The science
Space exploration is an incredible adventure. Secrets of our universe always attracted us, and scientists made incredible discoveries, looking into the most secret corners of space.
However, the universe may be rather inhospitable and even frightening place. Hardly anyone wants to visit some of its most amazing places, for example, to visit the distant mysterious planets and their satellites.
carbon exoplanet
Our planet maintains a high level of oxygen relative to carbon. Carbon is approximately 0.1 percent of the Earth's volume, which is why we lack carbon-based materials such as fossil fuels and diamonds.
However, in the region of the center of our galaxy, the planets have noticed much more carbon than oxygen, since the formation of the planets was different there. These planets were named carbon planets.
The morning sky of a carbon planet will never be crystal clear and blue. You will see yellow fog with black soot clouds. If you go down to the very surface, you can see seas of crude oil and tar. Bubbles of foul-smelling methane rise from the surface of these seas. The weather forecast is also not comforting: it is raining gasoline. This is the place we imagine looks like hell.
Planet Neptune
On the Neptune you can meet constantly blowing with jet speed winds. These winds are pushing icy clouds of natural gas towards the northern edge Great dark spot planets. The spot is a huge hurricane, comparable in size to the diameter of our Earth. The wind speed on Neptune reaches about 2500 kilometers per hour.
The strength of such winds is far beyond what a person can bear. Assuming that one of us suddenly ends up on Neptune, it will be torn apart in the blink of an eye this incredible menacing wind.
While scientists can't say for sure how does this strongest wind in the solar system have so much energy, despite the fact that the planet Neptune is located quite far from the Sun, and also has relatively weak internal heat.
Exoplanet 51 Pegasi b with unusual rain
Nicknamed Bellerophon in honor of the Greek hero who tamed the winged horse Pegasus, this gas giant planet is approximately 150 times more massive than Earth and consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
The problem is that the planet Bellerophon is fried in the rays of its star at a temperature about 1000 degrees Celsius. The distance of this planet from the star 100 times smaller than the distance from the earth to the sun. Extremely high temperatures near the surface cause incredible winds.
As warm air rises, cold air sinks, creating winds that blow at 1000 kilometers per hour. Incredible heat does not allow liquid or solid water to survive on the surface, however, this does not mean that there is no rain on the planet.
Unprecedented heat causes iron, one of the components of the planet, to evaporate. Evaporation rises, forming iron vapor clouds, which essentially resemble clouds of water vapor on Earth. The only difference is that these clouds shed rains that are not quite familiar to us in the form of molten iron.
Exoplanet COROT-3b
The densest and most massive exoplanet discovered to date is COROT-3b was discovered with the COROT telescope in 2008. It is comparable in size to Jupiter, but 20 times heavier his. That is, COROT-3b approximately 2 times denser than lead.
The pressure that would be exerted on a person walking on its surface would be insurmountable. With such a mass of the planet, a person would weigh on it approximately 50 times more than it weighs on earth. For example, a person who weighs on Earth about 80 kilograms, on the planet COROT-3b would have a weight 4 tons!
The human skeleton cannot withstand such pressure. It's like an elephant sitting on your chest.
Planet Mars and dust storms
On Mars, dust storms can last for long hours and cover the entire surface of the planet in a few days. These are the largest and the strongest dust storms in the solar system. The height of Martian dust vortices can reach a height greater than the height of Mount Everest on Earth, and the winds reach speeds of about 300 kilometers per hour.
Once formed, dust storms sometimes require a few months to calm down. According to one version, dust particles torn off the surface of Mars absorb sunlight and heat the Martian atmosphere.
Warm air currents are directed towards colder regions, forming winds. Strong winds pick up more dust from the surface, which in turn warms the atmosphere, increasing winds and so on.
Surprisingly, many of the planet's dust storms originate in a single impact crater. Hellas Plain is the deepest impact crater in the solar system. The temperature at the bottom of this crater can be 10 degrees higher than on the surface. This crater is filled with a large layer of dust. The difference in temperatures feeds the action of the winds, which raise dust from the bottom of the crater up.
The hottest planet is exoplanet WASP-12 b
This planet is today considered the hottest planet in the universe. Its temperature is approximately 2200 degrees Celsius, and its orbit is closest to the star than any other orbit of the known planets.
Without a doubt, at this temperature any substance will immediately burn in the atmosphere of this planet. This planet quickly covers the distance around its star: 3.4 million kilometers it passes in about 24 Earth hours.
Planet Jupiter
In the atmosphere of Jupiter, storms are formed that are larger than the diameter of our planet. These giants cause winds to blow at speeds 650 kilometers per hour, as well as powerful lightning discharges, which 100 times brighter than lightning on earth.
An ocean of liquid metallic hydrogen splashes on the surface of the planet 40 thousand kilometers deep. On Earth, hydrogen is a colorless transparent gas, but in the core of Jupiter, hydrogen is transformed into something that is not on our planet.
In Jupiter's outer layers, hydrogen resembles a gas found on Earth, but the deeper you go to the surface, the higher the pressure. Eventually the pressure gets so high that it squeezes electrons out of hydrogen atoms. Under these extreme conditions, hydrogen turns into a liquid metal that conducts electricity as well as heat. Just like a mirror, it reflects light.
Dwarf planet Pluto
Pluto, which has already dropped out of the category of planets, is different extreme cold temperature. Frozen nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane blanket the entire surface of the dwarf planet like a snow blanket during most of the Plutonian year, which lasts 248 earth years.
