouslylimited the ability of the government to
carrying out social transformations in
village. agrarian reform laws,
approved by the states, contained
significant gaps that allowed, with one
side, to drive tenants off the land, and from
the other is to bypass the position of the upper
limit of the area of land-holdings. Slow
deployment of transformations led to
chronic shortage of agricultural products,
rising food prices and cutting government subsidies. At the beginning
In the 1960s, the financial crisis deepened.
Economic stagnation, in turn,
limited the ability to maneuver
INC.
The classic caste model
hierarchy
12. Moderate course boundaries
The authority of Nehru in October 1962 wassignificantly undermined after the invasion
Chinese troops on the territory of the North-Eastern Border Agency and in
the limits of the mountains of Ladakh in Kashmir. striving
to provide links between the Xinjiang-Uyghur
and
Tibetan
autonomous
areas, China tried to force
India
refuse
from
right
on the
strategically important Aksaichin plain
in the east of Ladakh in Kash-mir.
The Chinese armed forces inflicted several
Indian army strikes and occupied
territory area of 37.5 thousand square meters. km.
By the time China announced
withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas,
apart from Aksaichin, Nehru was forced to
seek military assistance from the United States.
The borders of moderate
course
Ladakh
Ladakh on the map of India
13. Nehru's Successors
who replaced Nehru asPrime Minister Shastri was nominated
to this post by a group of party leaders
called "sindy-kat", which
supported by large landowners and
entrepreneurs.
AT
1965
experts
World
jar
determined
providing
financial owl
help
holding
complex
economic
reforms. For a year and a half of stay on
Prime Minister Shastri accepted
decisions to reorient the main stream
public investment with heavy
industry for agriculture; accent
for intensive farming and land reclamation;
stimulation with the help of the price system and
allocation
sub-sidian
rustic
farms capable of modernizing
production; increasing the role of private and
foreign investment in industry. The economy has become especially
dependent on financial receipts from abroad, when the country fell
additional burden of military spending in
during the second war with Pakistan in 1965.
Nehru's successors
Lal Bahadur Shastri
14. Nehru's Successors
Losses suffered by the INC at the parliamentaryelections in 1967, did not deprive him of victory with
by a small margin on the national
level, but led to defeat in 8
states. In the states of Kerala and Western
Bengal INC was removed from power
coalition led by the Communist
party of India. Leftists in both states
governments have restricted activities
police, and protests unfolded there
tenants
and
agricultural
the proletariat against the landowners and
factory workers - against management
enterprises. Revolutionary-minded
the communists supported the armed
peasant riots in several states,
where the KPI operated. Late 1960s
they organized performances of small
peoples in Andhra Pradesh and members
scheduled tribes and castes in
Western
Bengal,
which
were
crushed by the army.
Nehru's successors
Parliament building in India
15. Indira Gandhi
The next prime minister of the country is IndiraGandhi could no longer rely on the old
party leaders and teamed up with
small
youth
group
socialists and former communists.
resolute
actions
premiere
on
nationalization of the largest commercial
banks linked her name to the new policy,
focused on helping the poor
population. Popularity of the Prime Minister
reached its zenith in 1971 as a result of the victory
in the third Indo-Pakistani war. FROM
the emergence of Bangladesh, India turned out to be
in dominant positions in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974
she is
spent
nuclear
tests,
demonstrating increased military
the power of the country.
Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi
16. Political crisis
In 1971 the government restored the rightparliament
bring in
changes
in
constitution,
canceled
in
1967
resolution
Supreme
court.
AT
the 26th Amendment, which stated that
any law must comply
fundamental articles of the Constitution,
proceeding from the principles of social and
economic justice. When in
April 1973 amendment was rejected
by the Supreme Court, the government deposed
the three oldest judges who voted
against her, and appointed chairman
court of one of its members, who
spoke in favor of the amendment. Leaders
all opposition forces, except for the KPI, saw
in this act the threat of establishing
authoritarian
mode.
leader
opposition was J. Nara-yan, the oldest
follower of Mahat-my Gandhi. Narayan
launched a campaign in
Gujarat, which led in January 1974
to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution
state legislature. So
a vigorous campaign was carried out in
Bi-hare.
Political
a crisis
Mahatma Gandhi
17. Political crisis
On June 2, 1975, Gandhi was accused of"corruption
practice"
gave
her
opponents the opportunity to organize
movement to remove the prime minister.
In response, Gandhi imposed a state of emergency in India.
a situation that resulted in mass arrests
political opponents and wide
censorship. In the parliamentary elections in
March 1977 new Janata Party,
which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory
and repealed the law on emergency
position. However, soon the government
Janata became a victim of internal
intrigue. Its head M. De-sai filed
resignation in June 1979, and held in
January 1980 Gandhi parliamentary elections
came back to power.
