Those who lived millennia ago had their own beliefs, deities and religion. With the development of human civilization, religion also developed, new beliefs and currents appeared, and it is impossible to unequivocally conclude whether religion depended on the level of development of civilization or vice versa, it was people's beliefs that were one of the guarantees of progress. AT modern world there are thousands of beliefs and religions, some of which have millions of adherents, while others have only a few thousand or even hundreds of believers.
Religion is one of the forms of understanding the world, which is based on faith in higher powers. As a rule, each religion includes a number of moral and ethical standards and rules of conduct, cult rituals and rituals, and also unites a group of believers into an organization. All religions rely on a person's belief in supernatural forces, as well as on the relationship of believers with their deity (deities). Despite the apparent difference in religions, many postulates and dogmas of various beliefs are very similar, and this is especially noticeable when comparing the main world religions.
Major world religions
Modern researchers of religions distinguish three main religions of the world, the adherents of which are the vast majority of all believers on the planet. These religions are Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, as well as numerous currents, offshoots and based on these beliefs. Each of the world's religions has more than a thousand years of history, scriptures and a number of cults and traditions that believers should observe. As for the geography of distribution of these beliefs, if even less than 100 years ago it was possible to draw more or less clear boundaries and recognize Europe, America, South Africa and Australia as "Christian" parts of the world, North Africa and the Middle East as Muslim, and the states located in the southeastern part of Eurasia - Buddhist, now every year this division is becoming more and more conditional, since on the streets of European cities you can increasingly meet Buddhists and Muslims, and in the secular states of Central Asia on the same street there can be a Christian temple and mosque.
The founders of world religions are known to every person: Jesus Christ is considered the founder of Christianity, the prophet Mohammed is the founder of Islam, and Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha (enlightened), is Buddhism. However, it should be noted that Christianity and Islam have common roots in Judaism, since the beliefs of Islam also include the prophet Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus) and other apostles and prophets whose teachings are recorded in the Bible, but Islamists are sure that the fundamental teachings are still the teachings of the prophet Mohammed, who was sent to earth later than Jesus.
Buddhism
Buddhism is the oldest of the world's major religions, with a history of more than two and a half thousand years. This religion originated in the southeast of India, its founder is considered to be Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who through contemplation and meditation achieved enlightenment and began to share the truth that had been revealed to him with other people. Based on the teachings of the Buddha, his followers wrote the Pali Canon (Tripitaka), which is considered a sacred book by the followers of most of the currents of Buddhism. The main currents of Buddhism today are Hinayama (Theravada Buddhism - "Narrow Path to Liberation"), Mahayana ("Wide Path to Liberation") and Vajrayana ("Diamond Path").
Despite some differences between the orthodox and new currents of Buddhism, this religion is based on the belief in reincarnation, karma and the search for the path of enlightenment, after which you can free yourself from the endless chain of rebirths and achieve enlightenment (nirvana). The difference between Buddhism and other major religions of the world is the belief of Buddhists that a person’s karma depends on his actions, and everyone goes his own way of enlightenment and is responsible for his own salvation, and the gods, whose existence Buddhism recognizes, do not play a key role in the fate of a person, for they are also subject to the laws of karma.
Christianity
The birth of Christianity is considered to be the first century of our era; The first Christians appeared in Palestine. However, taking into account the fact that the Old Testament of the Bible, the holy book of Christians, was written much earlier than the birth of Jesus Christ, it is safe to say that the roots of this religion are in Judaism, which arose almost a millennium before Christianity. Today, there are three main areas of Christianity - Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy, branches of these areas, as well as those who also consider themselves Christians.
At the heart of the beliefs of Christians is the belief in the Triune God - the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in the redemptive sacrifice of Jesus Christ, in angels and demons and in the afterlife. The difference between the three main directions of Christianity is that Orthodox Christians, unlike Catholics and Protestants, do not believe in the existence of purgatory, and Protestants consider inner faith to be the key to the salvation of the soul, and not the observance of many sacraments and rites, so the churches of Protestant Christians are more modest than the churches of Catholics and Orthodox, as well as the number of church sacraments among Protestants is less than among Christians who adhere to other currents of this religion.
Islam
Islam is the youngest of the world's major religions, it originated in the 7th century in Arabia. The holy book of Muslims is the Quran, which contains the teachings and instructions of the prophet Mohammed. On the this moment There are three main branches of Islam - Sunnis, Shiites and Kharijites. The main difference between the first and other branches of Islam is that the Sunnis consider the successors of Magomed to the first four caliphs, and, in addition to the Koran, they recognize the sunnahs telling about the prophet Magomed as sacred books, and the Shiites believe that only his direct blood can be the successors of the Prophet. descendants. Kharijites are the most radical offshoot of Islam, the beliefs of the supporters of this trend are similar to those of the Sunnis, however, the Kharijites recognize only the first two caliphs as successors of the Prophet.
Muslims believe in the one God of Allah and his prophet Mohammed, in the existence of the soul and in the afterlife. In Islam, great attention is paid to the observance of traditions and religious rites - every Muslim must perform salat (daily five times prayer), fast in Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Common in the three major world religions
Despite the difference in rituals, beliefs and certain dogmas of Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, all these beliefs have some common features, and the similarity of Islam and Christianity is especially noticeable. Belief in one God, in the existence of the soul, in the afterlife, in fate and in the possibility of the help of higher powers - these are the dogmas that are inherent in both Islam and Christianity. The beliefs of Buddhists differ significantly from the religions of Christians and Muslims, but the similarity between all world religions is clearly visible in the moral and behavioral norms that believers must comply with.
The 10 Biblical Commandments that Christians are required to observe, the laws prescribed in the Koran, and the Noble Eightfold Path contain moral norms and rules of conduct prescribed for believers. And these rules are the same everywhere - all the major religions of the world forbid believers from doing atrocities, harming other living beings, lying, behaving loosely, rudely or disrespectfully towards other people and urge to treat other people with respect, care and and develop in character positive traits.
From the admin: of course, I’m not Chapman (I don’t fit into the “God’s chosen ones” by blood))), but I’ll open you one of the most terrible secrets. On the this example , we will be able to track how our civilization has been degrading, and this is very noticeable, in conjunction with the Commandments brought by each in his own time. So, let's start a journey into the World of History (full immersion))) WE THINK, ANALYZE, COMPARE Since ancient times, people have had Faith in a Higher Power, and already the first tribes of people who lived millennia ago had their own Beliefs, Deities and Religion. With the "development" of human civilization, religion also "developed", new beliefs and currents appeared, and it is impossible to unequivocally conclude whether Religion depended on the level of development of civilization or vice versa, it was people's beliefs that were one of the guarantees of progress (?). Religion is one of the forms of Consciousness of the World, which is conditioned on Belief in the Higher Powers. As a rule, each Religion includes a number of moral and ethical norms and rules of conduct, Cult rituals and rituals, and also unites a group of Believers into an organization. All religions rely on the Faith of man in the Supernatural Forces, as well as on the relationship of the Believers with their Deity (Deities). Despite the apparent difference of Religions, many postulates and dogmas of various beliefs are very similar, and this is especially noticeable in comparison of the main World Religions. Major World Religions Modern researchers of religions identify three major Religions of the World, the adherents of which are the vast majority of all Believers on the Planet. These Religions are Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Each of the World Religions has more than a thousand years of history, the Holy Scriptures and a number of Cults and traditions that the Believers should observe. As for the geography of distribution of these Beliefs, if even less than 100 years ago it was possible to draw more or less clear boundaries and recognize Europe, America, South Africa and Australia as "Christian" parts of the World, North Africa and the Middle East as Muslim, and the States, located in the southeastern part of Eurasia - Buddhist, now every year this division is becoming more and more conditional, since on the streets of European cities you can increasingly meet Buddhists and Muslims, and in the secular States of Central Asia on the same street there can be a Christian Temple and Mosque. The founders of World Religions are known to every person: Jesus Christ is considered the founder of Christianity, Islam - the prophet Mohammed, Buddhism - Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha (Enlightened One). However, it should be noted that Christianity and Islam, since the Beliefs of Islam also have the prophet Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus) and other apostles and prophets, whose teachings are recorded in the Bible, but Islamists are sure that the fundamental teachings are still the teachings of the prophet Magomed, who was sent to earth later than Jesus.