The ice went from white to pinkish brown due to interactions with gamma rays from deep space and the sun. During the day, the Sun delivers no more light and heat to the surface of the planet than the Moon does to the Earth. The temperature on the surface of Pluto reaches a mark from minus 228 to minus 238 degrees Celsius.
Exoplanet COROT-7 b and active volcanoes
Surface temperature on the star side of the planet COROT-7b so high that allows you to melt rocks. Scientists who have modeled the planet's atmosphere have determined that this planet is most likely free of volatile gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen). The atmosphere is probably composed of evaporated rock.
The atmosphere of the planet COROT-7 b has weather systems that, unlike the weather on Earth, cause rain of molten rock that fall on the molten surface. It is clear that under such conditions the life we know cannot arise here. Moreover, the planet seems even more inhospitable, given what it is volcano nightmare.
Scientists know that the orbit of the planet COROT-7 b is not perfectly circular. The gravitational forces of one of its two neighbors push and pull on the surface, creating friction that heats the planet's interior. This results in volcanic activity across the surface of COROT-7 b, which is even more active than that of Jupiter's moon Io. This satellite boasts more 400 volcanoes.
Planet Venus
Very little was known about Venus until the USSR launched its first successful apparatus to it during the space race. The USSR remains the only country that managed to land their vehicles on the surface of Venus.
The environment on the planet is so harsh that the probes can stretch on it no more than 127 minutes, after which they break and melt. Venus is considered the most dangerous planet in our system. If you find yourself on it, you will immediately suffocate from the toxic air and be crushed by the enormous weight of its atmosphere.
Pressure on the surface of Venus 100 times more than on the surface of the earth. Walking on Venus is like walking under a kilometer of water on Earth. The surface temperature is 475 degrees Celsius while the sky is raining highly concentrated sulfuric acid.
Neptune
The eighth planet of the solar system, the mass is 17.2 Earth masses, the average density is 1.7 g/cm 3 , the period of revolution around the Sun is almost 165 years. The period of rotation (direct) around the axis is 15.8 hours ± 1 hour. According to the characteristics of the atmosphere and internal structure, Neptune is very similar to Uranus. Eight satellites and a ring system are known. Of these, Triton is among the largest in the solar system (radius 2000 km); it has reverse circulation around the planet. Neptune's atmosphere is mostly made up of invisible hydrogen and helium. Neptune's blue color is due to a small amount of methane in the atmosphere, which absorbs mostly red light. On Neptune, the fastest winds in the solar system blow, their gusts reach speeds of 2000 km / h. There are suggestions that in a dense, hot environment under the clouds of Uranus and Neptune, diamonds can form.
Pluto
Pluto and Charon form a binary system. It is the smallest of the major planets in the solar system. The average density is close to 2 g/cm 3 . Has a satellite. Charon's orbital period around Pluto is 6.4 days, at a distance of 17,000 km, orbital inclination 55°. The average surface temperature of Pluto is 37 K. Pluto's surface is covered with ice made of methane and nitrogen with an admixture of hydrocarbons. It has a rarefied atmosphere of the same gases.
Let's continue our walk through space to distant planets.
Discovered on September 23, 1846, Neptune was the first planet to be discovered through mathematical calculations rather than through regular observations. The discovery of unforeseen changes in the orbit of Uranus gave rise to the hypothesis of an unknown planet, the gravitational perturbing influence of which they are due to. Neptune was found within the predicted position. Soon, its satellite Triton was also discovered, but the remaining 12 satellites known today were unknown until the 20th century. This image was taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989.
Neptune was the most distant planet from the Sun until 1999, when elliptical Pluto regained that status. Neptune, like Uranus, is composed primarily of water, methane, and ammonia, surrounded by a thick gaseous atmosphere composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, and has many satellites and rings. Neptune's moon Triton is unlike the others and has active volcanoes on its surface. The mystery of Triton's unusual orbit around Neptune remains the subject of debate and conjecture.
But let's get back to the history of the discovery of this planet:
Planet-sized objects and their comparison: Top row: Uranus and Neptune; bottom row: Earth, white dwarf Sirius B, Venus.
The theoretically calculated circle was compared with the actual English priest and amateur astronomer Thomas John Hussey (1792-1854) in 1834. The Holy Father drew attention to the fact that theory did not coincide with practice. Uranus deviated from the intended trajectory. It was not God knows what distance, but the fact indicated that some other large cosmic body existed near the gas giant. It is it that affects the bluish-greenish handsome man and takes him aside.
An amateur astronomer shared his observations with colleagues. In 1843 the British mathematician and astronomer John Couch Adams(1819-1892) calculated the orbit of a supposed planet. Regardless of him, a specialist in celestial mechanics, a French mathematician Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier(1811-1877) also made the corresponding calculations. The orbit calculated by him differed from the Adams orbit by 11°.
Le Verrier turned to the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle(1812-1910), so that the latter would check his mathematical calculations in practice. He admired the night sky from the Berlin Observatory and had all the technical capabilities to establish the truth.
Johann Galle connected a student who was keen on astronomy to this issue Heinrich Louis d'Arre(1822-1875). Together they studied the position of the stars in the area where the proposed planet would have to be. Then their observations were compared with a map of the starry sky. One of the distant faint stars has changed its position. She moved relative to other fixed luminaries.
