The meaning of the word life in literature. What is life. Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

life

life, life, cf.

1. The story of the life of a man recognized by believers as a saint ( lit. church). Lives of the Saints.

| Same as ( books. obsolete).

2. Same as ( books. obsolete, now joke.). Prosperous and peaceful life. Carefree life.

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

life

a genre of ancient Russian literature that tells about the life of people ranked by the church as a host of saints.

Rb: genera and genres of literature

Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature

Example: "The Life of Theodosius", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky"

* "The 11th century dates back ... the first Russian lives (of princes Boris and Gleb, hegumen of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius). These lives are distinguished by literary perfection, attention to the pressing problems of our time, and the vitality of many episodes" ( encyclopedic Dictionary young literary critic). *

Dictionary of forgotten and difficult words of the 18th-19th centuries

life

, I, cf.

1. Lives of saints or some persons canonized by the church.

* Agafya tells her[Lise] not fairy tales: in a measured and even voice she tells the life of the Blessed Virgin, the life of hermits. // Turgenev. Noble Nest // *

2. A life.

* [Pimen:] And his son Theodore? On the throne, he sighed about the peaceful life of the Silent. // Pushkin. Boris Godunov // *

Bible Dictionary to the Russian Canonical Bible

life

life (Gen.6:9; Gen.37:2; Jer.32:37; 1 Pet.3:1,2,16; 1Tim.4:12; 2Tim.3:10) - life, way of life.

Aesthetics. encyclopedic Dictionary

life

a religious and moral genre of medieval Christian literature, one of the earliest forms of applying the biographical method to compiling the biographies of saints - martyrs for the faith, passion-bearers, miracle workers, especially pious, virtuous, statesmen and learned men, outstanding church leaders who left an indelible mark on Christian culture. Athanasius the Great, Gregory 1 the Great, Gregory of Tours, Bede the Venerable, Peter Damian and others left their mark on the genre of hagiography. The prehistory of the hagiography genre is rooted in the ancient biographism of Plutarch and Tacitus. Its immediate basis is the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, which tell about the earthly life of Christ and the ascetic activity of the Holy Apostles. Starting from the 5th c. hagiographic collections began to be widely distributed - patericons. The hagiographical genre was an integral part of Christian, Western and Eastern (Byzantine) literature. Its religious mission was to promote the widespread veneration of Christian saints.

The problem of achieving the state of holiness and how it was covered in the lives was considered in the works of the Russian culturologist P. M. Bitsilli. “Those who are familiar with the hagiographic literature of the Middle Ages,” the researcher wrote, “know what an insignificant role in the lives of the saints - at least until the period of arousal of historical understanding under the influence of mysticism - is played for hagiographers by the problem of achieving sainthood. The saint either immediately enters the historical field as a "completely ready" saint, or his sudden "conversion" is mentioned dully. Partly this truth follows from the conditions of knowledge about the saint: he is recognized only from the moment when he begins to act as a saint; however, we are well aware that the lack of material has rarely been considered an obstacle by hagiographers: at worst - and this is a constant phenomenon - the missing information is filled in with ready-made templates. If the "prehistory" of the saint was usually omitted, it was because they simply did not think about it ”(Bicilli P. M. Elements of medieval culture. - St. Petersburg, 1995.-S. 159).

The results of the cognitive efforts of writers - hagiographers(from Greek. hagios- holy and grapho- describe) allow us to identify the typical features of the Christian consciousness in its most striking manifestations. At the same time, the author's "I" completely dissolved in the narrative, did not reveal itself in any characteristic manifestations. This fact was one of the most important distinctive feature of this genre: the author considered his work a service to God, perceived his “I” as an insignificantly small amount, unworthy of attention and mention. Compared with the figure of the depicted saint, she seemed to him completely insignificant.

Another feature was the uniqueness of the moral and psychological drawings depicting the spiritual metamorphoses of Christian saints. This stemmed not from the weakness of the intellectual resources of the authors of biographies and not from their indifference to the unique that is present in each individual fate, but from the desire to identify and designate the most important and most characteristic in those metamorphoses that occur in a person under the influence of the Holy Spirit.

A person in life appears, as a rule, in three main states - ordinary, everyday, ordinary, then transitional, crisis, turning point, and, finally, in a state that meets the criteria of holiness. The high drama, complexity and difficulty of the ongoing transformation are emphasized. Ultimately, before the feat of faith in the glory of God, all the worldly attachments of the passion-bearer, his love for parents, home, wealth, if any, etc., recede. Through asceticism and prayer, the imperfection of human nature is overcome.

