Classification

In the practice of innovation management, various innovation classifiers are used.

Depending on technological parameters:

Product innovations include the use of new materials, new semi-finished products and components; obtaining fundamentally new products.

Process innovation means new methods of organizing production (new technologies).

Based on the type of novelty for the market, innovations are divided into:

new to the industry in the world;

new to the industry in the country;

new for a given enterprise (group of enterprises).

Based on the stimulus of appearance (source), we can distinguish:

innovations caused by the development of science and technology;

innovations driven by production needs;

innovation driven by market needs.

By place in the system (in an enterprise, in a company) we can distinguish:

innovations at the enterprise input (raw materials, equipment, information, etc.);

innovations at the output of the enterprise (products, services, technologies, information, etc.);

innovation of the system structure of the enterprise (managerial, production).

Depending on the depth of changes made, the following are distinguished:

radical (basic) innovations that implement major inventions and form new directions in the development of technology;

improving innovations that implement small inventions and prevail in the diffusion and stable development phases of the scientific and technological cycle;

modification (private) innovations aimed at partially improving outdated generations of equipment and technology.

The Institute for System Research (RNIISI) has developed an expanded classification of innovations taking into account the areas of activity of the enterprise:

technological;

production;

economic;

trading;

social;

in the field of management.

More in-depth and expanded with reference to scientists::

Classification of innovations according to P.N. Zavlin and A.V. Vasilyev.

Classification of innovations according to A.I. Prigogine.

Schumpeter's theory of innovation

Schumpeter introduced into economics the distinction between economic growth and economic development. The difference between these two concepts is most easily explained in the words of Schumpeter himself: “Put as many mail coaches in a row as you like, but you won’t have a railway.” The economic growth is the increase in production and consumption of the same goods and services (particularly mail coaches) over time. Economic development - this is, first of all, the emergence of something new, previously unknown (for example, railways), or, in other words, innovation . This is how Schumpeter himself defined innovation:

This concept includes five cases:

(1) Creation of a new product with which consumers are not yet familiar, or a new quality of product.

(2) The creation of a new production method, not yet tested in a given industry, which is not necessarily based on a new scientific discovery and may consist of a new form of commercial circulation of goods.

(3) The opening of a new market, that is, a market in which a given industry in a given country has not yet traded, regardless of whether that market previously existed.

(4) The discovery of a new source of factors of production, again regardless of whether this source existed previously or had to be created anew.

(5) Creation of a new industry organization, such as achieving a monopoly or eliminating a monopoly position.

Schumpeter called people who conceive and implement innovations entrepreneurs . By making innovative decisions, entrepreneurs create new, previously unknown combinations of production factors. This is why Schumpeter believed that entrepreneurship (or entrepreneurial ability ) there is a fourth factor of production, unknown to the classics.

The ideas proposed by Schumpeter have today already gone beyond the boundaries of economic science. Many companies (including very large ones) today are successfully transforming into business organizations, in which innovative decisions are made not only by top management. An entrepreneurial organization strives to profitably implement all innovations, regardless of their source.

How did the term “innovation” come about, and did it always have a positive connotation? What do experts mean when they talk about innovation now, and what types of innovation exist? Konstantin Fursov, Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor and Senior Researcher at the Laboratory of Economics of Innovation at the Institute of Statistical Research and Economics of Knowledge at the National Research University Higher School of Economics, answered these questions in his lecture.

Innovation according to Joseph Schumpeter

One of the first theorists to study innovation was the Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter. He drew attention to the fact that the basis of economic changes and growth is entrepreneurial activity. Schumpeter explored the question of how to distinguish a successful entrepreneur who achieves noticeable results in the market from an unsuccessful one. To do this, he tried to understand the essence of entrepreneurial activity and made an interesting observation: entrepreneurs who introduce a creative element into their work, offering something new, almost always win. They earn more profits, conquer new markets and provide breakthroughs in the economy.

According to Schumpeter, innovation can be classified into five types of results. The first is the introduction of a new product to the market, the appearance of a product or service that did not exist before. The second type of innovation is the emergence and application of a new production method. You don't have to do something new, but you can do it better than others by changing the way you make your product. The third type is the discovery of a market niche, an offer that no one has ever made before, a market that did not exist before. Inventions play a very important role here. Take, for example, a bicycle: at first glance, it is not only a means of transportation, but also entertainment and sport, which subsequently finds a wide range of buyers.

The fourth type of innovation according to Schumpeter is the acquisition or conquest of a new source of materials. Let's say you find some material for your factory that allows you to get a growth resource (for example, replacing flax with cotton when making clothes). Continue to produce clothing, but your source of raw materials may not be exploited by others, and then you will have unlimited opportunities to purchase it at a low price. The fifth option for innovation is the use of new methods of organizing production. Let's say you have a small candle factory with 100 employees, and you come up with a way to organize the work process so that they produce not 100, but 200 candles per day. Workers are allowed to take breaks, take walks, they rest for a while and become more actively involved in work.

For Schumpeter, these five elements are the hallmarks of good entrepreneurs who truly move forward. This allows you to save resources, optimize production processes, introduce new ideas to the market and open up opportunities, and therefore create “creative destruction”, that is, change the balance that exists in the market in your favor, extracting additional profit.