Political
a crisis
Morarji Desai
18. Political crisis
Participation of the electorate in the 1980 electionsdecreased to about 55% with an increase in the number of conflicts during
electoral
campaigns.
AT
Western
Bengal, Kerala and Tripura won
KPI.
Central
government
encountered
With
revival
separatist movements in the northeast,
with a number of religious and communal unrest in
Uttar Pradesh. In all cases for
restoring order had to resort to
military force. In June 1984, after the outbreak
Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army
units stormed the shrine of the Sikhs -
Golden Temple in Amritsar, which led to
death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of
his adherents who took refuge in the temple.
The decisive action of Gandhi was met with approval in other parts of India, but
rebuilt against the prime minister of the Sikhs. 31
October 1984 I. Gandhi was killed by two
by their guard-me-sikhs. At the post
heads of government and as leader
INC was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who
called parliamentary elections to an end
1984 and won them a convincing victory.
Political
a crisis
Rajiv Gandhi
19. Political crisis
In the 1989 elections, the parties that spokeagainst the INC (I), united around
former Finance Minister V.P. Singh,
who then led the government
minorities. Singh Government
relied on the party created in 1988
Janata gave and supported the Hindu
nationalist Bharatiya Janata
par-ti (BDP) and two communist
parties. The coalition broke up in November
1990, when the BJP came out of it. Following
Chandra Sekha-ra's government went into
resignation four months later,
because INK (I) did not approve the project
state budget.
Political
a crisis
Coat of arms of the BJP
20. Political crisis
Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrownSri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May
1991. It was an act of revenge for entering
Indian troops in the north of Sri Lanka in
1987 to counter Tamil
separatists there. New prime minister
nara simha
Rao
spent
in
1992
decisive economic reforms,
called
modernize
industrial and scientific and technical
country base. Was less successful
activities of the Rao government in
prevention
intercommunal
collisions
arose
after
destruction by orthodox Hindus
mosques in Uttar Pradesh in December 1992.
Political
a crisis
Narasimha Rao
21. Political crisis
Elections in April-May 1996 led todistribution of seats in parliament
between three major factions: the INC
(136 deputy mandates), BJP (160) and
coalition
left
orientation,
called the United
front (111 mandates). After
BJP refused to enter the government
majority, new prime minister
H.D. Deve Govda attracted to participate in it
INC. The basis of the government was
representatives of the regional and left
parties.
Sonia Gandhi, INC leader
22. Political crisis
In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Gov-da, andthe prime minister was forced to file
resignation. His place was taken by the appointed
president
and
approved
Parliament Inder Kumar Gujral,
which the
continued
well
his
predecessor
on the
liberalization
economy
and
growth
economic
indicators, but refused further
reducing social spending.
intensified
foreign policy
dialogue between India and Pakistan and China. Care
retired Gujral government
led to early parliamentary
elections in March 1998. Came to power
a coalition consisting of 18 parties, in which the leading position was occupied by the BJP.
Political
a crisis
Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers
China, India and Russia
23. Political crisis
The main task of the new Prime MinisterAtal Bihari Vajpayee was saving
coalition government led by
BJP.
AT
April
1999
happened
government
a crisis,
and
government was forced to withdraw
resignation. The lower house was dissolved
parliament. New parliamentary elections
took place in October 1999. Despite
active participation in the election campaign
Indian
national
congress
majority
in
Parliament
received
National Democratic Alliance,
led by the BJP. premier mi nistrom
again became Vajpayee. Conducted by India
nuclear
tests
os-lied
her
relations with most states
peace.
AT
modern
unstable
environment
factor-rum
stability
remains the figure of the president, who in
1997 for the first time in the history of the country was elected
representative of the former "untouchable" caste Kocheril Raman Narayanan, formerly
served as vice president of
Sh.D.Sharmay, who belonged to the caste
brahmins.
Political
a crisis
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
24. Conclusion
After independence before Indiamany paths of national development emerged. Effective development of the state
interfered with a number of internal problems: a strong social
differentiation, the presence of castes and dogmas, the problem
national minorities, the struggle of the Hindus and
Muslims. But despite the difficulties and obstacles in
development, India has managed to reform and strengthen
social, economic and other spheres
society. Now India is modern,
dynamically developing state, actively
participating in the solution of international problems.
In 1947 came the end of British rule in India. In August 1947, the country was divided into two parts on religious grounds: India, most of which is inhabited by Hindus, and Pakistan, whose population professes Islam. In the north of the diya of the Hindustan peninsula, in Kashmir, which was ceded to India, although Muslims live here, as a result of this:
- A territorial dispute arose between India and Pakistan. Since 1948, there have been military clashes several times (1965, 1987, 1988, 1997) for the mastery of the principality of Kashmir. At the same time, India relied on the help of the USSR.