BUDDHISM. Buddhism is the oldest of the major World Religions, with a history of more than four and a half thousand years. This Religion originated in the southeast of India, its founder is considered to be Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who achieved Enlightenment through Contemplation, Reflection and Meditation and began to share the Truth revealed to him with other people. On the basis of the Buddha's Teachings, his followers wrote the Pali Canon (Tripitaka), which is considered the Sacred Book by the followers of most of the currents of Buddhism. The main currents of Buddhism today are Hinayama (Theravada Buddhism - "Narrow Path to Liberation"), Mahayana ("Wide Path to Liberation") and Vajrayana ("Diamond Path"). Despite some differences between orthodox and new currents of Buddhism, this Religion is based on Belief in reincarnation, karma and the search for the path of Enlightenment, after passing which one can free oneself from an endless chain of rebirths and achieve enlightenment. The difference between Buddhism and other major Religions of the World is the Buddhist Belief that a person’s karma depends on HIS ACTIONS, WORDS, AND THOUGHTS AND EVERYONE PASSES HIS OWN WAY OF ENLIGHTENMENT AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR OWN SALVATION, and the Gods, whose existence Buddhism recognizes, do not play a key role in the fate of man.
CHRISTIANITY. The birth of Christianity is considered to be the first Age of our Era; the first Christians appeared in Palestine (!!) From the admin: Very impressive, another "coincidence" because Satanic Israel was created precisely on the Land of Palestine, later there will be a post only on this topic). However, taking into account the fact that the Old Testament of the Bible, the Holy Book of Christians, was written much earlier (?) The birth of Jesus Christ. (From the admin: again, the "coincidence" of the egg once again, appeared before the chicken))). Today there are three main directions of Christianity - Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy. At the heart of the Christian Belief is the Faith in the Triune God - the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in the atoning sacrifice (in the Teaching of Christ - as the Messenger of God - it is more reasonable and correct to affirm) Jesus Christ, in Angels and demons and in afterlife(That and That Light, remember?). The difference between the three main directions of Christianity is that Orthodox Christians, unlike Catholics and Protestants, do not Believe in the existence of purgatory, and Protestants consider the inner Faith to be the key to the salvation of the Soul, and not the observance of many sacraments and rites, therefore the Churches of Christian Protestants are more modest than the Temples of Catholics and Orthodox, as well as the number of church sacraments among Protestants is less than among Christians who adhere to other currents of this Religion. (here, "divide and conquer" works rather than a difference in concepts)
ISLAM. Islam is the youngest of the main Religions of the World, it originated in the 7th century in Arabia. The Holy Book of Muslims is the Quran, which contains the teachings and instructions of the Prophet Mohammed. At the moment, there are three main branches of Islam - Sunnis, Shiites and Kharijites. The main difference between the first and other branches of Islam is that the Sunnis consider the first four caliphs to be the successors of Magomed, and, in addition to the Koran, they recognize the Sunnahs telling about the prophet Magomed as the Holy Books, and the Shiites believe that only his direct blood can be the successors of the Prophet. Descendants. Kharijites are the most radical offshoot of Islam. The beliefs of the supporters of this movement are similar to those of the Sunnis, however, the Kharijites recognize only the first two caliphs as successors of the Prophet. Muslims Believe in the One God Allah and his prophet Mohammed, in the existence of the Soul and in the afterlife. In Islam, great attention is paid to the observance of traditions and religious rites - every Muslim must perform salat (daily five times Prayer), fast in Ramadan and at least once in his Life make a pilgrimage to Mecca. (actually, the same confusion "razdilyayka" in color) GENERAL IN THREE WORLD RELIGIONS. Despite the difference in rituals, Beliefs and certain dogmas of Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, all these Beliefs have some common features, and the similarity of Islam and Christianity is especially noticeable. Belief in the One God, in the existence of the Soul, in the afterlife, in Destiny and in the possibility of the help of the Higher Powers - these are the dogmas that are inherent in both Islam and Christianity. The beliefs of Buddhists differ significantly from the Religions of Christians and Muslims, but the similarity between all World Religions is clearly visible in the moral and behavioral standards that Believers must observe. The 10 Biblical Commandments that Christians are required to follow, the laws, the 10 Commandments prescribed in the Koran, and the Noble Eightfold Path contain the moral standards and rules of conduct prescribed for Believers in Buddhism. And these rules are the same everywhere - all the major Religions of the World forbid the Believers to do atrocities, harm other Living Beings, lie, behave loosely, rudely or disrespectfully towards other people and call to treat other people with respect, care and love and develop in positive qualities in character. NEXT PART(2)
We all know that the planet Earth is multinational and, of course, each country has its own religion, and some even have several. Some people have chosen a path without faith and call themselves atheists. In this article, we will try to list the various religions and show their main differences from each other. So the religions different countries peace.
Religions around the world
- Christianity is the world's largest religion in terms of the number of believers. This religion is based on the teachings Jesus Christ. In addition, since 1054, the Christian Church split into the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, and even later (in the 16th century) from Catholic Church another piece broke off (as a result reform movement) and the new movement began to be called Protestantism. Thus Christianity includes three religions -Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism. Protestantism includes several other branches, such as Baptism, Anabaptism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, Mormons, and of course Jehovah's Witnesses.
The main book of Christianity is the Bible. Christians believe in one God who exists in three forms - Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The main sacred symbol is the cross. Each religion has its own place where you can communicate with the Almighty. In Christianity, all prayers and services take place in the Houses of God, i.e. Churches, Cathedrals, Temples, Chapels.
- Islam is the second largest religion. The adherents of this religion are called Muslims who believe in a single creator - Allah(Allah is translated as "He who is worshiped"). This religion appeared in the 7th century in Arabia. The founder of this religion is prophet Muhammad, and the main holy book is the Quran. The Muslim Church is called the Mosque.
- Buddhism is one of the world's oldest religions, which arose in the VI century BC. The prince founded this religion Siddhartha Gautama, who later received a new name - Buddha, which means "Enlightened". The main teaching is Karma, i.e. all your deeds will be credited to you in your next life, when you are reborn, so a Buddhist should be at rest and do no harm to anyone. When a Buddhist reaches complete rest, i.e. Nirvana, then he merges with Buddha. The main difference between Buddhism and other religions is that they don't have a god.
- Judaism is considered primarily a Jewish religion. They believe in one God and in the immortality of the soul. The main holy book of the Jews is considered Talmud and their church is called the Synagogue.
OM is a sacred, "eternal syllable" used in Hinduism and Buddhism during religious ceremonies, when reading prayers, at the beginning of texts of religious content. OM is a symbol of the highest holiness, Brahman - the Absolute of Indian philosophy and the God of the Hindu religion.
- Hinduism is a purely Indian religion, which in fact is not integral, but simply includes many small Indian religious movements, so this religion does not have any unified teachings and some kind of system. There is a common key concept - Dharma, which means "Eternal order and integrity of the world."