Through hagiographic writings, an ethical paradigm is formed, an ideal type representing the highest normative sample Christian attitude. In this type, the tone is set by the New Testament paradigm of the transformation of the Pharisee Saul into the Apostle Paul, which, however, is significantly modified. In the New Testament, there is virtually no information about the psychodynamics of the transformation of Saul into Paul, but there is a history of two polar types - a fanatical persecutor of Christians and a fearless apostle. The hagiographic genre, focused on the plots of transfiguration, carefully writes out the trajectories of the ascension of future saints from their "natural", pre-Christian state to enlightenment. But these are, for the most part, external signs and evidence of transformation, and not an internal struggle of motives. The reader is left with the impression of inner rebirth as an instantaneous act that takes place, as it were, outside of physical time.

Another characteristic difference of the ongoing spiritual transformation is found in the fact that if the transformation of Paul took place as if against his will, then the transformations with hagiographic heroes are most often a metamorphosis that occurs in accordance with their free decision, driven by their free will.

Early Christian hagiography is distinguished by a number of significant features:

Replication of several typical models of dianoia (restructuring of the soul) - metanoia (restructuring of the mind):

1) the transformation of a pagan into a Christian, permeated with the pathos of the struggle against pagan temptations;

2) the transformation of an ordinary Christian into a righteous man;

3) the tireless struggle of the righteous with many temptations and temptations of the flesh, which continue to confuse him even in solitude and distance from worldly fuss;

Normative idealization, which assumes the "laying" of all empirical material under the canon of hagiography;

The interest is not so much in the external and internal life of the saint's personality, but in the extent and in what forms its involvement in the Christian idea, in the world of religious duty, in the ideal of holiness is revealed;

The predominance of a tone of harsh normativity, pious didactics, moralizing edification, with the goal of "delighting the soul striving for virtue";

The cross-cutting nature of the antitheses between the existent and the proper, the earthly and the heavenly, the carnal and the spiritual, the vanity of worldly goods and the greatness of heavenly bliss;

The presence of folklore motifs that connect the biography with the deep cultural traditions of the pre-Christian past and the stereotypes of the people's worldview;

The extremely serious tone of the narration, excluding any signs of a laughable beginning;

The phenomenology of intentional anti-aestheticism of descriptions, emphasizing the frailty of everything earthly, carnal, devaluing the latter, pointing to its incomparability with the beauties of Christian spirituality and supreme piety; The result of the anti-aestheticism strategy turned out to be paradoxical, but, at the same time, quite consistent with the biblical tradition of “extracting the precious from the insignificant” (Jer. 15, 19): the Christian virtue of humble self-denial grew from the dust of the earth, reaching the degree of dazzling holiness. Through hagiographic writings, a philosophical and ethical paradigm was formed, an ideal type was formed, representing the highest normative model of the Christian attitude to the world.

Ancient Russia, which adopted Orthodoxy from Byzantium, treated hagiographic works with great attention: numerous translations of Byzantine biographies of saints began to appear. Subsequently, the first Russian church chroniclers began to write in this genre, creating lives about the murdered princes Boris and Gleb, about the Christian thinker Theodosius of the Caves, Alexander Nevsky, Sergius of Radonezh, and others. The suffering and moral deeds of the saints were regarded as evidence of their chosenness, as signs marked by God's protection.

In the XV century. in Moscow, under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius, a set of hagiographic narratives "Great Menaion-Chetii" was created. It collected the lives of a number of Latin (Catholic), Greek (Byzantine) and Russian saints. At the turn of the XVII-XVII centuries. Metropolitan Dmitry of Rostov prepared a multi-volume set of biographies of the saints.

Old Russian hagiographic works dispersed among handwritten collections of the 15th-18th centuries. and grouped in special editions - this is not only a genre of soul-saving reading and one of the components of the historical and literary process, but also an important source of non-religious and non-literary information. The study of hagiographic creations led researchers to the conclusion that the historical evolution of hagiographic literature was carried out in accordance with the same logic with which the transition of painting from the icon to the portrait took place: the normative role of the canon gradually weakened, and the factual side of the content became more and more representative. As a result, the appearance of works of such a kind as "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" became possible. This is already a marginal work, in which the genres of life, confession, sermon, adventure novel are mixed. A thread of continuity stretches from him already to a purely works of art, the authors of which used elements of hagiography as a literary device that made it possible to give the narrative a special, sublimely archaic orientation. The literary works of this kind should include the novel by F. M. Dostoevsky “ Brothers Karamazov" (1880) as part of the intended "superchroman" " Life of the great sinner Father Sergius"(1898) L. N. Tolstoy," Cathedral"(1872) N. S. Leskov," Life of Basil of Thebes"(1904) L. N. Andreeva," Saint Eustathius" (1915) and " Matthew the Perspicacious"(1916) I. A. Bunin," chopping block” (1986) Ch. Aitmatova and others. In Western literature, elements of hagiography were used in their work by T. S. Eliot, K. G. Chesterton, R. Brandstetter and other writers.