Photo: Anatoly Zhdanov / Kommersant

User Innovation

In many areas, industrial innovation is now giving way to consumer innovation. This question puzzled Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) professor Eric von Hippel, who proposed the idea of ​​user innovation. When he was little, he walked along the corridors of the said university, looked into the offices and watched how scientists worked. Von Hippel noticed that many researchers are constantly constructing some kind of devices - creating instruments, machines, improving their tools.

He began to ask them about their goals - after all, they could order new equipment. To this I received a simple answer: there is no equipment that would allow us to fully solve the required problem. The existing microscope, say, does not have a high enough resolution, another has an inconvenient wheel, and some other device for complex research does not exist at all and must be developed by yourself. Professor von Hippel, recalling this story, suggested that the main generator of innovation is the one who applies it, that is, the user.

It is important to understand that this may not be a person, but also a company and a community interested in finding a new solution. How can we explain the reason? Large firms prefer to operate in already established markets. It is risky for them to take any steps to introduce a new product into production if they are not sure that it will be in demand. Unlike manufacturing companies, users are not so interested in profits. It is much more important for them to find a solution to their problem, a way out of the current situation. They can easily take risks, because if it doesn’t work out, then nothing bad will happen, and if everything goes well, they will be able to answer some question or improve the quality of their life.

Von Hippel and his colleagues began to conduct comparative studies of such user innovations and noticed that this was a common phenomenon. One example he gives is John Gibbon's creation of the heart-lung machine.

John Gibbon was a pediatric surgeon. During operations, some patients experienced rheumatic shock and heart failure. Gibbon was very worried about the inability to make the heart beat again and created a project for a heart-lung machine. When he approached the manufacturers with a request to make such a device for him, they expressed uncertainty that other doctors would support the surgeon and that this could truly become a universal product that could save lives en masse. They were not ready to reconfigure production in order to make some unique machine, because this is a very serious cost.

Gibbon, with the help of familiar engineers, himself designed such a device and conducted clinical trials, first on animals and then on humans - all of them gave positive results. After this, the surgeon turned to his colleagues for support, presenting evidence that his machine could reduce mortality during operations. Doctors supported him, and he again went to the manufacturers with a prototype of the device. This time the words were heard, and now we have more modern compact heart-lung machines.

This is an example of a user innovation aimed not at making a profit, but at solving a specific problem. Von Hippel and many other researchers began looking for examples of such innovation and found that the percentage of user participation in the creation of new technical solutions was quite high. According to studies conducted from 1976 to 2009, depending on the type of innovation activity, the percentage of user participation in it ranges from 10 to 40.

In what areas does this happen? Of course, this is the already mentioned scientific and medical equipment - doctors and scientists are still involved in refining and creating new advanced analysis or treatment tools. The second interesting example is equipment for libraries. These are methods of cataloging and searching for literature. A very well-known innovation is the creation of so-called citation indices designed for searching and now analyzing the effectiveness of scientific research.

A lot of user innovation can be found in sports. Mountain bikes, kite surfing, kayaks are all examples of innovations created by amateur communities. In the consumer sector, such innovations are not enough, since the market is wide and diverse and the manufacturer is able, by ordering research, to adapt an existing product to the needs of customers.

Amateur communities, interest groups, and clubs play a very important role in creating innovations. Here is a simple example from Soviet practice: in the late 70s, a tourist group called “Water Tourism Technique” annually organized water slalom competitions - kayak races along rivers with rapids. Its members noticed that at some point tourists using imported (Czechoslovak or Polish) kayaks with an inflatable element began to win the competition. They gave better stability on the water, increased safety and made it possible to create more complex elements, and therefore win races.

As soon as the idea was noticed, a small group of one of these clubs, since they were all at that time attached to industrial research institutes or some large enterprises, found materials and designed their own model of a kayak, where the inflatable element formed the main part of the structure. The kayak was called “frame-inflatable”. Due to its size, its inflatable element gave the kayak a certain shape, which was not the case in foreign models that had a more or less standard configuration.

This allowed them to achieve absolutely fantastic results - they immediately began to win in all competitions. The kayak turned out to be lighter, it became more convenient to transport, it was safer and provided better maneuverability and speed. The group quickly spread the word about this decision, and subsequently many clubs also began to produce kayaks of this type.

We met with these people and asked if they had tried to contact manufacturers, go to their own factory, and suggest: “Let’s make these kayaks for the whole country!” They replied that they tried, but they were refused. The reasons are now quite difficult to establish, but similar situations are known. A similar story took place in the case of the rodeo kayak - a small, fast boat that allows you to overcome rapids on the river. As a rule, manufacturers are not interested in expanding the production of such a product if they do not see mass demand for it. Even a community of 300 people on the scale of the vast Soviet Union was hardly of interest to them.

This kayak ultimately remained the preserve of amateurs, and in the 90s, after the USSR collapsed, a number of similar clubs created production cooperatives and began producing such models. They are still on sale now.

Dentures for growth

Modern technologies make it quite easy to find like-minded people who get involved in the development of new projects and support others with their criticism, ideas, or even help to do something. One of these initiatives was the “Creating the Future” project, founded in 2013. It is focused on the production of children's prostheses. Children with disabilities need help, but the problem is that children's prosthetics are very difficult and expensive to create.

Children are growing up. If today you make an artificial hand, then in two years it will no longer suit the child. This is an attractive situation for the manufacturer because the prosthetics can be sold at a high price, but it is all very unattractive for these children because they may not have the money. Spending a large amount of money on a new prosthesis each time is expensive and, in a sense, ineffective. We can talk about very complex systems of government support and special programs, but a simple alternative was proposed by a researcher from the Rochester Institute of Technology, John Shul.