- In turn, Pakistan split into East and West Pakistan. In 1971, a broad movement for autonomy unfolded in East Pakistan. With the intervention of Indian troops, the independent state of Bangladesh was formed. In 1974, Pakistan recognized the sovereignty of Bangladesh.
In 1950, India was declared a republic. According to the constitution, it became a federal, and according to the form of government - a parliamentary republic. The basic principles of India's domestic and foreign policy were prepared by J. Nehru. The basis of the “Nehru course” was:
- non-alignment with military blocs;
- peace protection and cooperation;
- planned development of the national economy.
The Republic of India is called "the largest democracy in the world." It is multinational, multi-confessional, with a large number of illiterate rural population. Despite the fact that most of the population lives below the poverty level, India pays great attention to weapons, and an Indian launch vehicle even launched a communications satellite into space orbit. India has been manufacturing tactical and ballistic missiles since the 1990s.
AT India- the richest colony of Great Britain began the rise of the anti-colonial movement. To weaken it, in 1946 a decision was made to elect elections to the Central Legislative Assembly. The victory of the secular Indian National Congress (INC), which did not express the interests of certain religious groups, caused the displeasure of the Muslims, who refused to trust the Hindus and demanded their representation in power. The INC, unwilling to meet the demands of the Muslims, emphasized its desire to become the only national party representing the interests of both Hindus and Muslims.
It was this that prompted the Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to break with the INC and embark on the path of separatism, which led to the emergence of the state of Pakistan. In August 1947, an independence law was passed, providing for the creation of two states. The former colony was divided along religious lines into India, in which the majority of the population professed Hinduism, and Pakistan, in which the Muslim population predominated. On August 14 in India and on August 15, 1947, Independence Day was celebrated for the first time in Pakistan.
Massacre in India (1947)
But before the holidays were over, the tragedy began. During August and September 1947, up to 500,000 Muslims were killed as they left the Indian half of the eastern Punjab (Pyatirechye). Militant Sikhs (representatives of a religious doctrine that differs from Islam and Hinduism) did not spare even women and children, stopped trains overflowing with refugees, and killed everyone in cold blood. Killings of Hindus also took place in Pakistan, but on a much smaller scale. The Muslim League tried to survive the Sikhs and Hindus who found themselves in Pakistan. Seeking safety, millions of refugees crossed the border in both directions, maddened by the horror of intercommunal warfare. 9-10 million Muslims fled from India; there were very few Hindus left in West Pakistan, but in East Pakistan there were about 30 million. Intercommunal clashes and killings occurred later, but never reached the horrific proportions of 1947.
Murder of M. Gandhi
The transfer of power in India from the British to the national government turned into a catastrophic massacre. Among the victims was the founder of the Indian National Congress, M. Gandhi, who was killed in January 1948 by a Hindu extremist. A certain share of the blame for this bloodshed lies with the former colonial administration, which did not have a clear concept of a multinational state, and the new authorities, which, through irresponsible statements or inaction, contributed to the tension.
India is coping with food difficulties, it has entered the top ten countries in the world in terms of industrial production.
Unlike India, Pakistan was proclaimed an Islamic republic with a strong presidential power. Pakistan's disagreement with the terms of territorial delimitation, which believed that a number of Muslim regions mistakenly became part of India, caused repeated armed conflicts between the countries.
India, Pakistan, China after World War II
Independence gained by India.
Development of India and Pakistan. After the end of the Second World War, India experienced the rise of the national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to hold on to India, maneuvered, combining the methods of his brutal suppression of speeches with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, in 1946 the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly for religious curia, which aggravated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions. The main demands of the Muslim League were the division of India into two states on religious grounds and the creation of a Muslim state of Pakistan ("country of the pure").
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a large number of Muslims supported the program of the INC. The vast majority of the population spoke out against British domination.
The INC included representatives of various social strata, was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and J. Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was established. The Muslim League refused to enter the government and proclaimed the start of a direct struggle for Pakistan. In Calcutta, pogroms broke out in the Hindu quarters, in response, the Muslim quarters flared up. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, which escalated into a massacre, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to give India the rights of a dominion, on the condition that it be divided along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
In a short period, a huge number of refugees moved from the Pakistani parts to the Indian regions and vice versa. Hundreds of thousands were killed. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded that acceptable conditions be created for the Muslims who remained in India. This led to accusations of betraying the interests of the Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was killed by a member of one of the religious Hindu organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the founding of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. Liqiat Ali Khan, the leader of the Muslim League, became the prime minister of Pakistan. The next day, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 601 principalities, the vast majority joined India. The first government of the country was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territory, neither geographical boundaries, nor economic ties between regions, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral resources, textile and sugar industries are concentrated on Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
The most tense situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was supposed to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population were Muslims. In autumn 1947, Pakistani troops invaded western Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main causes of the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. As a result of the 1971 war, the state of Bangladesh was formed on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a federal republic (a union of states). Victory in all elections until the end of the 70s. won the INC. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. From the end of the 20th century the rapid growth of advanced technologies began in the country. A nuclear weapon was tested.