In the 19th century secular scholars drew attention to the ability of these literary monuments to serve as a source of scientific and theoretical, socio-humanitarian, historical knowledge about the founding of monasteries, the construction of churches, important church-state, political events, tragic collisions of princely strife and the fight against enemy invasions. Russian philologist, researcher of ancient icon painting F. I. Buslaev considered hagiography an extremely important source, giving valuable information on the history of ancient customs and manners.

The master's thesis of the Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky " Ancient Russian Lives of the Saints as a Historical Source» (1871). Klyuchevsky's university teacher, historian S. M. Solovyov, suggested that his student consider the ascetic activity of Russian saints, hermit monks, as one of the manifestations of the internal colonization of Russia. The sketes and monasteries that arose in the northern forests formed one of the lines of colonization by Russia of its own, undeveloped geographical spaces. Klyuchevsky formulated a number of theses regarding the use of hagiography for research purposes: “1. In the literary part of the life, biographical facts serve in it only as ready-made forms for expressing the ideal image of the ascetic. 2. From the described life, life takes only such features that go towards the designated task. 3. Selected features are generalized in the life so that the individual personality disappears in them behind the features. ideal type. 4. The hagiobiographer and the historian look at the described person from different points of view: the first one looks for reflections of an abstract ideal in it, the second - individual distinguishing features. 5. The abundance and quality of biographical facts in the life are inversely related to the development of the honoring of the saint, to the solemnity of the occasion that caused the life, and to the chronological distance between the death of the saint and the writing of the life. Klyuchevsky managed to see in hagiography not only material for the historian, but also broader cognitive possibilities of a sociological and anthropological nature. He wrote: “Reading the lives, we are present at two main processes of our ancient history: we meet face to face with old Russian man, who, always moving with a cross, an ax and a plow, in a jacket and a monastic cassock, did one no small thing - he cleared a place for history from the banks of the Dnieper to the banks of Northern Ocean and at the same time, despite such extensibility, he knew how to gather strength to create a state that would hold back both invasions from the East and propaganda from the West.

Life, hagiography is one of the main epic genres of church literature, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The object of the image is life - a feat of faith performed by a historical person or group of persons (martyrs of the faith, church or statesmen). Most often, the whole life of the saint becomes the feat of faith, sometimes only that part of it, which constitutes the feat of faith, is described in the life, or only one act turns out to be the object of the image. Hence the two main genre subtypes of life: martyry (martyrdom) - describing the martyrdom and death of a saint, bios life - telling about everything life path from birth to death. A special subspecies of life is a patericon short story (see). The origins of the hagiographic genre lie in ancient times: in myth, ancient biography (Plutarch), funeral speech, fairy tale, Hellenistic novel. However, the hagiographic genre itself is formed under the influence of the Gospel (the story of the earthly life of Christ) and the Acts of the Apostles. The life in South Slavic translations came to Russia from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity in the 10th century. Soon their own translations of Byzantine lives appeared, and then the genre was mastered by ancient Russian spiritual writers (the first Russian lives - the Tale and Reading about Boris and Gleb, the life of Theodosius of the Caves, 11th century; the life from the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon of the first third of the 13th century).