He noticed a YouTube video of a 3D printer owner creating a robotic arm. Schul thought this was a great opportunity to produce children's prosthetics. He launched a call on the Internet, organized a community, inviting all owners of 3D printers to join an open project for making prosthetics for children on their devices. The cost of such a finished prosthesis is only 35-50 dollars.

So far, this project is in a stage of active growth, and its results remain to be seen. But it is curious that it received a huge response - the community has already grown incredibly and covers almost all the developed countries of the world. In addition, it is based on a completely volunteer movement. People who donate time or materials do not make a profit. On the other hand, this system is completely open and transparent - you can exchange special models of prostheses, printing technologies, and there is an opportunity for a quick and easy exchange of ideas.

In fact, anyone can become an innovator now, because they are able to create and come up with some solutions. Sometimes it seems that a special gift or a purposeful search is needed. Actually this is not true. A series of studies were conducted in the USA, Great Britain, Japan, in which ordinary people were asked whether, over the past three years, they had to do something new in their everyday life, modify or improve an already purchased product, adapting it to their needs.

It turned out that there are such people, but there are very few of them - in different countries from three to nine percent. Examples of improvements are very simple: toys for children, automatic feeders for animals, video surveillance systems, garden tools (watering systems, plant care). There are many examples of consumer, or “home”, innovation in everyday life. Another thing is that this is not something we are used to talking about from the height of theory. It is unlikely that most such solutions will find mass markets.

If you ask these same people if they have told anyone about their invention, it becomes clear that they have even fewer. It would be wrong to say that everyone is their own innovator. Yes, indeed, we are all trying to improve our lives a little, but it is not at all a fact that we want to make some profit from it, and if we do, we don’t always know how.

American economist of Austrian origin Joseph Schumpeter (1883 - 1950) studied the problems of market conditions, the history of economic doctrines and the economic system. He owns the concept of economic dynamics and cycles, in which the central place is given to the entrepreneurial function.

Economic dynamics are based on the spread of various innovations that are initiated by existing economic agents.

Schumpeter defines an economic agent as an entrepreneur who constantly “throws” new things into the economy and thereby changes the very position of equilibrium. It is entrepreneurs who cause the growth and metamorphosis of the economy by taking risks and inventing new combinations of the use of factors of production. They are the ones who contribute to the release of new products, use already known materials more efficiently, introduce new equipment and technologies, develop new markets, and move to more rational forms of organizing and managing production. Schumpeter assigned the most important role in the economic process to changes and innovations, leading to the replacement of the old with the new in the process of free creativity.

Having become acquainted with the theory of N. D. Kondratiev, I. Schumpeter highly appreciated the concept of large cycles of the environment and introduced the concept of “Kondratiev cycles”. Combining his developments on the role of the entrepreneur in the process of economic development and Kondratieff’s theory of long-term fluctuations in economic dynamics, Schumpeter created the theory of innovation cycles, in which he defined long-wave fluctuations as one of the forms of manifestation of economic dynamics generated by the innovation process.

According to Schumpeter, the incentive to search for and implement new combinations is profit, which becomes a reward for innovation. The decisive role here is played not by competition in prices or quality, but by competition between new products, technologies, sources of supply, and organizational forms. Initially, the competition of innovations that contribute to the growth of products and profits is enjoyed by a small number of entrepreneurs, those who use them before others. When innovation spreads, production costs level out and profits disappear.

According to Schumpeter, the central actor in the process of change within a system is the entrepreneur, who introduces innovations during periods of calm and balance. Such innovations lead to disruption of continuity, require the abandonment of the old (products, forms of organization, etc.) in favor of the unusual new and are associated with risk. The old is forced out - the process of “creative destruction” begins.

However, Schumpeter’s concept of “creative destruction” is gradually losing its former theoretical power, since it is difficult to explain with its help new economic phenomena generated by the modern dynamics of globalization, when a decline in business activity may be accompanied by the increasing dominance of a particular country and the introduction of advanced technologies and developments into mass production with a reduction in employment in high-tech industries. The speed of economic change is currently so great, and the inertia of economic knowledge is so strong, that economic science in some cases simply cannot keep up with current changes.

The legacy of J. Schumpeter continues to be actively studied by scientists who represent various trends in economic science, each taking what represents the greatest value and the least threat.

J. Schumpeter considered the founder of innovation theory. He proposed a complete concept of economic development (“Theory of Economic Development” (1912), the center of which lies "implementation of new combinations"(or “innovation” after 1939). “To produce means to combine existing resources and capacities. Producing new goods or producing in a new way means looking for different combinations of resources and production capacities.” According to J. Schumpeter, only radically different combinations of production factors can lead to the development and transition of the economy to a qualitatively new level, while gradual changes in technology lead only to individual improvements.

The ideas expressed by J. Schumpeter at the beginning of the 20th century were in many ways revolutionary for economic thought and, perhaps, not fully compatible with the realities generated by the First World War, the Great Depression and, later, the Second World War. His approach was largely drowned out by Keynesianism and neoclassical economics, which were then more in line with the spirit of the times. Therefore, after the death of J. Schumpeter, consideration of many of the ideas he outlined moved rather to the periphery of economic discussions and a detailed study of the role of innovation in economic development was postponed for several decades, giving way to neoclassical theory.