Symbol of Confucianism
- Confucianism is not just a religion, but a philosophical religion. Appeared in China in the VI century BC, and it was created by a wandering teacher Confucius. Religion is common only in China. The main principle is “Do not wish for others what you do not wish for yourself”, and the main concept of this religion is ideal relationship in family and society.
- Atheism - Completes our list of religions anti-religion. Atheism is translated as "Godlessness", i.e. atheists are people who deny the existence of God, or another higher power. They adhere to the worldview that nothing supernatural can be.
world religions - Buddhism, Christianity and Islam appeared in the era of great historical turns, in the conditions of the folding of "world empires". These religions became world religions because of the so-called universalism, i.e. their appeal to everyone and everyone, regardless of class, estate, caste, national, state, etc. belonging, which led to a large number of their adherents and the wide spread of new religions around the globe.
2.1. Buddhism is the world's oldest religion, originating in India in the 6th century. BC. The origins of Buddhism go back to Brahmanism the religions of the ancient Hindus. According to these views, the basis of the universe is a single world soul - Atman (or Brahman). It is the source of individual souls. After death, the souls of people move to other bodies. All living things are subject to the law karma ( posthumous retribution for deeds during life) and is included in the chain of continuous incarnations - the wheel samsara. The next incarnation may be higher or lower. Everything that exists is based on dharma, - the flow of these non-material particles, their various combinations determine the existence of inanimate objects, plants, animals, humans, etc. After the disintegration of a given combination of dharmas, their corresponding combination disappears, and for a person this means death, but the dharmas themselves do not disappear, but form a new combination. There is a rebirth of the individual in a different guise. The ultimate goal of these beliefs is to break out of the wheel of samsara and reach Nirvana. Nirvana- this is a state of eternal bliss, when the soul perceives everything, but does not react to anything ("nirvana" - from Sanskrit: "cooling, attenuation" - a state beyond life and death, the moment of connection of the human soul with the Atman). According to Buddhism, it is possible to fall into nirvana during life, but it is fully achieved only after death.
Founder of Buddhism - Prince Siddhartha Gautama (564/563 - 483 BC), the first Buddha(in translation from Sanskrit - “enlightened one”), the son of the king of the Shakya tribe (hence one of the names of the Buddha - Shakyamuni- a sage from the Shakya family). The turning point in Siddhartha's life came when he was 29 years old and left the palace where he lived. Face to face with old age, illness and death, he realized that all these are integral elements of life that need to be accepted. He became acquainted with various religious teachings in the hope of comprehending the meaning of life, but, disappointed in them, he concentrated entirely on meditation(deep reflection) and one day - after 6 years of wandering - he finally discovered the true meaning of the existence of all things. Siddhartha expounded his creed in the so-called Benares sermon. It is similar to the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ. In it he sets out "4 Great Truths": 1) life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is our desires, attachment to life, thirst for being, passions; 3) you can get rid of suffering by getting rid of desires; 4) the path to salvation leads to the observance of 8 certain conditions - "The Eightfold Path of Self-Improvement" which involves mastering the art of having the righteous: views, aspirations, speech, actions, life, efforts, contemplation, reflection.
Essentially, Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine. Many researchers consider Buddhism to be a polytheistic religion, since one who manages to go through all the stages of the eightfold path and reach nirvana becomes a Buddha. buddha- these are the gods of the Buddhist religion, there are many of them. On earth there are also bodhisattvas(bodhisattvas) - saints who almost reached nirvana, but remained to live an earthly life in order to help others achieve enlightenment. Buddha Shakyamuni himself, having reached nirvana, preached his teaching for more than 40 years. Buddhism affirms the equality of all people and the possibility for anyone, regardless of caste, to achieve "enlightenment". Buddhism requires from its adherents not asceticism, but only indifference to worldly goods and hardships. The "middle way" of Buddhism requires avoiding extremes in everything, not making too harsh demands on people. The main tenets of Buddhism are concentrated in the texts Tripitaka(Tipitaka) - (in translation - "Three Baskets": Basket of the charter of the community - sangha, Teaching Basket, Doctrine Interpretation Basket). There are a number of branches in Buddhism, the earliest being Hinayana and Mahayana formed in the first centuries of our era. Hinayana(Sanskrit - “narrow chariot”, narrow path of liberation) promises liberation from suffering, from samsara only to monks, members of the sangha . Mahayana(Sanskrit - “wide chariot”) believes that not only a monk can achieve liberation from samsara, but also any believer who keeps the vows of spiritual perfection.
In the 3rd c. BC. the ruler of India's largest state, Ashoka, declared himself the patron of Buddhist monasticism and the protector of the teachings of Buddhism. Having reached its heyday in India at the end of the 1st millennium BC, Buddhism by the 13th century. AD lost influence in this country and became widespread in the countries of the South, Southeast, Central Asia, Far East. Now there are about 800 million Buddhists in the world.
2.2. Christianity - one of the world's religions in the 1st century AD in the eastern province of the Roman Empire (in Palestine) as the religion of the oppressed. Christianity is a collective term for three main directions religions: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Each of these major areas, in turn, is subdivided into a number of smaller denominations and religious organizations. All of them are united by common historical roots, certain provisions of the dogma and cult actions. Christian doctrine and its dogmas have long been an important part of world culture.
Christianity is named after Jesus Christ(he acts as the Messiah predicted by the Old Testament Jewish prophets). Christian doctrine is based on Holy Scripture - the Bible(Old Testament - 39 books and New Testament - 27 books) and Holy Tradition(resolutions of the first 7 ecumenical councils and local councils, the works of the "Church Fathers" - Christian writers of the 4th-7th centuries AD). Christianity originated as a sect within Judaism in conditions of deep economic, political, social and ethnic inequality and oppression of peoples in the territory of the Roman Empire.
Judaism was one of the first monotheistic religions. A biblical legend from the Old Testament tells of the three sons of the Jew Jacob, who ended up in the Nile Valley. At first they were well received, but over time, their lives and the lives of their descendants became increasingly difficult. And then Moses appears, who, with the help of Almighty God, leads the Jews out of Egypt to Palestine. The "Exodus" lasted 40 years and was accompanied by many miracles. God (Yahweh) gave 10 commandments to Moses, and he actually became the first Jewish legislator. Moses is a historical figure. Sigmund Freud believed that he was an Egyptian and a follower of Akhenaten. After the prohibition of the religion of Aton, he tried to introduce it in a new place and chose the Jewish people for this. The biblical campaign coincides in time with the reforms of Akhenaten, as evidenced by historical chronicles.
Arriving in Palestine, the Jews created their own state there, destroying the culture of their predecessors and devastating the fertile lands. Exactly in Palestine in the 11th century BC monotheistic religion of God Yahweh. The Jewish state turned out to be fragile and quickly fell apart, and in 63 BC. Palestine became part of the Roman Empire. At this time, the first communities of the Christian type appeared in the form of heresies - deviations from the dogmas of Judaism.
God of the ancient Jews, God of the Old Testament (he is known as different names- Yahweh, Jehovah, Hosts) was a prototype of the Christian God. As a matter of fact , for Christianity it is the same God, only his relationship with the person changes. The sermon of Jesus of Nazareth in its content went far beyond the national religion of the ancient Jews (as the Bible indicates, Jesus was born into a Jewish family. His earthly parents, Mary and Joseph, were faithful Jews and sacredly observed all the requirements of their religion). If the God of the Old Testament is addressed to the whole people as a whole, then the God of the New Testament is addressed to each individual. The Old Testament God pays great attention to the implementation of a complex religious law and the rules of everyday life, numerous rituals that accompany each event. The God of the New Testament is addressed, first of all, to the inner life and inner faith of each person.