There was no doubt - this is not a star at all, but a distant planet reflecting sunlight. Three more nights of careful observations finally convinced the astronomers that Le Verrier was not mistaken in his calculations. In the bottomless cosmic abyss, a planet moved in its orbit. It was further than Uranus and, in fact, could well influence its trajectory.
So the eighth planet of the solar system was discovered. The official opening date is September 23, 1846. But who exactly was the discoverer? Based on the foregoing, it is clear that several people had a hand in this significant historical event. By the way, Le Verrier was wrong in his calculations by only 1°, while Adams was wrong by as much as 12°. In addition, the French mathematician showed perseverance and brought the matter to its logical conclusion. The conclusion suggests itself: all the trump cards are in the hands of Le Verrier.
But there is a small nuance here. Urbain Le Verrier is French and John Couch Adams is British. So the recognition of the discoverer was by no means a struggle of the vanities of individuals - in this case, the honor of the country was affected. Proud British could not give way to the palm of some kind of French, whom they called "frogs" behind their backs.
Naturally, heated debate ensued. And although Le Verrier was ahead in all respects, political considerations turned out to be above common sense. France eventually gave in, but did not completely give up its positions, but made a compromise. John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier were recognized as the co-discoverers of the new planet.
In our days things are still there. This sensitive question hangs in the air. So it is probably more reasonable to consider the respected German astronomer Johann Halle as the discoverer of Neptune. It was he who first saw this planet through a telescope, albeit at the suggestion of the Frenchman Le Verrier.
The planet was discovered, it was necessary to think about the name. The very first was proposed by Johann Galle. He christened the distant cosmic body Janus - the god of entry and exit, beginning and end in ancient Roman mythology. In this case, the planet was the end of the solar system and the beginning of a vast, distant space that was not subject to the forces of a yellow star.
A lot of people didn't like the name. But "with a bang" met the proposal of the Russian astronomer, director of the Pulkovo Observatory Vasily Yakovlevich Struve (1793-1864). At one of the meetings of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, he proposed giving the newly discovered planet the name Neptune.
Neptune is the god of the seas in ancient Roman mythology. This deity reigned supreme over the underwater world. And since the water surface is many times greater than the land, then Neptune had much more power than other gods. The ocean, in the understanding of people, is as great and mysterious as the boundless Cosmos. The association suggested itself. The name of a mighty underwater deity was just right for a distant mysterious planet revolving in a dark abyss.
So the eighth planet of the solar system met the new year 1847 no longer nameless. She was given the official name Neptune, putting an end to controversy and disagreement on this important issue.
Not much is known about the internal structure of Neptune, because it can only be judged on the basis of indirect data, since no seismic sounding of this planet has been carried out. The diameter of Neptune - 49,600 km - is almost 4 times greater than that of the earth, and its volume exceeds the earth's 58 times. But in terms of mass, Neptune is only 17 times larger than Earth. From these data, it is determined that the average density of Neptune is about a third of the earth's, that is, about one and a half times more than that of water. Low densities are characteristic of all four giant planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Moreover, the first two are the least dense, they consist mainly of gases, and the denser "twins" Uranus and Neptune are mainly made of ice. According to calculations, in the center of Neptune there should be a stone or iron-stone core with a diameter 1.5-2 times larger than our Earth. The main part of Neptune consists of a layer about 8,000 km thick located around this dense core, consisting mainly of water, ammonia and methane ices, to which, possibly, stony material is also mixed. According to calculations, the temperature in this layer should increase with depth from +2,500 to +5,500°C. However, the ice does not evaporate, because it is in the bowels of Neptune, where the pressure is several million times higher than atmospheric pressure on Earth. Such monstrous "hugs" press the molecules to each other, keeping them from flying apart and evaporating.
Probably, the substance there is in an ionic state, when atoms and molecules are "crushed" into separate charged particles - ions and electrons. Of course, it is difficult to imagine such "ice", therefore sometimes this layer of Neptune is called the "ionic ocean", although it is also very difficult to imagine it as an ordinary liquid. Then follows the third layer - the outer gaseous shell with a thickness of about 5,000 km. This atmosphere, consisting of hydrogen and helium, passes into the ice layer gradually, without a sharply defined boundary, as the density of matter increases under the pressure of the overlying layers. In the deep parts of the atmosphere, gases are converted into crystals, a kind of frost. There are more and more of these crystals in the deeper layers, and they begin to resemble water-soaked snow porridge, and even deeper, they completely transform into ice under enormous pressure. The transition layer from the gaseous to the ice shell is quite wide - about 3,000 km. In the total mass of Neptune, gases account for 5%, ice 75%, and rock material 20%.
Two hours before its closest approach to Neptune in 1989, the robotic spacecraft Voyager 2 took this image. It was the first to detect long, light, cirrus-like clouds floating high in Neptune's atmosphere. You can even see shadows from these clouds on the lower cloud layers. Neptune's atmosphere is mostly made up of invisible hydrogen and helium. Neptune's blue color is due to a small amount of methane in the atmosphere, which absorbs mostly red light. Neptune has the fastest winds in the solar system, with gusts reaching speeds of 2,000 kilometers per hour. There are suggestions that in a dense, hot environment under the clouds of Uranus and Neptune, diamonds can form.