Schumpeter defined innovation this way:: “(...) By changes in the supply of goods we mean a wider range of events than may appear in the literal sense. We include here the introduction of new products to the market, which seems to be the most typical case; changing methods of producing goods already in circulation, Taylorism (scientific organization of labor), improving the processing of materials, creating new organizational structures, such as department stores. In short, we mean “doing things differently” in the economic sphere - all these cases we will denote by the term “innovation.”

In an even later work, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (first published in 1942), J. A. Schumpeter defines innovation as process of "creative destruction"[Schumpeter, 1995, chapter 7].

Schumpeter, in his work Business Cycles (1939), first introduced the term “innovation” and classified them into 5 groups:

- innovation-products;

- process innovation;

- radical(basic);

- improving, T technological;

-economic innovation.

He considered mainly economic innovation.

Innovation, according to Schumpeter, - This is an invention put into practice, i.e. innovation results from the commercialization of an idea or invention.

INNOVATION= INVENTION + ITS COMMERCIALIZATION

Schumpeterian understanding of innovation in 1979. was expanded S. Blacksmith(Kuznets, 1979), who showed that innovation has not only a technological, but also a social aspect. To realize the potential of new technologies social change needed(ideological, institutional, etc.), which together with dominant in a particular historical era Technological innovation defines economic eras. Thus, each historical era is associated with a set « landmark innovations » (term proposed by S. Kuznets).

EPIC INNOVATION= TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION + SOCIAL INNOVATION

In many cases, social innovation occurs in such a way that the maximum utility of technological innovation can be achieved. For example, S. Kuznets notes that Without corporations and banks, the industrial revolution - the use of steam engines - would have been impossible. In this way it would be very difficult to achieve the development of the industry railways without appropriate development securities market- another social innovation.

This expanded view of innovation is described in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. The relationship between social and technological innovation

Note: X-axis of the independent variable is “technological innovation”, Y-axis of the dependent variable is “social innovation”. That is social innovation - dependent variable, which determines the possibilities of widespread use and application of individual technological innovations that have arisen spontaneously. Positive values ​​on the Y axis mean that the social structure promotes the spread of technological innovation, negative values ​​are an obstacle. Positive values ​​on the X axis mean what is innovation- based on existing technologies and production capabilities, i.e. can be relatively easily introduced into mass production, negative- we are talking, rather, about “ invention on paper", for which there is no technological possibility for mass production

Incentives for innovation – 1) unmet needs, which give rise to conflict and encourage the intellect to invent more and more new ways to satisfy these needs.2) Competition– also an incentive for innovation.

Yakovets: « Innovation – this is a general sociological pattern, the engine and incentive for the progress of society in all its diversity.”

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “innovation”, “innovation” and “novelty”.

Innovation – This is any invention, method, order, method proposed by the authors.

Innovation– the innovation used (even on a limited scale).

Innovationis a commercialized innovation that has received wide use. Themselves innovation should be understood as commercially profitable inventions. It is at the moment when a certain idea makes it possible to extract practical benefits from it that it becomes economically, and not just socially significant.

INSERT SLIDE ON OSLO GUIDE

Today description technological innovation based on international standards, recommendations for which were adopted in Oslo in 1992 (the so-called "Oslo Guide"»). « Innovation - there is the introduction of any new or a significantly improved product (product or services) or process, new method marketing or a new organizational method in business practices, workplace organization or external relations" . This definition is given in a regulatory document Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat) which is called Oslo Manual (Guidelines for collecting and analyzing data on innovation).These standards cover new products and new processes, as well as significant technological changes. The Oslo Guide is the main source of conceptual and terminological base in the field of planning and accounting for innovative activities of enterprises, industries and countries, widely recognized at the international level. The first edition of the document was adopted in 1992, and is currently in force. third edition.

Oslo Guide highlights four types of innovation , which cover a wide range of changes observed in the activities of enterprises: product, process, organizational and marketing. Grocery innovation is the introduction of a product or service that is new or significantly improved in terms of its properties or methods of use. This includes significant improvements in technical specifications, components and materials, firmware, user friendliness or other functional characteristics.

Process Innovation is the introduction of a new or significantly improved method of producing or distributing a product. This includes significant changes in technology, manufacturing equipment and/or software. Marketing Innovation is the introduction of a new marketing method, including significant changes in product design or packaging, storage, promotion, or pricing. Organizational innovation is the introduction of a new organizational method in a firm's business practices, workplace organization, or external relations.

Sources and initiators of innovation –

Innovation have existed for many thousands of years: bows, arrows, cattle breeding, agriculture, crafts, construction, etc. Those. They appeared long before science appeared. Therefore, it is incorrect to say that science is the only source of innovation. Watt's steam engine, the Cherepanov brothers' locomotive, Thomas Edison's inventions, etc. – these are not scientists, but practitioners. Ford (entrepreneur) – initiator of innovation.

Innovation initiators can be:

· Scientists;

· Inventors (scientists, but not always);

· Entrepreneurs, managers, bankers, investors;

· People of creative professions (scientists putting forward new theories; cultural figures, teachers, architects, musicians; founders of ethical teachings, etc.;

· Political and government figures;

· Military leaders and specialists who proposed more effective methods of conducting combat operations, organizing wars, using weapons.

TYPES OF INNOVATION (according to Yakovets Yu.V.).