Asking why the peoples of the Roman Empire, among whom Christianity began to spread first of all, turned out to be so receptive to this teaching, modern historical science has come to the conclusion that by the middle of the 1st century AD. the time had come when the Romans' confidence that their world was the best possible world was a thing of the past. This confidence was replaced by a feeling of imminent catastrophe, the collapse of age-old foundations, the near end of the world. In the public consciousness, the idea of fate, fate, the inevitability of what is destined from above acquires a dominant position. In the lower social classes, dissatisfaction with the authorities is growing, which periodically takes the form of riots and uprisings. These speeches are brutally suppressed. Moods of discontent do not disappear, but seek other forms of expression.
Christianity in the Roman Empire was initially perceived by most people as a clear and understandable form of social protest. It awakened faith in an intercessor capable of asserting the idea of universal equality, the salvation of people, regardless of their ethnic, political and social affiliation. The first Christians believed in the imminent end of the existing world order and the establishment, thanks to the direct intervention of God, of the "Kingdom of Heaven", in which justice would be restored, righteousness would triumph. The denunciation of the corruption of the world, its sinfulness, the promise of salvation and the establishment of the kingdom of peace and justice - these are the social ideas that attracted hundreds of thousands, and later millions of followers to the side of Christians. They gave hope for the consolation of all those who suffer. It is to these people, as follows from the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus and the Revelation of John the Theologian, that the Kingdom of God was first of all promised: “Those who are the first here will be the last there, and the last here - there will be the first. Evil will be punished, and virtue will be rewarded, a terrible judgment will be done and everyone will be rewarded according to their deeds.
The ideological basis for the formation of Christian associations was universalism - appeal to all people, regardless of ethnic, religious, class and state affiliation. “There is no Greek, no Roman, no Jew, neither rich nor poor, before God all are equal". On the basis of this ideological attitude, an opportunity was created to unite representatives of all segments of the population.
The traditional view sees Christianity as the result of the deeds of one man, Jesus Christ. This idea continues to dominate in our time. In the latest edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, twenty thousand words are dedicated to the personality of Jesus - more than to Aristotle, Cicero, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Confucius, Mohammed or Napoleon. In scientific works devoted to the study of the problem of the historicity of Jesus Christ, there are two directions - mythological and historical. The first considers Jesus to be a mythological collective image created on the basis of agricultural or totemic cults. All gospel stories about his life and miraculous deeds are borrowed from myths. The historical direction recognizes that the image of Jesus Christ is based on a real historical figure. Its supporters believe that the development of the image of Jesus is associated with mythologization, the deification of a really existing preacher from Nazareth. Truth is separated from us by two millennia. However, in our opinion, from doubts about the reliability of individual biographical details, one cannot conclude that the preacher Jesus never existed as a historical person. In this case, the very emergence of Christianity and the spiritual impulse that (with all the particular disagreements) unites and leads the authors of the Gospels (they were formed at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd centuries AD) and unites the first Christian communities becomes a miracle. This spiritual impulse is too brilliant and powerful to be simply the result of concerted fiction.
Thus, under the influence of a number of sociocultural factors at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd centuries, Christian communities began to appear and spread on the territory of the Roman Empire - ecclesias. Word "ecclesia" in translation from Greek means meeting. AT Greek cities this term was used in a political context as a people's assembly - the main body of polis self-government. Christians have given the term a new connotation. . An ekklesia is a gathering of believers, to which anyone who shared their views could freely come. Christians accepted everyone who came to them: they did not hide their belonging to a new religion. When one of them got into trouble, others immediately came to his aid. At the meetings, sermons were delivered, prayers were read, “sayings of Jesus” were studied, rites of baptism and communion were performed in the form of collective meals. Members of such communities called each other brothers and sisters. All of them were equal to each other. No traces of a hierarchy of positions in the early Christian communities have been noticed by historians. In the 1st century AD. there was still no church organization, officials, cult, clergy, dogmatists. The organizers of the communities were prophets, apostles, preachers, who, it was believed, possessed charisma(the ability "given by the spirit" to prophesy, teach, perform miracles, heal). They did not call for struggle, but only for spiritual liberation, they were waiting for a miracle, preaching that heavenly retribution would reward everyone according to their deserts. They declared everyone equal before God, thus providing themselves with a solid base among the poor and disadvantaged population.
Early Christianity is the religion of the destitute, powerless, oppressed and enslaved masses. This is reflected in the Bible: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Of course, this could not please the ruling Roman elite. They were joined by Orthodox Jews who did not want to see Jesus Christ as the messiah. They were waiting for a completely different deliverer, a new Jewish king. This is confirmed by the texts of the Gospels, in which the Jews are responsible for the execution of Jesus. Pontius Pilate, according to the Gospels, tried to save Christ, but the crowd snatched his consent to execution by shouting: "His blood is on us and on our descendants!"
But for all the "openness" of their communities, Christians did not perform public services, did not take part in polis festivities. Their religious gatherings were to them a sacrament that could not be performed in front of the uninitiated. They internally separated themselves from the surrounding world, this was precisely the secret of their teaching, which worried the authorities and caused condemnation from many educated people of that time. The accusation of secrecy has therefore become one of the common accusations thrown at Christians by their opponents.
The gradual growth of Christian communities, the increase in their wealth with a change in class composition, required the performance of a number of functions: organizing a meal and serving its participants, purchasing and storing supplies, disposing of the community's funds, etc. All this staff of officials had to be managed. This is how an institution is born. bishops, whose power gradually increased; the position itself was for life. In every Christian community, there was a group of people who were especially respected by members for their devotion to the church - bishops and deacons. Along with them, early Christian documents mention presbyters(elders). However, it should be noted that at an early stage of development (AD 30 - 130) of Christian communities, these persons were in “living unity with the church”, their power was not of a legal nature, but of grace, freely recognized by the assembly. That is, their power in the first century of the existence of the church rested only on authority.
Appearance clergy refers to the 2nd century and is associated with a gradual change in the social composition of the early Christian communities. If earlier they united slaves and the free poor, then in the 2nd century they already included artisans, merchants, landowners and even the Roman nobility. If earlier any member of the community could preach, then as the apostles and prophets are squeezed out, the bishop becomes the central figure in propaganda activities. The well-to-do part of Christians is gradually concentrating in their hands the management of property and the management of liturgical practice. Officials, first elected for a fixed term and then for life, form the clergy.. Priests, deacons, bishops, metropolitans are driving out the charismatics (prophets) and concentrating all power in their hands.
The further development of the hierarchy led to the emergence of the Catholic Church, to the complete rejection of the sovereignty of the communities that existed before, to the establishment of strict internal church discipline.
As already noted, Christianity in the first three centuries of its existence was a persecuted religion. Christians were originally identified with Jews. At first, the hostility of the local population of different provinces to Christians was determined not by the essence of their teaching, but by their position as strangers who denied traditional cults and beliefs. The Roman authorities treated them in much the same way.
Under their name, Christians appear in the minds of the Romans in connection with the fire in Rome under the emperor Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the arson, and in connection with this, many Christians were subjected to severe torture and execution.
One of the main reasons for the persecution of Christians was their refusal to offer sacrifices in front of statues of the emperor or Jupiter. The performance of such rituals meant the fulfillment of the duty of a citizen and subject. Refusal meant disobedience to the authorities and, in fact, non-recognition of these authorities. Christians of the first centuries, following the commandment "Thou shalt not kill", refused to serve in the army. And this also served as a reason for their persecution by the authorities.