On October 10, 1846, William Lassell observed the newly discovered planet Neptune. He wanted to confirm the observations he had made the previous week and the speculation that there might be a ring around Neptune. However, now he has discovered a satellite near this planet. Lassell soon showed that the ring he had seen earlier was an error due to the distortion of his telescope. The satellite Triton remained. Voyager 2 captured amazing topographical features, witnessed the presence of a thin atmosphere, as well as the existence of ice volcanoes on Triton. Triton moves around Neptune in the opposite direction compared to the rest of the large bodies of the solar system in an orbit strongly inclined to the plane of the ecliptic. Curiously, Voyager 2 confirmed the existence of closed rings around Neptune. However, Lassell would still not be able to detect them, since the rings are very, very thin.
Rings of Neptune
To date, six rings are known that surround a distant, shining luscious blue cosmic body. These formations were named after those who at one time were involved in the discovery of the eighth planet of the solar system and its largest satellite, Triton.
The most distant and brightest ring is called adams ring. It is located at a distance of 63,000 kilometers from the center of the planet, and has a width of 50 kilometers. It is not at all an integral structure encircling a gas giant. This formation consists of five narrow rings, which cannot even be called rings. They are called arches, and they have names: Courage, Freedom, Equality 1, Equality 2, Brotherhood.
Such an original structure of the Adams ring cannot be explained from the point of view of the laws according to which the Cosmos exists. According to the logic of things, the arms should have merged with each other a long time ago and form a single solid surface. However, this does not happen, which gives rise to various assumptions and hypotheses.
The prevailing opinion is that the fault is Neptune's moon Galatea. This small body (only 180 kilometers in diameter) rotates at a distance of 61,950 kilometers from the gas giant. That is, it is only 1,000 kilometers from the inner edge of the Adams Ring. It is it, with its gravitational forces, that acts on this formation, forcing it to accept such an original design.
However, many researchers are inclined to think that the baby is not strong enough to influence the Adams ring in this way. Most likely, in this section of outer space, there is one more or a couple of very small satellites. They have not yet been discovered due to their small size and dark surfaces, but they declare their existence precisely through gravitational forces.
Such a duet or trio, or maybe a quartet, is quite capable, having combined their gravitational efforts, to keep the arms at a decent distance from each other. The latter, judging by the observations, change their configuration over time. So the shackle Freedom gradually decreases in size. It is possible that she will soon disappear altogether, leaving no memories of herself.
The closest ring to the gas giant is located at a distance of 42,000 kilometers from its center. It bears the name Halle ring and is perhaps one of the most faded and dull of all rings. Its width is quite decent: it is 2000 kilometers.
Beyond the outer edge of the Halle ring are the orbits of three moons of the planet Neptune. It's small Naiad. It is separated from the gas giant at a distance of 48,000 kilometers and has a diameter of only 65 kilometers. Then Thalassa satellite. This cosmic body is bigger. Its diameter is 86 kilometers, and the distance to the center of the planet is 50,000 kilometers.
The largest of the trio is satellite of Despina. Its distance to the hot center of the planet Neptune is measured 52,500 kilometers, and its diameter is 151 kilometers. Immediately behind it, some 500 kilometers away, is another ring called Le Verrier ring.
This formation is 100 kilometers wide and much lighter than the Halle ring. A similar ring, also 100 kilometers wide and rather bright, is located at a distance of 57,000 kilometers from the center of the planet Neptune. It bears the name Argo ring.
Between the similar rings of Argo and Le Verrier, a very transparent and wide ring found its place, which was called Lassel ring. Its width is 4000 kilometers. In fact, this formation claims the most impressive dimensions among its fellows. There is no one to overshadow his greatness.
The last in this company is the darkest ring ring. It is located at a distance of 2000 km from the outer edge of the Argo ring and has a width of 500 kilometers. Due to the fading and nondescriptness, he was not even given a name. So it exists without a name among the more successful and bright fellows.
No one will argue: the rings of the planet Neptune do not even come close to similar formations of the planet Saturn. They do not shine in space, do not attract the admiring glances of researchers. Their composition most likely consists of methane ice particles of various shapes, covered with silicates on top. Hence the weak reflection of the sun's rays.
Moons of Neptune
At the moment, 13 satellites of the planet Neptune are known. All of them bear the names of sea deities, faithfully serving the main ruler of the underwater kingdom. The largest of them Triton. He absorbed almost the entire mass of cosmic bodies, cutting countless circles around the gas giant. The remaining 12 brethren are so small that they together make up only half a percent of the weight of its ice rocks.
Most notable in this company, besides Triton, are Nereid, Proteus and Larisa. The closest satellites of the planet are Naiad, Thalassa,Despina and Galatea: a small friendly team, rotating surrounded by the rings of Neptune. The size of all this brethren, let's face it, did not come out.
Most Proteus. Its diameter is 420 kilometers. Others cannot even boast of such dimensions: they are just babies. But, despite the lack of greatness, these nondescript creations of the Cosmos conscientiously keep watch near their older brother, once again emphasizing the similarity of the four gas giants in all respects.
Triton is the leader in all respects among the satellites of Neptune. Its diameter reaches 2707 kilometers. This is a lot. For example, the diameter of the moon is 3474 kilometers. So this cosmic body is not much smaller than the Earth's satellite.
This distant space object was discovered in the same year as Neptune itself, that is, in 1846. The British astronomer made this significant event William Lassell(1799-1880). And it happened exactly 17 days after the discovery of Neptune.
Triton (in ancient Greek mythology) is a sea deity: the son of the lord of the seas Poseidon and the mistress of the seas Amphitrite. Based on the fact that Neptune is the ancient Roman god of the seas, this name is logical and understandable.