1) By scope:

- technological (innovation-product and innovation-process); It is these innovations that underlie the satisfaction of growing needs, changes in generations of equipment, and technological methods of production;

- environmental innovation ( ensure rational use of resources involved in production and more efficient methods of their reproduction);

- economic innovation: effective forms of organization, specialization, cooperation, concentration, diversification of production, methods of labor organization, new financial and credit institutions and instruments; types of securities, methods of managing economic processes, forecasting their dynamics and changes in market conditions, etc.

- socio-political innovations: new forms of organizing social movements and political parties, providing assistance to the unemployed, pensioners, and children. Health care organizations, etc.;

- state legal innovations: new forms of organization of state power (legislative, executive, judicial) and management at the municipal, regional, national and interstate levels, adoption or adjustment of legal documents, organization of elections and renewal of government bodies, etc.;

- innovations in the spiritual sphere: scientific discoveries, inventions, hypotheses, concepts, theories; artistic, musical and literary innovations; use of more effective forms of education; new ethical standards, ideological aspirations, etc.

- military and law enforcement innovations: new methods of conducting combat operations, organizing armed forces and law enforcement forces, maintaining the security of citizens and the state, fighting criminal structures, crime prevention, etc.

II. CRITERION FOR CLASSIFICATION OF INNOVATIONS – LEVEL OF NOVELTY OF INNOVATIONS:

-Landmark Innovation: carried out once every few centuries , last for decades, lead to profound transformations in one or another sphere of social life and mark the transition to a new technological or economic mode of production, socio-cultural system, another world civilization (for example, the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, the emergence of writing, states, the industrial revolution, scientific and technological revolution , the growth of globalization, the creation of firearms and thermonuclear weapons, etc.).

- Basic Innovation: radical changes in the technological base and methods of organizing production, state-legal and sociocultural system, spiritual life, etc. . Basic innovations have been observed in recent centuries, observed approximately every 50 years. For example, the transition from one technical specification to another; radical transformations within the existing world civilization and so on.

EXAMPLES: The formation of monopolies, joint-stock companies, mining and metallurgical complexes, etc. Basic innovations are also expressed in the creation of new industries, forms of organization of production, state legal institutions, scientific and art schools, etc.

- Improving innovations: development and modification of basic innovations, their distribution in different areas, taking into account their specifics.

Streams of improving innovations follow waves of basic innovations. They are an order of magnitude more numerous, but are distinguished by significantly less novelty and a shorter life cycle. The effect brought by each of them is usually much less than that of basic innovations, but due to their mass nature, the total amount of the effect is greatest. It is in improving innovation that the spirit of innovation.

- Micro-innovations: are aimed at improving individual parameters of manufactured products, technology used, economic, political, social systems and usually do not bring any significant effect.

- Pseudo-innovations: highlighted these innovations Gerhard Mensch. This false paths of human ingenuity and enterprise aimed at partial improvement and prolongation of the agony of fundamentally outdated technologies, social systems and institutions. As an exception, pseudo-innovation can breathe new life into an outdated institution, push it to a new turn of the spiral of its life cycle. But usually it is generated by force of habit, conservatism, is doomed to failure and hinders social progress. Pseudo-innovations are common at the final stage innovation life cycle (see Fig. 2).

- Anti-innovation:(entered Yu.V. Yakovets)– innovations that are reactionary in nature mean a step back in one or another area of ​​human activity.

III. SPATIAL SPHERE OF INNOVATION (DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION)

Innovations have different territorial fields. Epochal and basic innovation spreads gradually, starting from the epicenter and covering the entire populated territory of the planet, deeply transforming it. Improving Innovations, as a rule, are limited to the territory of a country, region, city, and the smallest of them - to an enterprise. organization, team (spot innovation)

outlined in his work

The theory of “diffusion of innovations” by the Swedish scientist T. Hegerstrandt outlined in his work "Diffusion of Innovations as a Spatial Process" (1953). According to this theory, economic development - the result of the diffusion of innovations between countries and regions. Diffusion May be three types: 1) expansion diffusion(when innovation spreads evenly in all directions from the point of origin), 2) diffusion movement(spread in a certain direction) and 3) mixed type.

One generation (generation) of innovations has four stages : emergence, diffusion, accumulation and saturation. Under Innovation T. Hegerstrandt understood technical improvements, new sources of raw materials and energy, and scientific and technological progress in general. Basic concepts of the innovation diffusion model – distance, field, contact, information. Innovation is considered only in agriculture . T. Hägerstrand's theory reflects the wave-like nature of the diffusion of innovation generations. In ideological terms, it is close to the theory of large cycles (“long waves”) of the Russian economist N.D. Kondratieva.

new combinations of factors of production

2. Economist S. Yu. Glazyev highlightsfivetechnological structures:

new textile technologies

steam energy technologies

electric power technologies

petrochemical technologies and energy of internal combustion engines

computer science and microelectronics technologies

3.Based on average industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

change of the active part of capital (machinery equipment, vehicles, etc.)

4. The basis of long industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

change of the passive part of capital (buildings, structures, communications, transmission devices, etc.)