At that time, an active ideological struggle was waged against Christians. Rumors spread in the public mind about Christians as atheists, blasphemers, immoral people who committed cannibal rites. Incited by such rumors, the Roman plebs repeatedly staged massacres of Christians. From historical sources, cases of the martyrdom of some Christian preachers are known: Justin the Martyr, Cyprian and others.
The first Christians did not have the opportunity to openly hold their services and were forced to look for hidden places for this. Most often they used the catacombs. All catacomb temples (“cubicules”, “crypts”, “chapels”) were rectangular in shape (basilica type), in the eastern part a vast semicircular niche was made, where the tomb of the martyr was placed, which served throne ( altar ) . The altar was separated by a low lattice from the rest of the temple. Behind the throne there was a bishop's chair, in front of him - salt ( elevation, step ) . The middle part of the temple followed the altar, where the worshipers gathered. Behind it is a room where those wishing to be baptized gathered. (announced) and penitent sinners. This part was later called vestibule. It can be said that the architecture of Christian churches was formed, basically, back in the period of early Christianity.
The last, most cruel period of persecution, Christians experienced under the emperor Diocletian. In 305, Diocletian abdicated, and his successor Galerius in 311 ordered the abolition of the persecution of Christians. Two years later, by the Edict of Milan, Constantine and Licinius, Christianity was recognized as a tolerant religion. According to this edict, Christians had the right to openly perform their worship, communities received the right to own property, including real estate.
In the context of the crisis in the Roman Empire, the imperial government felt an urgent need to use the new religion for their political and ideological purposes. As the crisis deepened, the Roman authorities shifted from severe persecution of Christians to support of the new religion, until the conversion of Christianity during the 4th century into the state religion of the Roman Empire.
At the center of Christianity is the image god-man- Jesus Christ who, by his martyrdom on the cross, by suffering for the sins of mankind, atoned for these sins, reconciled the human race with God. And with his resurrection, he opened for those who believed in him a new life, the path to reunion with God in the Divine kingdom. The word "Christ" is not a surname and not a proper name, but, as it were, a title, a title assigned by humanity to Jesus of Nazareth. Christ is translated from Greek as "anointed", "messiah", "savior". This common name Jesus Christ is associated with the Old Testament traditions about the coming to Israel of a prophet, a messiah who will free his people from suffering and establish a righteous life there - God's kingdom.
Christians believe that the world was created by one eternal God, and created without evil. Man was created by God as the bearer of the "image and likeness" of God. Man, endowed with free will, according to God's plan, fell under the temptation of Satan, one of the angels who rebelled against God's will, while still in paradise, and committed an offense that fatally affected the fate of mankind. The man violated God's prohibition, desired to become "like God" himself. This changed its very nature: having lost its good, immortal essence, a person became available to suffering, illness and death, and Christians see this as a consequence of original sin, transmitted from generation to generation.
God expelled man from paradise with parting words: "... in the sweat of your face you will eat bread ..." (Gen. 3.19.) The offspring of the first people - Adam and Eve - inhabited the earth, but from the very beginning of history there was a gulf between God and man. In order to return a person to the path, the true God revealed himself to His chosen people - the Jews. God repeatedly revealed himself to the prophets, concluded covenants (alliances) with “His” people, gave them the Law containing the rules of a righteous life. The Holy Scriptures of the Jews are imbued with the expectation of the Messiah - the one who will deliver the world from evil, and people from the slavery of sin. To do this, God sent his Son into the world, who, through suffering and death on the cross, atoned for the original sin of all mankind - past and future.
That is why Christianity emphasizes the purifying role of suffering, any restriction by a person of his desires and passions: “by accepting his cross”, a person can overcome evil in himself and in the world around him. Thus, a person not only fulfills God's commandments, but also transforms himself and makes an ascent to God, becomes closer to him. This is the purpose of the Christian, his justification of the sacrificial death of Christ. The resurrection of Christ marks for Christians the victory over death and the newfound possibility of eternal life with God. It was from that time for Christians begins the history of the New Testament with God.
The main direction in the rethinking of Judaism by Christianity is to affirm the spiritual nature of man's relationship with God. The main idea of the Gospel preaching of Jesus Christ was to convey to people the idea that God - the Father of all people - sent him to bring people the news of the imminent establishment of the Kingdom of God. The good news is the news about the salvation of people from spiritual death, about the communion of the world with spiritual life in the Kingdom of God. The "Kingdom of God" will come when the Lord reigns in the souls of people, when they feel a bright, joyful feeling of the nearness of the Heavenly Father. The way to this Kingdom is opened to people by faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God, mediator between God and man.
Basic moral values of Christianity are Faith, Hope, Love. They are closely related to each other and pass one into another. However, chief among them is Love, which means, first of all, spiritual connection and love for God and which opposes physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and vile. At the same time, Christian love extends to all "neighbors", including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: "Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you."
Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, requiring no effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally transforms into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of salvation.
Salvation will be granted to those who strictly follow the commandments of Christ. In list commandments- suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins committed, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil, the requirement not to kill, not to take someone else's, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torments of hell.
In Christianity, moral commandments are addressed not to external deeds (as it was in paganism) and not to external manifestations of faith (as in Judaism), but to internal motivation. The highest moral authority is not duty, but conscience. It can be said that in Christianity God is not only love, but also Conscience.
Christian doctrine is based on the principle self-worth of the individual. The Christian person is a free being. God gave man free will. Man is free to do either good or evil. The choice of good in the name of love for God and people leads to spiritual growth and transformation of the individual. The choice of evil is fraught with the destruction of the personality and the loss of the very freedom of man.
Christianity brought into the world idea of the equality of all people before God. From the point of view of Christianity, regardless of race, religion, social status, all people as bearers of the “image of God” are equal and, therefore, worthy of respect as individuals.
Of fundamental importance for the approval of Christian dogma was the adoption of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan "Creed" (the 1st Ecumenical Council in Nicea in 325, the 2nd Ecumenical Council in Constantinople in 381). Symbol of faith is a concise summary of the main provisions of the Christian faith, consisting of 12 tenets. These include: the dogmas of creation, providentialism; the triunity of God, acting in 3 hypostases - God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; incarnation; the resurrection of Christ; redemption; the second coming of Christ; immortality of the soul, etc. The cult is formed by sacraments, rituals, holidays. Christian sacraments – special cult actions designed to really bring the divine into human life. The sacraments are considered established by Jesus Christ, their 7: baptism, chrismation, communion (eucharist), repentance, priesthood, marriage, unction (unction).
In 395 there was an official division of the empire into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, which led to an increase in disagreements between the churches of East and West and their final break in 1054. The main dogma that served as a pretext for the split was filioque controversy(i.e. about the procession of God the Holy Spirit). The Western Church became known as Roman Catholic(the term "Catholicism" is derived from the Greek "satholicos" - universal, ecumenical), which meant "Roman world church", and the eastern one - Greek Catholic, Orthodox, i.e. world-wide, faithful to the principles of orthodox Christianity (“Orthodoxy” - from the Greek. "orthodoxy"- correct doctrine, opinion). Orthodox (Eastern) Christians believe that God - the Holy Spirit comes from God the Father, and Catholics (Western) believe that it also comes from God the Son ("filioque" from Latin - "and from the Son"). After the adoption of Christianity by Kievan Rus in 988 under Prince Vladimir from Byzantium in its eastern, orthodox version, the Russian Church became one of the metropolises (church regions) of the Greek Church. The first Russian metropolitan in the Russian Orthodox Church was Hilarion (1051). AT 1448 The Russian Church declared itself autocephalous(independent). After the destruction of Byzantium under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Russia turned out to be the main stronghold of Orthodoxy. In 1589 Metropolitan Job of Moscow became the first Russian Patriarch. Orthodox churches, unlike the Catholic, do not have a single center of government. Currently, there are 15 autocephalous Orthodox churches. The Russian Patriarch today is Kirill, Pope – FrancisI.