The direction of the satellite's motion in its orbit is directed in the opposite direction with respect to the rotation of the gas giant around its own axis. It turns around its older brother in 5 days 21 hours and 3 minutes. But around its own axis, Triton rotates synchronously with the planet, moreover, it is always turned to it by the same side.
It is noteworthy that between the orbit of the satellite and the plane of the equator of Neptune there is an angle of only 23 °. The orbit itself has the shape of an almost perfect circle. Its eccentricity is 0.000016.
There is an assumption that the mighty Neptune, interacting with its gravitational field with Triton, gradually attracts it to itself. The latter in every possible way prevents such a rapprochement. As a result, a large amount of energy is released, which is the reason for the high temperature regimes observed in the gas giant.
In the terribly distant future, Neptune will eventually win. The satellite will pass the point of no return, and the gravitational forces of the huge planet will tear the poor fellow apart. The result of this will be a huge ring, which in its size can outshine the rings of the handsome Saturn shining in the cosmic abyss.
The main surprise of Triton was its modern geological activity, which no one had expected before the Voyager flight. The images show gas geysers - dark columns of nitrogen, running strictly vertically up to a height of 8 km, where they begin to spread parallel to the surface of Triton and stretch into "tails" up to 150 km long. Ten active geysers have been discovered. All of them "smoke" in the southern polar region, over which the Sun was at its zenith during this period. The reason for the activity of gas geysers is considered to be heating by the Sun, leading to the melting of nitrogen ice at a certain depth, where there are also water ice and dark methane compounds. The pressure of the gas mixture that occurs in the deep layer when it is heated by only 4 ° C, although small, is quite sufficient to throw the gas fountain high into the rarefied atmosphere of Triton.
Triton has an atmosphere. It envelops its surface with a liquid gas cushion. Its thickness is 10 kilometers, composition: nitrogen with a small admixture of methane. Atmospheric pressure at the surface is very small: it reaches a value of only 15 microbars.
The main components of the satellite are 99.9% nitrogen and 0.1% methane, the density is 2.061 g / cm³. There is a hard core. It is made up of rocks and frozen water. Its gravitational effect was experienced by Voyager 2 in 1989. The dimensions of this formation presumably reach two kilometers in diameter.
Anything above is methane and nitrogen. At depth, these components are in a liquid state under pressure, closer to the surface they form an ice crust. This is facilitated by low temperature: on the surface, it stays at minus 235 ° Celsius.
If you look at the satellite Triton from a bird's eye view, then its frozen surface will look quite exotic. The southern hemisphere will appear before the admiring gaze of observers in a multi-colored gamut of colors. Here you can see yellow, and white, and pink shades. Such spectra are played by nitrogen ice with methane ices interspersed in it.
The equator is dominated by smooth surface areas. In their shape, they resemble frost-bound lakes. But their shores have rather peculiar outlines. They are ice terraces. The height of each step is huge. It reaches one kilometer.
Such creations cannot create methane and nitrogen. They do not have sufficient tensile strength to keep these structures in an appropriate majestic state, akin to mighty granite rocks. But water ice has such capabilities. He is able to blind and more huge structures. This leads to the conclusion that the smooth areas are composed of methane and nitrogen ice, and the terraces are made of water ice.
Neptune's satellite Triton is not limited to these sights. On its surface, there are entire regions resembling cells of approximately the same size. These are flat areas with a width of 20 to 30 kilometers. From all sides they are fenced with peculiar ice ramparts. Their height reaches 200-300 meters.
They are apparently formed as a result of the eruption of liquid methane and nitrogen from the deep bowels of the satellite. The liquid escaping under enormous pressure spreads over the surface, solidifies and creates such unique and amazing masterpieces.
Mighty geysers also make a strong impression. They are observed in the southern hemisphere, and are huge columns of gas escaping from the bowels of Triton to a height of up to 8 kilometers. Having reached this level, the dense mass is sprayed, freezes and settles on the surface, covering a distance of 150 kilometers.
Judging by the small number of impact craters, the moon's surface is quite young. It barely lives up to the age of 100 million years.
Triton, Io, and Venus are the only bodies in the solar system besides Earth that are known to be volcanically active at the present time. It is also interesting to note that the volcanic processes occurring in the outer solar system are different. Eruptions on Earth and Venus (and on Mars in the past) are composed of rock material and are driven by the internal heat of the planets. Eruptions on Io are composed of sulfur or sulfur compounds and are driven by tidal interactions with Jupiter. Triton's eruptions are made up of volatiles such as nitrogen or methane and are driven by seasonal heating from the Sun.
Gliding gently across the far reaches of the solar system, Voyager 2 photographed Neptune and Triton, both in their crescent phase, in 1989. This photo of the gas giant planet and its cloud-shrouded moon was taken after the spacecraft passed its closest approach to Neptune. As you understand, such an image cannot be obtained by a ground-based observer: it is impossible to look at Neptune "from the side" from the Earth, since we are much closer to the Sun. Voyager's unusual vantage point robbed Neptune of its familiar blue hue, due to the direct scattering of sunlight. But you can see reddening towards the edge, caused by the same reasons as the red color of the setting Sun on Earth. Neptune is slightly smaller and slightly more massive than Uranus. Neptune has several dark rings. In addition, this planet is known to emit more light than it receives from the Sun.