5.Based on short industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

market changes in relation to certain types of products

6. Scientific theory developed by N.D. Kondratiev, which found its direct application in innovation theory:

theory of long waves, or large cycles of business

7. Scientific theory developed by J. Schumpeter, which found its direct application in innovation theory

theory of long, medium and short business cycles

8. Duration of short industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

3 - 3.5 years

9. Duration of long industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

40 – 60 years

10. Duration of average industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

11. The development of railway transport has become the core of the ### technological structure:

12. Alternative areas of innovation activity carried out in an integrated innovation management system:

innovations-products

innovations-processes

modification of products (including services)

13. An application for an emerging idea for something new that requires attracting the attention of participants in the innovation process to organize work at all stages and phases of the innovation cycle is...

innovative idea

14. The result of the practical implementation of an innovative idea is manifested in finished product of changes

15. Legal regulation of innovation activity in the innovative macroenvironment is a component of the organization...

innovative macroenvironment

16. The main practical goal of innovation management:

increasing the organization's innovative activity

17. A comprehensive characteristic of innovation activity, including the degree of intensity of the actions taken and their timeliness, as well as the ability to mobilize the organization’s potential:

Innovation activity

18. NOT elements of the innovation system

basic innovation strategies

19. NOT components of the innovative macroenvironment (distant environment):

resource support for the innovation process

20. NOT components of the innovative microenvironment (close environment):

organizational innovation culture

21. NOT components of an innovative internal environment:

innovation infrastructure

22. Strategies that ensure a gradual increase or stabilization of the organization’s innovative potential:

extensive development

personnel development

23. Strategies that provide the opportunity to dramatically increase the innovative potential of an organization:

diversification

integration development

intensive development

24. Strategies that provide the opportunity to overcome the accumulating technological gap of the organization:

innovative development

R&D development

25. Strategies that provide the opportunity to acquire a new quality of the organization’s innovative potential:

personnel development

integration development

26. The system of interaction between innovators, investors, producers of competitive products (services) and developed infrastructure is called innovation

27. The desired result of an organization's activities, achieved on the basis of implemented innovation in a limited time frame and with limited resources, is called innovation.

purpose of the organization

28. Quantitative and qualitative determination of the results of an organization’s development in the form of acquiring new qualities of its activities, products of labor and its condition, as a rule, is expressed in the form of innovative

activities (m.b.programs) of the organization

29. The resources and organizational mechanism expected or already mobilized to achieve an innovative goal or strategy form

innovative potential of the organization

30. Types of innovative potential are NOT distinguished in innovation management

functional

31. Project innovation potential is...

opportunities that can be realized within the framework of an innovative project

32. the tool with the help of which the innovative goal of an organization is structured is called

decomposition

33. The first stage of the innovation life cycle:

creation of innovation

34. Second stage of the innovation life cycle:

development (implementation) of innovation

35. Third stage of the life cycle:

commercialization of innovation (introduction to market)

36. The fourth stage of the innovation life cycle:

consumption of innovation (including updating of other products or technology)

37. Fifth stage of the innovation life cycle:

consumer purchase of innovation

38. The first stage of the product innovation life cycle:

R&D for product creation

39. The second stage of the product innovation life cycle:

technological preparation and organization of mass production of the product

40. The third stage of the product innovation life cycle:

large-scale product release

41. The fourth stage of the product innovation life cycle:

reduction in output volumes and discontinuation of product production

42. The first stage of the life cycle of technological innovation:

R&D to create technology

43. Educational function assigned to engineering centers as organizational forms of innovative activity:

training a new generation of engineers with the necessary level of qualifications and a broad scientific and technical outlook

44. Strategic areas of management in an organization are components:

external microenvironment

45. The second stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

industrial development of technology (2)

46. The third stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

dissemination and replication of technology

47. The fourth stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

purchase of innovation by the consumer (4)

48. Commercialization of innovations: bringing innovation to market

Commercialization of innovations– this is attracting investors to finance the implementation of an innovation (part of the innovation process) on the basis of participation in future profits if successful

Commercialization of innovations:

The process of bringing innovations to market commercially

49. The process of routinization of technology includes:

Rutinization- mastering innovation processes in stable, constantly functioning elements of objects.

50. Organizations created on the basis of large US universities with financial support from the government to stimulate the development of new technologies:

Engineering centers

51. The research function assigned to engineering centers as organizational forms of innovation activity:

study of the fundamental laws underlying the engineering design of fundamentally new engineering systems

52. The main purpose of operating a business incubator:

creating conditions that ensure an easy start, rapid development of SMEs, and high survival of enterprises.

53. Types of business incubators that are NOT organized in practice:

non-profit (non-profit) organizations

54. Management and implementation of a complex of innovative projects are organized in the form...

Innovation programs

55.Individual innovative projects in innovation programs are interconnected:

Functionally

56. Directions along which individual innovative projects in innovation programs must be coordinated

By deadlines, performers and resources

57. An organization that cannot become a subject of an innovation program: infrastructure organization

58. Leverage in innovation: the use of borrowed funds with a fixed interest rate to increase profits is one of the principles of the “leverage effect”

59. "Venture" is...

an investment company working exclusively with innovative enterprises and projects (startups).

A small company for solving innovative projects

60. "Venture company" is...

form of organization of risk enterprises testing or implementing an innovative idea

61. The discounting operation when determining the profitability of innovative projects consists in bringing future costs to current ones . To calculate the discount factor, the following data are used: 1) on the profitability of alternative projects; 2) about the level of risk premium; 3) about the level of inflation.

62. Risks related to the risks of legal support for an innovative project to create a joint venture for the extraction of rare earth metals from waste and scrap: underestimation of the specifics of the procedure for exporting rare earth metals abroad.