In the 16th century during the period Reformation (from lat. transformation, correction), broad anti-Catholic movement appears Protestantism. The Reformation in Catholic Europe took place under the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church and the authority of the Bible. The leaders and ideological inspirers of the Reformation were Martin Luther and Thomas Müntzer in Germany, Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in France. The starting point at the beginning of the Reformation was October 31, 1517, when M. Luther nailed to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral his 95 theses against the doctrine of salvation by the merits of the saints, of purgatory, of the mediating role of the clergy; he denounced the mercenary sale of indulgences as a violation of the gospel covenants.
Most Protestants share common Christian ideas about creation, providentialism, about the existence of God, about his trinity, about the God-manhood of Jesus Christ, about the immortality of the soul, and so on. Important principles of most Protestant denominations are: justification by faith alone, and good deeds are the fruit of love for God; the priesthood of all believers. Protestantism rejects fasting, Catholic and Orthodox rites, prayer for the dead, worship of the Mother of God and saints, veneration of relics, icons and other relics, church hierarchy, monasteries and monasticism. Of the sacraments, baptism and communion have been retained, but they are interpreted symbolically. The essence of Protestantism can be expressed as follows: divine grace is bestowed without the mediation of the church. Man's salvation occurs only through his personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Communities of believers are headed by elected priests (the priesthood extends to all believers), worship is extremely simplified.
Protestantism from the very beginning of its existence was divided into a number of independent denominations - Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwinglianism, Anglicanism, Baptism, Methodism, Adventism, Mennonism, Pentecostalism. There are also a number of other currents.
At present, the leaders of both the Western and Eastern Churches are striving to overcome the pernicious consequences of centuries of enmity. So, in 1964, Pope Paul YI and Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople solemnly canceled the mutual curses pronounced by representatives of both Churches in the 11th century. A beginning has been laid for overcoming the disunity of Western and Eastern Christians. From the beginning of the 20th century the so-called ecumenical movement (from the Greek "eikumena" - the universe, the inhabited world). At present, this movement is carried out mainly within the framework of the World Council of Churches, of which the Russian Orthodox Church. Today, an agreement has been reached on coordinating the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad.
2.3. Islam - the youngest world religion (“Islam” in Arabic means obedience, and the name Muslims comes from the word “Muslim” - giving himself to God). Islam was born in the 7th century AD in Arabia, whose population at that time lived in the conditions of the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of a single state. In this process, one of the means of uniting the numerous Arab tribes into a single state was a new religion. Prophet is the founder of Islam Muhammad (570-632), a native of the city of Mecca, who in 610 began his preaching activity. The tribes that lived on the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam were pagans. The pre-Islamic era is called jahiliyyah. The pantheon of pagan Mecca consisted of many gods, whose idols were called betyls. One of the idols, as the researchers believe, bore the name Allah. AT 622 g. Muhammad along with his followers muhajirs- was forced to flee from Mecca to Yathrib, which later became known as Medina (the city of the prophet). Resettlement (in Arabic "hijra") Muslims in Yathrib became the first day of the Muslim chronology. After the death of Muhammad in 632, the first four heads of the Muslim community were Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, who received the title of "righteous caliphs" (Arabic successor, deputy).
Judaism and Christianity played a special role in shaping the Muslim worldview. Muslims, along with Jews and Christians, revere the same Old Testament prophets, and Jesus Christ as one of them. That is why Islam is called Abrahamic religion(after the name of the Old Testament Abraham - the founder of the "12 tribes of Israel"). The basis of the doctrine of Islam is Koran(Arabic for "reading aloud") and sunnah(Arabic "sample, example"). The Qur'an reproduces many biblical scenes, mentions biblical prophets, the last of which, the "seal of the prophets", is Muhammad. The Quran consists of 114 suras(chapters), each of which is divided into verses(poems). The first sura (the largest) - “Fatiha” (Opening) means for a Muslim the same thing as the prayer “Our Father” for Christians, i.e. everyone must know it by heart. Along with the Quran, a guide for the entire Muslim community ( ummah) in solving the pressing problems of public and private life is the Sunnah. This is a collection of texts hadith), describing the life of Muhammad (similar to the Christian Gospels), his words and deeds, and in a broad sense - a collection of good customs, traditional institutions, supplementing the Koran and revered on a par with it. An important document of the Muslim complex is sharia(Arabic "proper way") - a set of norms of Muslim law, morality, religious prescriptions and rituals.
Islam affirms 5 pillars of faith which reflects the duties of a Muslim:
1. Shahada- evidence of faith, expressed by the formula "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." It contains 2 most important tenets of Islam - the confession of monotheism (tawhid) and the recognition of the prophetic mission of Muhammad. During the battles, the shahada served the Muslims as a battle cry, so the soldiers who fell in battle with the enemies of the faith were called martyrs(martyrs).
2. Namaz(Arabic "salad") - a daily 5-fold prayer.
3. saum(Turkish “uraza”) fasting in the month of Ramadan (Ramazan) - the 9th month of the lunar calendar, “the month of the prophet”.
4. Zakat- obligatory alms, a tax in favor of the poor.
5. Hajj- a pilgrimage to Mecca, which every Muslim should make at least once in his life. Pilgrims go to Mecca, to the Kaaba, which is considered the main shrine of Muslims.
Some Muslim theologians consider the 6th "pillar" of jihad (ghazawat). This term refers to the struggle for faith, which is conducted in the following main forms:
- "jihad of the heart" - the fight against one's own bad inclinations (this is the so-called "Great Jihad");
- “jihad of the tongue” - “commandment worthy of approval and prohibition worthy of blame”;
- "jihad of the hand" - the adoption of appropriate punishment measures against criminals and violators of moral standards;
- "Jihad of the sword" - the necessary recourse to weapons in order to deal with the enemies of Islam, to destroy evil and injustice (the so-called "Small Jihad").
Shortly after the death of Muhammad, a split occurred within the Muslims into Shiites and Sunnis. Shiism(Arabic "party, group") - recognizes Ali, the 4th "righteous caliph" and his descendants, the only legitimate successors of Muhammad (because he was his blood relative), i.e. advocates the transfer of the rank of supreme leader of the Muslims ( and mother) by inheritance within the family marked by God's care. Later in the Islamic world there were Shiite states - imamats. Sunnism - the largest denomination in Islam, recognizes the legitimate authority of all 4 "righteous caliphs", rejects the idea of mediation between Allah and people after the death of the prophet, does not accept the idea of the "divine" nature of Ali and the right of his descendants to spiritual supremacy in the Muslim community.
Explain the meaning of the terms: denomination, sect, orthodoxy, catholicism, protestantism, dogma, gospel, old testament, new testament, apostle, messiah, white and black clergy, patriarch, Reformation, charisma, nirvana, Buddha, stupa, brahminism, karma, samsara, caste, wahhabism , Kaaba, jihad (gazavat), prayer, hajj, shahada, saum, zakat, clergy, prophet, hijra, caliphate, sharia, imamate, sunnah, shiism, sura, ayat, hadith.
Persons: Siddhartha Gautama, Abraham, Moses, Noah, Jesus Christ, John, Mark, Luke, Matthew, Muhammad (Magomed), Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin.