Proteus is the second largest moon of Neptune, next to the mysterious Triton. Proteus was only discovered in 1982 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. This is rather strange, because Neptune has a smaller moon, Nereid, which was discovered 33 years earlier. The reason why Proteus was not discovered earlier is that its surface is very dark and its orbit is closer to Neptune. The second largest satellite of Neptune is only a quarter of a percent of the mass of Triton. Proteus is similar in shape to a box with an odd number of sides. If it were a little more massive, its own gravity would give it a spherical shape.
Neptune's moon Despina is very small - its diameter is only 148 km. Tiny Despina was discovered in 1989 in images taken by cameras on the Voyager 2 spacecraft. Studying images of Voyager 2 20 years later, imaging enthusiast (and philosophy professor) Ted Strick noticed something that scientists hadn't noticed before. The images show Despina's shadow on Neptune's upper blue clouds as she passed across the planet's disk. In today's picture you see an image composed of four archival photographs taken on August 24, 1989 and separated by a gap of nine minutes. To see Despina in the image, her surface was made artificially brighter. Despina in ancient Greek mythology is the daughter of the god of the seas, Poseidon. Recall that Neptune is the god of the seas in ancient Roman mythology.
Nereid Satellite
Neptune's moon Nereid was discovered in 1949 by the American astronomer Gerard Kuiper (1905-1973). Its distinguishing feature is a very elongated orbit. Its eccentricity is 0.7512. From here, the distance to the gas giant lies in the range from 14 million kilometers to 9.6 million kilometers.
The orbital period of the satellite is 360 days. Around its axis, this cosmic body makes a revolution in 11 and a half hours. Its diameter is 340 kilometers and its density is 1.5 g/cm³. The surface temperature is minus 222° Celsius.
Larissa Satellite
Neptune's moon Larissa was discovered in 1981. The discovery was confirmed by the Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989. This body is separated from its older counterpart at a distance of 74 thousand kilometers. The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.0014.
In the 1960s, spring arrived in Neptune's southern hemisphere. Since Neptune completes one revolution around the Sun in 165 Earth years, each season there lasts more than forty years. Astronomers have found that Neptune has become brighter in recent years. Pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope taken in 1996 show that, compared to 2002, Neptune looked much darker. Illumination in the southern hemisphere has increased due to the reflection of light from white cloud bands. The equator of Neptune is inclined to the plane of its orbit by 29 degrees. This tilt is similar to Earth's, which is 23.5 degrees. Therefore, on Neptune, there may well be seasonal weather changes similar to those on Earth, despite the fact that the intensity of sunlight on the surface of a distant gas giant is 900 times less than on Earth. Summer came to Neptune's southern hemisphere in 2005.
There are spots on Neptune.
The surface of this most distant gas giant in the solar system has an almost uniform blue color, created by a small amount of methane floating in a dense atmosphere of almost colorless hydrogen and helium. However, dark spots also appear, which are anticyclones: large high-pressure systems orbiting on top of Neptune's cold clouds. Two dark spots are visible in the image taken by the robotic Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989: at the top left, the Earth-sized Great Dark Spot and Dark Spot 2 near the lower edge. A bright cloud, named "Scooter", accompanies the Great Dark Spot. Recent computer simulations have shown that "scooters" are clouds of methane, which can often be found near dark spots. Subsequent images of Neptune obtained by the Space Telescope. Hubble in 1994 showed that both of these dark spots collapsed and new spots appeared.
The upper layers of the atmosphere of the planet Neptune are in perpetual motion. Moreover, the speed of movement of methane clouds in the region of the equator reaches 1100 km / h. In higher and lower latitudes, the speed is less, and at the poles it drops by half. The direction of movement of all this mass is opposite to the direction of rotation of the planet around its own axis.
Powerful cyclones are observed on the surface. In 1989, when NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft flew just 48,000 kilometers from the planet's surface, it recorded big dark spot. Its dimensions were 13000 × 6600 kilometers. It was located in the southern hemisphere and throughout it was a gigantic vortex flow moving at a speed of 1000 km / h parallel to the equator.
Much further south was recorded small dark spot. Similar formations occur in the lower, darker layers of the atmosphere. From space, against the background of bright blue methane clouds, they appear as huge dark spots on the surface of the planet. Such atmospheric phenomena live for several months, then disappear and appear in a new place on the planet. The nature of their formation has not yet been studied.
Back in 2004, there were no real plans for a flight to Neptune. It was believed that it was possible to fly there in a reasonable time with efficient instruments only with a favorable location of the giant planets, receiving from each of them a gravitational impulse that accelerates the station in the right direction. Such an arrangement of the planets will come in the middle of the XXII century. The situation changed in 2004, when the development of scenarios for a flight to Neptune began in earnest. From the main station, which will become an artificial satellite of Neptune, it is planned to send three small probes deep into the atmosphere of the planet in order to find out the structure of the gaseous envelope near the pole, in temperate latitudes and in the equator region. It is proposed to land two more landers on the surface of the largest satellite, Triton. They will have to give information about the so-called polar cap and the equatorial region. It is planned to install seismometers to record the tremors that should occur when gas is ejected by nitrogen geysers. According to one of the projects, it is planned to use a conventional rocket engine and the gravitational assistance of giant planets for the flight, spending 12 years on the road. The problem may be braking when approaching Neptune.
It will take a lot of fuel, but because of this, you will have to take less scientific instruments. Therefore, it is supposed to reduce the flight speed, using not fuel for braking, but the atmosphere of Neptune. This method of aerocapture will allow, without spending a single drop of fuel, to transfer from a flyby trajectory to an orbit around the planet in one maneuver within half an hour. So far, it has not been used in space flights. According to the second project, it is supposed to supply the station with an ion engine and a radioisotope thermogenerator, fueled by radioactive plutonium. But such a flight will be much slower, it will take about 20 years. When launched in 2016, the station will reach Neptune only in 2035.