63. Risks related to the risks of a commercial proposal for an innovative project for the construction of toll highways:

1) errors in assessing the potential road capacity

2) significant excess of the estimated cost of work

3) failure of suppliers to fulfill their obligations to supply road surfaces of adequate quality

64. Ranking is...

ranking is a kind of rating. Rankings are carried out in the investment sector of the economy, insurance, real estate sector, etc. The rating method is based on ranking risk factors according to the degree of their influence on the results of innovation.

1)questionnaire

2)interview

3)test tests

66. Expert methods of risk analysis are primarily used if

the information available for analysis is not sufficiently relevant and representative.

67. Expert risk assessment methods:

1)brainstorming

2)questionnaire

5)interview

Expert assessment method- here comparative characteristics of the risk level are compiled, ratings are determined, and analytical expert reviews are prepared.

68. Risk-free innovation projects from the point of view of quantitative risk assessment

1) there is not a single factor that could negatively affect the progress and results of innovation

2) in the implementation of which the probability of risk situations occurring is almost equal to 0

3) the only possible result of the implementation of innovation

69. The most expected result of an innovation project, calculated taking into account its risks, is determined...

according to the mathematical expectation formula as the sum of the products of possible results and the probability of obtaining these results

70. The higher the volatility indicator, the higher the risk level of the project

71. The risk level indicator characterizes:

probability of a risk situation occurring

72. The risk price indicator characterizes:

the most expected result of an innovation, its usefulness

73. "Risk-free zone" is...

Risk-free zone - the area in which zero losses or negative losses (excess profits) are expected.

74. Risks that can be classified as commercial risks of an innovative project:

Scientific and technical risks, Project legal risks, Commercial proposal risks

75. Pure risks of an innovation project - risks, ...:

associated with objective circumstances independent of the decisions made

76. Speculative risks of an innovative project - risks, ...

associated with divergence of interests of the company and society

77. Static risks of an innovation project - risks

the occurrence or consequences of which are characterized by relatively constant values ​​of indicators

78. Dynamic risks of an innovative project - risks, ...

the occurrence or consequences of which are characterized by constantly changing values ​​of indicators

79. The investor's credit risk when implementing an innovative project is...

80. The credit risk of an innovator when implementing an innovative project is...

non-payment by the innovator of the principal debt and interest for the loan provided, as well as late payments under the loan agreement

81. The method of analogies in managing an innovative project is used to...

development of scenarios for the implementation of an innovative project

82. Elements NOT included in the innovation doctrine:

the subject of innovation activity as a factor of production undergoing changes

83. Refers to venture capital:

investments attracted in the form of issuing venture shares by venture companies and having potentially higher growth rates of market value compared to average market dynamics

84. Identification of risks of innovative projects consists in comparison of indicators of risk and usefulness of innovations.

85. The Monte Carlo method when analyzing the risks of an innovation project is used for:

1) identifying the most significant risks of an innovative project (+)

2) determining the impact of risk situations on the final result of the project

86. The operation of risk cumulation during the implementation of innovative projects consists of

concentration of the danger of the simultaneous occurrence of events entailing large payments of insurance compensation.

87. The risk measure indicator in innovation activity characterizes...

1) pessimistic assessment of the possible result of the implementation of innovation

2) mathematical expectation of losses as a result of a risk situation

88. The Lorenz curve is used to estimate the indicator...

income over different periods of time or between different population groups

Used to assess the indicator - risk level.

89. The concordance coefficient when conducting an examination of the risks of an innovative project shows:

the extent to which expert opinions are consistent with each other, that is, they belong to the same general population of assessments.

90. The standard deviation (Z coefficient) when assessing the risks of an innovative project is calculated based on...

statistics necessary for a qualified judgment about the sufficiency of the profitability index

91. Factor that determines the accuracy and reliability of the results when conducting an examination of the risks of an innovative project

qualifications of experts, independence of their judgments, as well as methodological support for the manifestation of expertise

92. The effect of financial leverage is... change in return on equity obtained through the use of borrowed funds

93. The freedom of maneuver of an organization when attracting borrowed funds depends on... differential and leverage

94. The effect of financial leverage is formed due to...

1) the excess of return on assets over the price of borrowing funds, increasing the return on equity

2)increasing return on equity

95. Mortgage debt is included in...

long-term liabilities

96. Own working capital is... the difference between current assets and current liabilities of an enterprise.

97. Miller-Orr Model is used to control...

company's cash

funds on the current account

98. The type of fund, the operating structure of which corresponds to the right of the investor to make a daily demand to the management company to repurchase the investment share:

Closed-end corporate fund

99. Permissible delay in submitting documents confirming payment of shares from the moment the registrar makes a credit entry on the personal account of the owner of investment shares:

no deferment provided

100. Investment share:

is a registered security and certifies the owner’s right to submit a demand to the management company for the redemption of the share

101. When the Altman Z-score is less than 1.8...

the perceived probability of bankruptcy is very high

102. Expenses do NOT affect cash flow:

Cash flow– the difference between the amounts of cash receipts and payments for a certain period of time. For example, Does not affect: disposal of fixed assets

103. Additional issue of shares:

increasing the authorized capital due to the issue (issue) of an additional number of shares.