Destination life

The main purpose of life is edifying, didactic: the life and deeds of the saint are regarded as an example to follow, his suffering as a sign of Divine chosenness. Based on the Holy Scriptures, life usually raises and answers from Christian positions the central questions of human existence: what predetermines the fate of a person? How free is he in his choice? What is the hidden meaning of suffering? How should suffering be treated? Solving the problem of freedom and necessity from a Christian standpoint, life often depicts a situation where a saint can avoid torment, but does not consciously do this, on the contrary, he puts himself in the hands of tormentors. The first Russian holy princes-martyrs Boris and Gleb voluntarily and consciously accept death, although (this is demonstrated by both the anonymous author of the Tale of Boris and Gleb and Nestor, the author of the Reading about Boris and Gleb) death could have been avoided. A whole group of lives stands out with clearly entertaining plots: love and hate, separations and meetings, miracles and adventures, the manifestation of extraordinary human qualities (J. Eustathius Plakida, J. Alexy, a man of God, J. Galaktion and Epistimius, etc.). Capturing the feat of a particular person, life can also tell at the same time about the foundation of the monastery or the history of the construction of the temple or the appearance of relics (relics). The foundation of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery is narrated in the life of St. Sergius of Radonezh, the events of historical life, the princely strife are also told in hagiographic monuments dedicated to Boris and Gleb; about the time of the invasion of the Livonian Order and complex political relations with the Horde - the life of Alexander Nevsky; about the tragic events caused by the Tatars Mongol conquest, it is said in the life dedicated to the princes killed in the Horde (Zh. Mikhail of Chernigov, 13th century and Zh. Mikhail-Tverskoy, early 14th century).

The canon, that is, the examples of the genre fixed by church and literary tradition, determines the artistic structure of the life: the principle of generalization when creating the image of a saint; type of narrator, construction rules (composition, set of topoi), own verbal templates. Often life includes such independent genres as vision, miracle, praise, lamentation. The author of the life is focused on showing the pious life of a saint whom he knew either personally or from oral or written testimonies. Based on the requirements of the genre, the author had to admit all his "unreason", emphasizing in the introduction that he is too insignificant to describe the life of a man marked by God. On the one hand, the narrator's view of his "hero" is the view of an ordinary person on an extraordinary personality, on the other hand, objectively, and the narrator is not an ordinary person. A bookish person, not only well-versed in the works of his predecessors, possessing a literary gift, but also able to interpret Divine Providence by analogies, mainly from Holy Scripture, could undertake the compilation of a life.

Life could be read in the temple(special brief lives as part of collections - Prologues (Greek Synaxarei) - were read during the service on the 6th song of the canon), at the monastery meal and at home. Lengthy lives, as well as short ones in the Prologues, were distributed by months in Byzantium in collections that came with the adoption of Christianity to Russia - Menaion-Cheti. In the 16th century, Metropolitan Macarius united all the lives written by that time, recognized by the church, into a common code, called the Great Menaion-Chetii. In the 17th-18th century, following Metropolitan Macarius, largely following his work, Ivan Milyutin, German Tulupov, Dimitry Rostovsky compiled their own versions of the codes of life - the Menaion of the Fourth. Dm.Rostovsky not only relies on the experience of his great predecessor, Metropolitan Macarius, but also edits Chet'i-Mi nei anew, referring to different ones, incl. to Latin sources. Over time, the genre developed and could acquire local features, for example, in regional literatures.

In the 17th century, the medieval genre of life began to undergo significant changes: it became possible to write an autobiographical life (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) or a combination of a life and a biographical story (“The Life of Julian Lazarevskaya”). In church practice, life as a biography of an ascetic - a locally revered saint or canonized by the church - is preserved until modern times ("Tales of the life and exploits of blessed memory of Father Seraphim" - Seraphim of Sarov (1760-1833), canonized by the Russian Church in 1903). Genre features of life can be used in contemporary literature: F.M. Dostoevsky "The Brothers Karamazov" (1879-80), L.N. Tolstoy "Father Sergius" (1890-98), N.S. Leskov "Soboryane" (1872), L.N. Andreev "Life Basil of Thebes” (1904), I.A. Bunin “Matthew the Perspicacious” (1916), “Saint Eustathius” (1915), Ch. Aitmatov “The Block” (1986).

LIFE, hagiography came from Greek hagios - saint and grapho, which means - I write.

- (Greek βιος, lat. vita) a genre of church literature that describes the life and deeds of the saints. The life was created after the death of the saint, but not always after formal canonization. Life is characterized by strict content and structural ... ... Wikipedia

Cm … Synonym dictionary

life- life'm life', life'm ... Dictionary of the use of the letter Yo

Life, I, life, in life [not life, eat]; pl. life, uh... Russian word stress

LIFE, I, pl. i, uy, cf. 1. The same as life (in 2 and 3 meanings) (old). Mirnoye 2. In the old days: the narrative genre is a description of life (persons canonized by the church). Lives of the Saints. | adj. life, oh, oh (to 2 meanings). Vital literature. ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life (Source: "Full accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak") ... Forms of words

life- LIFE, i, cf. A text containing a description of the life of a saint, i.e. canonized by the Christian Church church or statesman, martyr or ascetic, including biographical data, prayers, teachings, etc. Life mentions ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