And a little more about far, far space: remember what it is, find out all the details about and see where it is The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy is made -
Neptune
Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun, the largest planet in the solar system, belongs to the giant planets. Its orbit intersects with the orbit of Pluto in some places. Discovered on September 23, 1846, Neptune was the first planet to be found according to mathematical calculations, and not according to the method of regular observations.
Neptune moves around the Sun in an elliptical, close to circular (eccentricity 0.009) orbit; its average distance from the Sun is 30.058 times greater than that of the Earth, which is approximately 4500 million km. This means that the light from the Sun reaches Neptune in a little over 4 hours. The duration of the year, that is, the time of one complete revolution around the Sun, is 164.8 Earth years. The equatorial radius of the planet is 24750 km., Which is almost four times the radius of the Earth, moreover, its own rotation is so fast that a day on Neptune lasts only 17.8 hours. Although the average density of Neptune, equal to 1.67 g / cm3, is almost three times less than that of the earth, its mass, due to the large size of the planet, is 17.2 times greater than that of the Earth. Neptune appears in the sky as a star of magnitude 7.8 (inaccessible to the naked eye); at high magnification, it looks like a greenish disk, devoid of any details. Effective surface temperature approx. 38 K, but as it approaches the center of the planet, it increases to (12-14) · 103 K at a pressure of 7-8 megabars.
Like a typical gas planet, Neptune is famous for large storms and whirlwinds, fast winds blowing in limited bands parallel to the equator. On Neptune, the fastest winds in the solar system, they accelerate to 2200 km / h. The winds blow on Neptune in a westerly direction, against the rotation of the planet. Note that for giant planets, the speed of flows and currents in their atmospheres increases with distance from the Sun. This pattern has not yet been explained. In the pictures you can see the clouds in the atmosphere of Neptune. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune has an internal source of heat - it radiates more than two and a half times more energy than it receives from the Sun.
Neptune has a magnetic field that is about twice as strong at the poles as it is on Earth.
Neptune also has rings. They were discovered during an eclipse of one of the stars by Neptune in 1981. Observations from Earth showed only faint arcs instead of full rings, but photographs from Voyager 2 in August 1989 showed them up to full size. One of the rings has a curious twisted structure. Like Uranus and Jupiter, Neptune's rings are very dark and their structure is unknown. Neptune currently has 13 known natural satellites.
Space exploration is a great adventure. Its mysteries have always fascinated us, and new discoveries will expand our knowledge of the universe. However, let this list serve as a warning to avid intergalactic travelers. The universe can also be a very scary place. Let's hope no one ever gets stuck in one of these ten worlds.
10 Carbon Planet
The ratio of oxygen and carbon on our planet is high. In fact, carbon makes up only 0.1% of the total mass of our planet (because of this, there is such a shortage of carbon materials such as diamonds and fossil fuels). However, near the center of our galaxy, where there is much more carbon than oxygen, the planets may have a completely different composition. This is where you can find what scientists call carbon planets. The sky of the carbon world in the morning would be anything but crystal clear and blue. Imagine a yellow mist with black clouds of soot. As you descend deeper into the atmosphere, you will notice seas of crude oil and tar. The surface of the planet seethes with stinking methane fumes and is covered with black mud. The weather forecast is also not encouraging: it is raining gasoline and bitumen (...throw away cigarettes). However, there is a positive aspect to this oil hell. You probably already guessed which one. Where there is a lot of carbon, you can find a lot of diamonds.
9. Neptune
On Neptune, you can feel the winds reaching such terrifying speeds that they can be compared to a jet engine jet. Neptune's winds carry frozen clouds of natural gas past the northern edge of the Great Dark Spot, an Earth-sized hurricane with winds of 2,400 kilometers per hour. That's twice the speed needed to break the sound barrier. Such strong winds are naturally far beyond what a person can withstand. A person who somehow ended up on Neptune would most likely be quickly torn to pieces and forever lost in these cruel and incessant winds. It remains a mystery where the energy that fuels the fastest planetary winds in the solar system comes from, given that Neptune is located so far from the Sun, sometimes even further than Pluto, and that Neptune's internal temperature is quite low.
8. 51 Pegasi b (51 Pegasi b)
This giant gas planet, nicknamed Bellerophon (Bellerophon) - in honor of the Greek hero who owned the winged horse Pegasus, is 150 times larger than the Earth and is mostly composed of hydrogen and helium. Bellerophon is roasted by his star to a temperature of 1000 degrees Celsius. The star around which the planet revolves is 100 times closer to it than the Sun is to the Earth. For starters, this temperature causes the appearance of the strongest winds in the atmosphere. The hot air rises and the cold air goes down in its place, which generates winds reaching speeds of 1000 kilometers per hour. Such heat also causes the absence of water evaporation. However, this does not mean that it does not rain here. We have come to the most important feature of Bellerophon. The highest temperatures allow the iron contained in the planet to evaporate. When iron vapors rise, they form clouds of iron, similar in nature to terrestrial clouds of water vapor. Just do not forget one important difference: when it rains from these clouds, it will be red-hot liquid iron pouring directly onto the planet (...don't forget your umbrella).