104. To assess the market value of an organization, the following indicators are used:

Financial and economic, Actual, Standardized indicators

105. The efficiency of using equity capital is characterized by the following indicator:

return on equity

106. The correct definition of a full license to use industrial property:

the patent owner may assign, i.e. transfer the received patent under an agreement to any person, while losing the right to use it

107. Payment under an exclusive license agreement, received at a time, after the licensor has transferred technical documentation for the licensed object to the licensee:

lump sum payment

108. Payment under a non-exclusive license agreement, received at a time, after the license object reaches its designed capacity:

lump sum payment

109. Payments under a license agreement, received monthly in the form of a percentage of sales of products released under the license:

110. Payments under a license agreement, received monthly in the form of fixed deductions from a unit of sales of products released under an exclusive license:

fixed royalties

111. The maximum validity period of a patent for an invention, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office, is...

112. The maximum validity period of a patent for an industrial design, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office and possible extension, is...

Fifteen years

113. The maximum validity period of a patent for an industrial design, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension):

114. The maximum validity period for registration of an appellation of origin of goods, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension:

115. The maximum validity period for registration of an appellation of origin of goods, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office and possible extension:

116. The maximum validity period of a registration certificate for a utility model, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension):

the publisher, whose name or designation is indicated on the work, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, is considered the representative of the author and, in this capacity, has the right to protect the rights of the author and ensure their implementation.

118. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the author of the work is considered to be a person...

119. Subjects of related rights are:

performers, phonogram producers, broadcasting or cable broadcasting organizations

120. A trademark is protected by the following standards:

Law of the Russian Federation “On Trademarks, Service Marks and Appellations of Origin of Goods”

121. An invention is...

a technical solution that is relatively new for a specific organization

Invention is a new technical solution to a problem that raises the existing level of technology. In a narrow sense, an invention is a technical solution recognized as an invention.

122. A utility model is...

a new, industrially applicable technical solution that resembles an invention in its external features, but is less significant from the point of view of the state of the art

- constructive implementation of means of production and consumer goods, as well as their components.

123. An industrial design is...

This is an artistic and constructive solution of a product that determines its appearance, which, along with the technical level, determines the level of competitiveness of the product.

124. "Innovation Doctrine" - ...

a system of basic provisions developed by the leadership of the state (region, industry, large corporation) and determining the state policy in this direction.

125. The classification of risks of innovative projects is...

distribution of risk by categories, subtypes, groups and subgroups and other levels. It is precisely because of the variety of risks of innovative projects that the classification of risks is carried out not on an end-to-end basis, but on a block basis. Risks can be external, internal or mixed.

126. The essence of the analogy method in managing the risks of an innovative project:

represents the development of a risk management strategy for a specific innovative project based on an analysis of the database on the implementation of similar projects and similar conditions for their implementation (state of the external environment).

127. The decision tree method for analyzing the risks of an innovation project is based on the risk model:

A spatially oriented graph reflecting the sequence of decision-making and the conditions for their implementation, assessment of intermediate results taking into account their conditional probability

128. The Dupont formula is a factor model that expresses the dependence of profitability...

From turnover, liquidity and capital structure

129. Functions of the state that are implemented in the implementation of state innovation policy:

Creating favorable economic conditions for innovation, financing fundamental research and searching for research, organizing support for priority areas of development of science, engineering and technology

130 . When assessing the risk of an innovative project, the Z coefficient is the standard deviation...

that one will show swing range, which was inherent in profitability I in the studied past and which will need to be compared with the “margin of safety” in a reliable assessment of the project’s effectiveness, i.e. with the project profitability index

131. The financial and operational needs of the organization are...

the difference between funds immobilized in inventories and customer debt and the enterprise's debt to suppliers; - is the difference between the current assets and current liabilities of the enterprise

132. The external growth rate of an organization is the growth rate...

world economy, dynamics of world oil prices, global demand and export volumes of Russian hydrocarbons, processes of integration and Russia’s accession to the World Trade Organization, the scale of payments on external debt

133. Internal growth rate of an organization - growth rate

the intensity of economic reform, the pace of liberalization and price increases of natural monopolies, inflation dynamics, the rate of real strengthening of the ruble, the dynamics of gross domestic product, the scale of capital export, government spending

134. The correct definition of a simple (non-exclusive) license to use industrial property:

A simple license (non-exclusive) provides for the transfer to the licensee of the rights to use an object of intellectual property while preserving for the licensor the right to independently use the license and issue similar licenses to other interested parties

135. The correct definition of the formal (preliminary) examination of an application for a patent for an invention:

Formal (preliminary) examination consists of checking the availability of the necessary documents , compliance with legal requirements, the relationship of the declared proposal to the objects that are granted legal protection.

136. The correct definition of the examination of an application for a patent for an invention on the merits (patent examination):

Patent examination - (English patent examination) - examination conducted by the national patent office in order to verify compliance with the patentability requirements of the proposal contained in the patent application, establishing compliance with the requirements of unity of invention , utility model or industrial design, as well as to resolve a number of other issues related to patenting.

ideas, concepts, principles, methods, processes, systems, methods, solutions to technical, organizational or other problems, discoveries, facts, programming languages.

138. A license to use intellectual property is...

a special permit to carry out a specific type of activity subject to mandatory compliance with licensing requirements and conditions, issued by the licensing authority to a legal entity or individual entrepreneur

139. A patent is...

a document certifying state recognition of a technical solution as an invention and assigning to the person to whom it was issued (the patent holder) the exclusive right to this invention.