I cf. 1. The story of the life of a person who is ranked by the church as a saint. 2. Presentation of the most significant facts of life in chronological order; biography. II cf. 1. The time period from birth to death of a person or animal; ... ... Modern dictionary Russian language Efremova

I; cf. 1. Biography of what l. saint, ascetic, etc.; their lives and deeds. Lives of the Saints. J. Theodosius of the Caves. 2. Expand. = Life (2, 4 5 digits); life. Carefree Well. ◁ Life, oh, oh (1 character). Zhaya literature. Live tales… encyclopedic Dictionary

life- a religious and moralistic genre of medieval Christian literature, one of the early forms of applying the biographical method to compiling the biographies of the holy martyrs for the faith, passion-bearers, miracle workers, especially pious, virtuous ... Aesthetics. encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

The Life of the Great Saint of God, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, . The life of the great saint of God, saint and wonderworker Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra, taken from the Chetia-Minea on December 6 and May 9, and from the book: Service, life and miracles in the saints of our father ...
The Life of the Martyrs Grand Duchess Elizabeth and the Nun Varvara, Evil N.. The Life of the Martyrs, compiled by the famous church writer, hagiographer, candidate of historical sciences, Archimandrite Damaskin, known to Orthodox readers as a researcher ...

LIFE, lives, cf. 1. The story of the life of a person recognized by believers as a saint (lit. church). Lives of the Saints. || The same as a biography (bookish obsolete). 2. The same as life (bookish obsolete, now joking). Prosperous and peaceful life. ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Cm … Synonym dictionary

life- life'm life', life'm ... Dictionary of the use of the letter Yo

Life, I, life, in life [not life, eat]; pl. life, uh... Russian word stress

Life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life, life (Source: "Full accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak") ... Forms of words

Books

The Life of the Great Saint of God, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, . The life of the great saint of God, saint and wonderworker Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra, taken from the Chetia-Minea on December 6 and May 9, and from the book: Service, life and miracles in the saints of our father ...
The Life of the Martyrs Grand Duchess Elizabeth and the Nun Varvara, Evil N.. The Life of the Martyrs, compiled by the famous church writer, hagiographer, candidate of historical sciences, Archimandrite Damaskin, known to Orthodox readers as a researcher ...