7. COROT-3b
COROT-3b is the densest and heaviest exoplanet known to date. In size, it is approximately equal to Jupiter, but its mass is 20 times greater. Thus, COROT-3b is about 2 times denser than lead. The scale of the pressure exerted on a person stranded on the surface of such a planet would be unimaginable. On a planet with a mass of 20 Jupiters, a person would weigh 50 times what they weigh on Earth. This means that an 80 kilogram man will weigh as much as 4 tons on the COROT-3b! Such pressure will break a person's skeleton almost instantly - it's the same as if an elephant sits on his chest.
6. Mars
On Mars, a dust storm can form in just a few hours, which will cover the surface of the entire planet in a few days. These are the largest and most violent dust storms in our entire solar system. Martian dust funnels easily exceed their Earth counterparts - they reach the height of Mount Everest, and the winds rush in them at speeds of 300 kilometers per hour. After its formation, a dust storm can last for several months until it completely disappears. According to one theory, dust storms can reach such large sizes on Mars due to the fact that dust particles absorb solar heat well and warm up the atmosphere around them. The heated air moves towards colder regions, thereby forming winds. A strong wind kicks up even more dust from the surface, which in turn heats up the atmosphere, causing more wind to form and the circle to continue anew. Surprisingly, most dust storms on the planet begin their lives in a single impact crater. The Hellas Plain is the deepest crater in the solar system. The temperature at the bottom of the crater can be ten degrees warmer than at the surface, and the crater is filled with a thick layer of dust. Differences in temperature cause the formation of wind, which picks up dust, and the storm begins its further journey around the planet.
5. WASP-12b
In short, this planet is the hottest planet of all discovered at the moment. Its temperature, which provides such a title, is 2200 degrees Celsius, and the planet itself is in the closest orbit to its star, compared to all other worlds known to us. Needless to say, everything known to man, including man himself, would instantly ignite in such an atmosphere. In comparison, the surface of the planet is only twice as cold as the surface of our Sun and twice as hot as lava. The planet also revolves around its star at an incredible speed. It completes its entire orbit, located only 3.4 million kilometers from the star, in one Earth day.
4. Jupiter
Jupiter's atmosphere is home to storms twice as large as Earth itself. These giants, in turn, are home to winds that develop speeds of 650 kilometers per hour, and colossal lightning, which is 100 times brighter than terrestrial lightning. Beneath this intimidating and dark atmosphere is an ocean 40 kilometers deep, made up of liquid metallic hydrogen. Here on Earth, hydrogen is a colorless, transparent gas, but in the core of Jupiter, hydrogen turns into something that has never been on our planet. On the outer layers of Jupiter, hydrogen is in a state of gas, as well as on Earth. But with immersion in the depths of Jupiter, the pressure of the atmosphere increases dramatically. Over time, the pressure reaches such a force that it "squeezes out" the electrons from the hydrogen atoms. Under such unusual conditions, hydrogen turns into a liquid metal that conducts electricity and heat. It also begins to reflect light like a mirror. Therefore, if a person were immersed in such hydrogen, and a giant lightning flashed over him, he would not even see it.
3. Pluto
(Note that Pluto is no longer considered a planet) Don't let the image fool you - this is not a winter wonderland. Pluto is a very cold world where frozen nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane cover the planet's surface like snow for most of Pluto's year (approximately 248 Earth years). These ices transform from white to pinkish brown due to interactions with gamma rays from deep space and the distant Sun. On a clear day, the Sun provides Pluto with about the same amount of heat and light as the Moon gives the Earth on a full moon. At Pluto's surface temperature (-228 to -238 degrees Celsius), the human body would freeze instantly.
2. COROT-7b
Temperatures on the side of the planet facing its star are so high that they can melt rock. Scientists who modeled the atmosphere of COROT-7b believe that the planet most likely does not have a volatile gas (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen), and the planet consists of something that can be called a molten mineral. In the atmosphere of COROT-7b, such weather events are possible during which (unlike terrestrial rains, when water droplets collect in the air) whole stones fall onto the surface of a planet covered with a lava ocean. If the planet still doesn't seem uninhabitable to you, it is also a volcanic nightmare. According to some indications, scientists believe that if the orbit of COROT-7b is not perfectly round, then the gravitational forces of one or two of its sister planets can push and pull on the surface of COROT, creating a movement that warms up its interior. This warming can cause strong volcanic activity on the planet's surface - even stronger than on Jupiter's moon Io, which has more than 400 active volcanoes.
1. Venus
Very little was known about Venus (its thick atmosphere does not let light through in the visible spectrum) until the Soviet Union launched the Venus program during the space race. When the first automated interplanetary spacecraft successfully landed on Venus and began transmitting information to Earth, the Soviet Union achieved the only successful landing on the surface of Venus in human history. The surface of Venus is so changeable that the longest time that one of the AMS has endured was 127 minutes - after which, the device was simultaneously crushed and melted. So what would life be like on the most dangerous planet in our solar system, Venus? Well, a person would almost instantly suffocate on the toxic air, and even though the gravity on Venus is only 90% of Earth's, a person would still be crushed by the sheer weight of the atmosphere. The pressure of the Venusian atmosphere is 100 times the pressure we are used to. Venus' atmosphere is 65 kilometers high and so dense that walking on the planet's surface would feel no different than walking 1 kilometer deep underwater on Earth. In addition to these "pleasures", a person would still quickly catch fire due to a temperature of 475 degrees Celsius, and over time, even his remains would be dissolved by high concentration sulfuric acid that falls as precipitation on the surface of Venus.