Questions for self-examination:
1. How do the concepts of culture and religion relate?
2. What are the functions of religion?
3. What religions are called Abrahamic?
4. What religions are called monotheistic?
5. What is the essence of Buddhism?
6. What is the essence of Christian and Islamic beliefs?
7. When and where did world religions originate?
8. What denominations exist in Christianity?
9. What denominations exist in Islam?
WORKSHOPS
Plans of seminars for students of OZO SK GMI (GTU)
Seminar 1. Culturology in the system of humanitarian knowledge
Plan: 1. Origin and meaning of the term "culture".
2. The structure of culture and its main functions.
3. Stages of formation of cultural studies. The structure of cultural studies.
Literature:
When preparing for the seminar, one should pay attention to the etymology of the term "culture" and trace the historical development of ideas about culture: in antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance, in modern times and in modern times. Students can present various definitions of the term "culture" and comment on the positions from which this or that definition is given. It is important to present a classification of the main definitions of culture. As a result, we will get an idea of the diversity, versatility of the definitions of culture in modern cultural studies.
When preparing the 2nd question, the student must consider the structure of culture and not only know the main functions of culture, but also understand how they are implemented in the life of society, be able to give examples. Students should explain why the function of socialization or inculturation is central to culture.
The 3rd question involves an analysis of the structure of cultural studies itself as an integrative humanitarian discipline. Revealing the process of folding science itself, studying the main stages in the formation of cultural studies as a science will make it possible to verify its many-sided connections with ethnography, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and other sciences.
Discussion of all the issues of the seminar will allow students to draw reasonable conclusions about the place and role of cultural studies in the system of humanities knowledge of our time.
Seminar 2. Basic concepts of cultural studies.
Plan:
Information-semiotic approach to culture. The main types of sign systems of culture.
Cultural values, essence and types.
The concept of norms in cultural studies, their functions and types.
Literature:
1. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurayt, 2011.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. – M.: Higher education, 2011.
3. Karmin A.S. Culturology: short course- St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.
When preparing the first question, students should understand the difference in the definition of culture from the standpoint of the information-semiotic approach in relation to the definitions they already know (“Culture is a special non-biological form of the information process”), which involves considering culture in three main aspects: culture as a world of artifacts , culture as a world of meanings and culture as a world of signs. The content of culture always finds expression in language. language in the broad sense of the term name any sign system(means, signs, symbols, texts), which allows people to communicate and transmit various information to each other. Systems of signs and the information that is accumulated with their help are the most important necessary components of culture. Students need to remember this, considering culture as a complex sign system.
It is important to note that today the information-semiotic approach to understanding culture is one of the main ones in cultural studies. It is on it that cultural scientists Kagan M.S., Karmin A.S., Solonin Yu.N. base their understanding of culture. and others, whose textbooks are recommended by the Ministry of Higher Education of the Russian Federation as basic.
Considering the main types of sign systems, students should take care to give examples for each of the types of sign systems. The clarity and persuasiveness of the examples contribute to a better understanding and assimilation of the program material.
Considering the issue of values, students should emphasize the role of values in culture, find out their nature and connection with norms, mentality, determine the types of values and their classification. It is important to imagine the system of value orientations of the individual and the factors of its formation.
The concept of a norm in cultural studies depends on the degree and specifics of the normativity of culture, the student should familiarize himself with various classifications of norms and give examples.
Seminar 3.Culture and religion.
Plan: 1. Religion in the cultural picture of the world. Basic elements and functions of religion.
2. World religions:
a) Buddhism: origins, teachings, sacred texts;
b) Christianity: the emergence and foundations of the Christian doctrine, denomination.
c) Islam: origins, dogma, confessions.
Literature:
1. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurayt, 2011.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. – M.: Higher education, 2011.
3. Karmin A.S. Culturology: a short course - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.
4. Culturology: uch.pos. / ed. G.V. Fight. - Rostov/Don: Phoenix, 2012.
5. Culturology. History of world culture / ed. A.N. Markova - M.: Unity, 2011.
6. Kostina A.V. Culturology: electronic textbook. – M.: Knorus, 2009.
7. Kvetkina I.I., Tauchelova R.I., Kulumbekova A.K. etc. Lectures on cultural studies. Uch. settlement - Vladikavkaz, ed. SK GMI, 2006.
Questions of religion are closely connected with culture. It is not for nothing that the root of the word culture is the word "cult" - veneration, worship of someone or something. That is why the seminar based on self-training students, proposed for the study of the most common religions in the world. As for Christianity and Islam, we live in a region where both of these confessions exist around us. By their religious origin, many students are Christians or Muslims, and it is not at all useful for them to know the basics of the religion of their ancestors.
When preparing the 1st question of the seminar, it should be understood that any religion is a fundamental factor in social life. Growing out of mythology, religion inherits from it a fundamental place in culture. At the same time, in a developed society, where art, philosophy, science, ideology, politics form independent spheres of culture, religion becomes their common, backbone spiritual basis. Its influence on the life of society was and remains very significant, and in some periods of history - decisive. Students should be able not only to list the main elements of religion, but also to comment on their content. And also tell in detail about the main functions of religion.
Unlike other world religions, Buddhism is often interpreted as a philosophical and religious teaching, a religion "without a soul and without God" - Siddhartha Gautama (563 - 486-473 BC) - Buddha, i.e. the "enlightened one" was a historical figure, the son of the king of the Shakyas, a small tribe that lived in the foothills of the Himalayas. He was deified by his followers after his death. Speaking about the origins of Buddhism, students should know that it grew out of ancient Indian Brahmanism. Buddhist philosophers borrowed from him the idea of rebirth. Today Buddhism is not only a religion, but also ethics and a certain way of life.
Shortly before his death, the Buddha formulated the principles of his teaching: the "four noble truths", the theory of causality, the impermanence of the elements, the "middle path", the "eightfold path". The task of students is not only to list, but also to be able to reveal the content of these principles, concluding that their ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana. Students need to understand that nirvana (explain the term) is the highest state of spiritual activity and energy that is free from base attachments. Buddha, having reached nirvana, preached his teaching for many more years.
The history of Christianity is detailed in many textbooks and manuals. When preparing this part of the question, it is important to present the origins of the emergence of a new religion in line with Judaism, the difference between Christianity and Judaism, and the foundations of the Christian doctrine (Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, the Creed). The Bible can be presented in 2 of its main parts - the Old and New Testaments. Moreover, students should have an idea about the essence of the New Testament itself as a new contract between God and people. Students also need to form an idea about the 3 main branches of Christianity - Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism and the main differences between them.
When preparing a question about Islam, it should be taken into account that Islam, as the youngest of the world religions, has absorbed a lot from both Judaism and Christianity, which is why Islam is ranked among Abrahamic religions. Muhammad (Mohammed) - the prophet of Islam, the last Messiah (according to the faith of Muslims), speaking out against the Arab paganism, with the help of the new faith proclaimed by him, contributed not only to the ethnic, but also to the state consolidation of the Arabs. This explains the presence in the original Islam of the idea of "jihad" ("ghazawat"). Students should trace the historical evolution of this idea and its modern embodiment in Islamic fundamentalism (in particular, the current of Wahhabism). The essence of the doctrine of Islam comes down to the recognition of the 5 "pillars of Islam", which students must not only state, but also explain. One should also trace the history of the creation of the Koran and the Sunnah, their role in the life of believers. Students should also have an idea about the main currents of Islam - Sunnism and Shiism.
Basic literature for the course:
1. Karmin A.S. Culturology: a short course - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 240 p.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. - M.: Higher education, 2010. - 566 p.
3. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurayt, 2011. - 495 p.
additional literature:
1. Culturology: textbook for bachelors and specialists / ed. G.V. Dracha and others - M .: Piter, 2012. - 384 p.
2. Markova A.N. Culturology. – M.: Prospekt, 2011. – 376 p.
3. Kostina A.V. Culturology. – M.: Knorus, 2010. – 335 p.
4. Gurevich P.S. Culturology: textbook. settlement - M .: "Omega-L", 2011. - 427 p.
5. Stolyarenko L.D., Samygin S.I. etc. Culturology: textbook. settlement - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2010. - 351s.
6. Viktorov V.V. Culturology: textbook. for universities. - M .: Financial University under the Rights. RF, 2013. - 410 p.
7. Yazykovich V.R. Culturology: teaching aid for universities. - Minsk: RIVSH, 2013. - 363 p.
Suggestedtopicssabstracts:
1. Cultural anthropology as an integral part of cultural studies. F. Boas. 2. Methods of cultural studies. 3. Semiotics as a science. 4. Culture as a text. 5. The essence and functions of the language of culture. 6. Plurality of languages of culture. 7. Symbol as a means of the language of culture. 8. Symbol in science and art. 9. The role of the value component in people's lives. 10. The value core of culture and factors influencing its formation. 11. The problem of correlation of values and motivations of the individual. 12. The problem of correlation of the world of values of the individual and society. 13. The meaning of mentality. 14. Mentality and national character. 15. Primitive and ancient mentalities. 16. Mentality in the Middle Ages. 17. Anthropological structure of culture. 18. "Cultural environment" and " natural environment”, their real correlation in human life. 19. The role of the game beginning in culture. 20. Culture and intelligence. 21. Historical dynamics of the existence of culture. 22. Beauty as the essence of art. 23. Artistic and scientific picture of the world. 24. Perception of a work of art. 25. Art and religion. The concept of "dehumanization" of art by J. Ortega y Gasset. 26. Art in the modern world. 27. Tradition and innovation in culture. 28. The laws of history and the development of culture. 29. The problem of historical and cultural typology. 30. Ethnos and culture in the concept of LN Gumilyov. 31. Ethnocultural stereotypes. 32. Semiotic types of cultures Yu.Lotman. 33. Youth subculture. 34. Counterculture as a mechanism of sociodynamics. 35. Countercultural phenomena. 36. Primitive painting. 37. Myth as a cultural phenomenon. 38. Myths in the life of the ancient Greeks. 39. Myth and magic. 40. Character traits myth and the logic of mythological thinking. 41. Sociocultural functions of myth and myths in modern culture. 42. Russia in the East-West system: confrontation or dialogue of cultures. 43. Russian national character. 44. Orthodox motives of Russian culture. 45. Westerners and Slavophiles about Russian culture and the historical fate of Russia. 46. christian temple as the center of spiritual and cultural life. 47. Secularization of Russian culture in the 17th century. 48. Features of the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia. 49. Typological model of culture F. Nietzsche. 50. The concept of cultural-historical types N.Ya.Danilevsky. 51. Typology of culture by O. Spengler and A. Toynbee. 52. The theory of socio-cultural dynamics P. Sorokin. 53. K. Jaspers on a single path of human development and its main stages. 54. The main threats and dangers to culture in the 21st century. 55. Technology as a socio-cultural phenomenon. 56. Prospects for the interaction of culture and nature in the 21st century. 57. Protection of cultural monuments. 58. Museums of the world and their role in the preservation of the cultural heritage of mankind. 59. Cultural universals in the modern world process.
(not global, but all).
The world religion is a religion that has spread among the peoples of different countries around the world. The difference between world religions from national and national-state religions in that in the latter the religious connection between people coincides with the ethnic connection (the origin of believers) or political. World religions are also called supranational, as they unite different nations on different continents. History of World Religions always closely connected with the course of the history of human civilization. List of world religions small. Religious scholars count three world religions which we will briefly review.
Buddhism.
Buddhism- oldest world religion, which originated in the VI century BC in the territory of modern India. At the moment, according to various researchers, it has from 800 million to 1.3 billion believers.
In Buddhism there is no creator god, as there is in Christianity. Buddha means enlightened. In the center of religion, the teachings of the Indian prince Gautama, who left his life in luxury, became a hermit and ascetic, thought about the fate of people and the meaning of life.
In Buddhism there is also no theory about the creation of the world (no one created and no one controls it), there is no concept of an eternal soul, there is no expiation of sins (instead of this - positive or negative karma), there is no such a multicomponent organization as the church in Christianity. Buddhism does not require absolute devotion and rejection of other religions from believers. It sounds funny, but Buddhism can be called the most democratic religion. Buddha is something like an analogue of Christ, but he is not considered either a god or a son of God.
The essence of the philosophy of Buddhism- the desire for nirvana, self-knowledge, self-contemplation and spiritual self-development through self-restraint and meditation.
Christianity.
Christianity arose in the 1st century AD in Palestine (Mesopotamia) on the basis of the teachings of Jesus Christ, which were described by his disciples (apostles) in the New Testament. Christianity is the largest world religion in geographical terms (it is present in almost all countries of the world) and in terms of the number of believers (about 2.3 billion, which is almost a third of the world's population).
In the 11th century, Christianity split into Catholicism and Orthodoxy, and in the 16th century, Protestantism also broke away from Catholicism. Together they make up the three major currents of Christianity. Smaller branches (currents, sects) are more than a thousand.
Christianity is monotheistic, although monotheism a little non-standard: the concept of God has three levels (three hypostases) - Father, Son, Holy Spirit. The Jews, for example, do not accept this; for them God is one, and cannot be binary or ternary. In Christianity, faith in God, service to God and a righteous life are of paramount importance.
The main manual of Christians is the Bible, which consists of the Old and New Testaments.
Both Orthodox and Catholics recognize the seven sacraments of Christianity (baptism, communion, repentance, chrismation, marriage, unction, priesthood). Main differences:
- the Orthodox do not have a Pope (single head);
- there is no concept of "purgatory" (only heaven and hell);
- priests do not take a vow of celibacy;
- slight difference in rituals;
- holiday dates.
Among Protestants, anyone can preach, the number of sacraments and the importance of rites are reduced to a minimum. Protestantism is, in fact, the least strict branch of Christianity.
Islam.
AT islam also one god. Translated from Arabic means "subjugation", "submission". God is Allah, the prophet is Mohammed (Mohammed, Mohammed). Islam ranks second in terms of the number of believers - up to 1.5 billion Muslims, that is, almost a quarter of the world's population. Islam originated in the 7th century on the Arabian Peninsula.
The Koran - the holy book of Muslims - is a collection of Muhammad's teachings (sermons) and were compiled after the death of the prophet. Of considerable importance is also the Sunnah - a collection of parables about Muhammad, and Shariah - a code of conduct for Muslims. In Islam, observance of rituals is of paramount importance:
- daily five times prayer (prayer);
- fasting in Ramadan (9th month of the Muslim calendar);
- distribution of alms to the poor;
- hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca);
- pronouncing the main formula of Islam (there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet).
Previously, the number of world religions also included Hinduism and Judaism. This data is now considered obsolete.
Unlike Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are related to each other. Both religions are Abrahamic religions.
In literature and cinema, such a concept as "one universe" is sometimes found. The heroes of different works live in the same world and may one day meet, as, for example, iron Man and Captain America. Christianity and Islam take place in "the same universe". Jesus Christ, Moses, the Bible are mentioned in the Koran, and Jesus and Moses are prophets. Adam and Chava are the first people on Earth according to the Quran. Muslims in some biblical texts also see the prophecy of the appearance of Muhammad. In this aspect, it is interesting to observe that especially severe religious conflicts arose precisely between these religions close to each other (and not with Buddhists or Hindus); but we will leave this question for the consideration of psychologists and religious scholars.