biographies of canonized (recognized by the church as saints) persons; represent one of the sources. J. s. originated as a religion. literary propaganda genre (hagiography) in the 2nd-3rd centuries. during the struggle of Christianity against the officers. tongue religion. Initial type J. s. - "martyria" (from lat. martirium - martyrdom), i.e., descriptions of the martyrdoms of historical or mythical persons who suffered for their loyalty to Christianity. After the transformation of Christianity into dominions. Zh.'s religion took on the character of the biographies of the church. figures (and "ascetics" in general), allegedly distinguished by asceticism and performing miracles; sometimes J. s. concerned the life of secular rulers (Constantine the Great and others), very rarely - nat. heroes (for example, Joan of Arc, etc.). The nucleus of J. s. sometimes written on the basis of stories and reminiscences, usually overgrown with fantastic, but edifying. details (for example, the Life of George the Victorious). Originally a simple syllable J. s. with the inclusion of quotations from the Holy Scriptures, prayers, teachings, is replaced by stereotyped verbosity. Most Zh. anonymous, but the authors are also known - hagiographers who specialized in compiling them (Ignatius Deacon, Simeon Metafrast, Nikita Paphlagon, Theodore Daphnopat - in Byzantium; in Russia - Nestor, Pachomius Logofet). There are numerous collections of Zh. with: minology, patericons, synaxariums, Cheti-Minei. J. s. rich in household material; sometimes they reflect the moods and aspirations of the Nars. masses, political struggle, but most of the texts require a very critical. relations (legendary, miracles, late recording, text alterations, tendentiousness, etc.). J. s. published as dominions. church, and heretics (Nestorians, Monophysites, schismatics). There are hagiographies in Greek, Latin, other Russian, Syrian, Arabic, Georgian, Armenian, and Coptic. In the West (in Belgium), starting from the 17th century. up to present. time, J. s. published by the Bollandists and their successors. The first experiments in Russian hagiographies belong to the middle. 11th c. Byzantine served as a model for them. J. s., especially them short form, so-called Prologue. But already early Russian. J. s. differ from the Byzantine ones in greater simplicity and historicity. In the manner of J. s. chronicle biographies of Olga, Vladimir, Boris and Gleb were written. They contain information about the feats of arms of the princes, give a sharp, politically biased picture of the events of their time, and often add nar. legends and song-epic. element. In the life of Theodosius of the Caves (12th century) there is information supplementing the annals about the political. wrestling in Kyiv in con. 11th century, information about the source. geography, x-ve and life of the Caves monastery. To the genre of Zh. can also be attributed to legends of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. Some of them contain valuable additions to the annalistic news about the famine and salt speculation in Kyiv during the reign of Svyatopolk and the uprising of 1113. On the basis of the Kyiv tradition in the 12-13 centuries. the hagiography of the North-East develops. Russia. The life of Leonty of Rostov (2nd half of the 12th century) received the greatest distribution. Political the trend of this life reflects the desire of Andrei Bogolyubsky to the church. independence. Valuable monuments of Russian. hagiographies are the life of Cyril of Turov - unity. a well-known biography of the famous writer and preacher, Alexander Nevsky, Abraham of Smolensk (beginning of the 13th century), etc. From the end. 14th c. in the spirit of the dominant ideology, a new type of Zh. lit-re 15-16 centuries. Its creators - Metropolitan Cyprian, Epiphanius the Wise, Pachomius Logofet - under the influence of the South Slavs. lit-ry brought to J. with. edify. "red verbalization", in which already meager facts were drowned. The canonization of the saints at the councils of 1547–49 and the compilation of the Great Reading Menaia gave impetus to the further development of hagiography, although the processing of earlier Zh. in "Menaias" etched into them many. elements of history. A valuable source for the history of monastic colonization and class. struggle of the peasants is the life of Simon Volomsky (the founder of the monastery in the region of Ustyug the Great, killed by the peasants in 1641). Colorful stories about heroes. voyages of Pomeranians in the White and Barents Seas, about shipbuilding, hunting contain sowing. Russian J. s. 16th-17th centuries (Zosimas and Savatia, Anthony of Siysk and others). Lives of Yuliania Lazareva, the leaders of the Old Believers Avvakum and Epiphanius, and other similar monuments of the 17th century. are not Zh. V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. Kadlubovsky, I. Yakhontov and others, who were looking for in Zh. first of all, the reliable facts of the biographies of the holy ascetics, recognized them as sources of little value, since they were written on the basis of oral traditions, which later found a letter for themselves. exposition. Owls. researchers (D. S. Likhachev, I. U. Budovnits, L. V. Cherepnin, Ya. S. Lurie, etc.), transferring ch. attention in studying Zh. with biographical elements on the East. background, discovered in them important information about the history of agriculture, builds. technology, about life and customs, the history of monastic colonization and class. struggle of the peasants. They showed that often through the ideal image of the "ascetic" in life, despite the efforts of the authors, a feudal predator peeps through; J. s. are full of references to the peasants, "breathing with murder" on the "ascetics" who penetrated their lands, about the "sorrows and dirty tricks" inflicted on them by the peasants, about the beating "without mercy." Source: Acta sanctorum..., Antverpiae-Brux., 1643-; Analecta Bollandiana, v. 1-60, P.-Brux., 1882-1962; Patrologiae cursus completus... accurante J. P. Migne, series (Latina) prima, t. 1-221, P., 1844-64; ditto, series graeca, t. 1-161, (P.), 1857-66. Lit .: Klyuchevsky V. O., Dr. Rus. J. s. as ist. source, M., 1871; Yakhontov I., Zh. sowing Russian ascetics of the Pomeranian region as ist. source, Kaz., 1881; Kadlubovsky A., Essays on the history of other Russian. literature Zh. S., Warsaw, 1902; Loparev H., Greek. J. s. VIII - IX centuries, P., 1914; Bezobrazov P., Byzantine legends, part 1, Yuryev, 1917; Rudakov A.P., Essays on Byzantine culture according to Greek hagiography, M., 1917; Likhachev D.S., A man in the literature of other Russia, M.-L., 1958; Lurie Ya. S., Ideological. wrestling in Russian journalism of the late XV - early. XVI centuries., M.-L., 1960; Budovnits I. U., From the history of monastic land ownership in the XIV - XVI centuries, in the book: Yearbook on agrarian. history of East. Europe, 1960, K., 1962; Ranovich A. B., How Zh. S. was created, M., 1961; Bibl.: Bibliotheca hagiographica graeca, Brux., 1909; Potthast A., Bibliotheca historica medii aevi, Graz, 1954. M. Ya. Syuzyumov. Sverdlovsk, D. X. Kazachkova. Leningrad.