India's foreign policy has taken a course of non-participation in blocs, of fighting for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter, Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991, became prime minister. These murders were associated with the activation of the nationalist and separatist movement in the country (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the XX century. The INC experienced splits and lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of the Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). At the beginning of the XXI century. The INC again won a majority in the parliamentary elections (M. Singh became prime minister).
The political development of Pakistan is characterized by instability. The army played a large role in the country, often carrying out military coups. In foreign policy, Pakistan followed a pro-American course. The country's economy has been relatively successful (Pakistan has also developed atomic weapons), although, like India, a significant part of the population continues to live in poverty. At the beginning of the XXI century. speeches demanding to strengthen the role of Islam in the life of society became more frequent.
The development of China in the 50s - 70s.XXin.
As a result of the victory of the Communists in the Civil War in 1949, the remnants of the Kuomintang, under the cover of the US Air Force and Navy, fled to the island of Taiwan. On October 1, 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. The People's Government of the People's Republic of China was headed by Mao Zedong.
The new Chinese leadership set a course for the construction of socialism. Industrial enterprises were nationalized, cooperatives were created in the countryside. In the 50s. China worked closely with the USSR, which provided it with enormous assistance in the development of industry, agriculture, and culture. During this period there was a successful industrialization of the country.
At the end of the 50s. Mao Zedong set a course for an ultra-fast pace of development. The "great leap" began, which was an attempt to "join communism" under the slogan "A few years of hard work - and ten thousand years of happiness." As a result, chaos reigned in the economy, a terrible famine gripped the country. The policy of the "Great Leap Forward" caused dissatisfaction with a number of party leaders. To suppress their resistance from 1965 - 1966. At the initiative of Mao Zedong, the so-called "cultural revolution" was organized. The forces of the youth ("hong-weibins" - red guards) launched an attack on officials under the slogan "Fire at the headquarters!". Hundreds of thousands of workers of the party and the state apparatus were executed or evicted to remote areas for "re-education". During this period, relations between China and the USSR escalated, in 1969 armed clashes took place (Damansky Island on the Ussuri River). In 1972, China entered into an agreement with the United States.
The death of Mao Zedong on September 9, 1976 led to an intensification of the internal political struggle. Fanatical adherents of Mao's policies ("gang of four") were arrested. Deng Xiaoping, a former associate of Mao who suffered during the years of the "cultural revolution", stood at the head of the party and state. The “four modernizations” policy proclaimed in 1978 provided for transformations in the field of industry, agriculture, culture and rearmament of the army.
Modern China.
During the 80s - 90s. In China, under the leadership of the Communist Party, serious reforms were carried out that dramatically changed the face of the country. The reforms began with agriculture. Most of the cooperatives were dissolved, each peasant household received a piece of land on a long-term lease. Gradually, the food problem was solved. Industrial enterprises were granted independence, market relations developed. Private enterprises emerged. Foreign capital has increasingly penetrated into China. By the end of the XX century. the volume of industrial production increased by 5 times, Chinese goods began a victorious expansion abroad, including in the United States. The standard of living of a significant part of the population has risen.
The successful economic development of the country (production growth from 7 to 15% per year), which began to be called the "workshop of the 21st century," continues at the present time. Economic achievements were evidenced by the launch in 2003 of China's first spacecraft with an astronaut on board and the development of plans for a flight to the moon. In terms of economic potential, China has taken second place in the world, and in a number of indicators it has overtaken the United States. The Chinese demonstrated their great success during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008.
Political power in China remained unchanged. An attempt by some students and intellectuals to launch a liberalization campaign during a speech on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 was brutally suppressed. The country's leading force is still the CCP, which claims to "build socialism with Chinese characteristics."
In foreign policy, the PRC has achieved considerable success: Hong Kong (Xianggang) and Mokao (Aomen) were annexed to China. Since the mid 80s. normalized relations with the USSR. Friendly relations have been established between China and Russia and other post-Soviet states.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
How were India and Pakistan formed? Tell us about their development.
How was the People's Republic of China established? What were the features of China's development in the 50-70s?
What are the directions and results of the reforms carried out in China in the late 20th and early 21st centuries?
Compare the development of China and India in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries. What was similar in their development and what were the differences?
