Endocrine glands are produced. Which glands belong to the endocrine glands? Functions of the endocrine glands. Thyroid and parathyroid glands

Endocrine glands are also called endocrine or endocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormones. The glands owe their name to the absence of excretory ducts. The active substances they produce begin to be released into the blood.

The human endocrine glands include:

• Adrenal glands.
• Pancreas.
• Hypothalamic-pituitary system.
• Thymus.
• Epiphysis.
• Sex glands.

Short description

The table below gives a general description of what are called endocrine glands.

Features of the hypothalamus

In its anatomical essence it does not belong to the endocrine glands. It includes nerve cells that synthesize hormones into the blood.

Nuclear formations of the hypothalamic region are involved in maintaining normal body temperature. The preoptic zone contains neurons responsible for monitoring blood temperature.

You should also list the other functions of the hypothalamus:

• regulation of cardiac system functions;
• regulation of the functions of the vascular system;
• regulation of water balance;
• regulation of contractile activity of the uterus;
• regulation of behavioral activity;
• formation of feelings of hunger and satiety.

The most common lesion of the hypothalamus is prolactinoma. Most often it occurs in women. With this hormonally active tumor begins to be produced. Another formidable pathology is diagnosed in people of both sexes.

Features of the pituitary gland

A small gland, the mass of which varies from 0.5 to 0.7 grams, is called. It is located in the pituitary fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. This hormone consists of the anterior, intermediate and posterior lobes.

The anterior lobe secretes the following substances:

• Somatotropic.
• Gonadotropic.

The somatotropic hormone, which controls metabolic processes and also controls muscle and bone growth, is of great importance. A thyroid stimulating agent is intended to control the thyroid gland. Adrenocorticotropic substance controls the functioning of the adrenal cortex.

Pituitary gland deficiency leads to. Doctors believe that this disease is no less dangerous than diabetes. An excess leads to menstrual irregularities in women and impotence in men.

Features of the endocrine thyroid organ

The endocrine thyroid organ plays a huge role in the human body, which contributes to the release of the following iodine-containing substances:

• thyroxine;
• terocalcitonin;
• triiodothyronine.

The substances it produces control phosphorus and calcium metabolism, as well as the level of energy expenditure, most of which are necessary for the body. The parathyroid glands secrete hormones that increase calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood.

The normal functioning of the thyroid gland, as well as its productivity, is achieved through the regular intake of 200 mcg of iodine into the body. People receive it through food, liquid, and air. Insufficient gland function can lead to hypothyroidism. Young women with insufficient thyroid function often experience obsessive-compulsive disorder. Many girls develop depression against this background.

Deficiency adversely affects the state of the vascular and cardiac systems. The normal functioning of the heart is disrupted, and against this background, heart failure develops. 30 percent of patients have low blood pressure.

Features of the adrenal glands

Hormones in the adrenal glands are produced by the cortex and medulla. Corticosteroids are synthesized in the cortex. In addition, the following zones produce hormones:

• glomerular;
• fascicular;
• mesh.

In the zona glomerulosa, not only the production of mineralocorticoids and deoxycorticosterone is controlled, but also their mineral metabolism. The zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids, cortisol and corticosterone. It also controls the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates and proteins.

The reticular zone produces androgens and sex hormones. The medulla is a supplier and. Adrenaline is responsible for positive emotions. Norepinephrine controls nervous processes.

Features of the pancreas

Doctors consider the pancreas to be a mixed gland. It is located in the abdominal cavity, at the level of the bodies of one or two lumbar vertebrae behind the stomach.

The gland is protected from the stomach by the omental bursa. The average weight of an adult gland varies from eighty to one hundred grams. The length ranges from fourteen to eighteen, thickness - from two to three, width - from three to nine centimeters.

This gland performs an ambiguous function. Its certain cells produce digestive juice. It enters the intestine through the excretory ducts. Other cells take part in the production of insulin, which is responsible for converting excess glucose into glycogen. This helps lower blood sugar levels. Insulin deficiency can lead to the development of diabetes.

Also released here is , which is an insulin antagonist. The production of somatostatin leads to the suppression of glucagon, insulin and growth hormone synthesis.

Mixed glands also include the testes and ovaries. They belong to the sex glands, which have exocrine and intrasecretory functions. The formation and release of sperm and eggs is assumed, as well as responsibility for the production of sex hormones.

The ovaries are responsible for the implementation of endocrine and generative processes. They are located in the pelvic area. Their length ranges from two to five centimeters. The weight of the ovaries varies from five to eight grams. The width of the ovaries ranges from two to two and a half centimeters.

The ovaries are also responsible for the maturation of eggs and the production of:

• Progesterone.

The cervix softens, which facilitates successful delivery of the pregnancy.

The testicles, located in the scrotum, are responsible for performing endocrine and generative functions. They are responsible for the formation and maturation of sperm. They also take part in the formation of testosterone.

Heart, kidneys and central nervous system

The most important part of the endocrine system is the kidneys. An important role is played by the human “engine”, the heart, as well as the central nervous system. The kidneys perform excretory and endocrine functions. Renin is synthesized by the juxtaglomerular apparatus. Renin is responsible for regulating vascular tone. In addition, the kidneys are responsible for the synthesis of erythroethin. It is responsible for the red blood cells of the bone marrow.

Production takes place in the atrium. The heart also affects the production of sodium by the kidneys.

The most important hormones of the nervous and endocrine systems are enkephalins. Their synthesis is carried out in the central nervous system. Their main function is to relieve pain. For this reason, they are also called endrogenic opiates. The action of neurohormones is similar to that of morphine.

Features of the exocrine glands

Exocrine glands play an important role. It is the exocrine glands that secrete various substances onto the surface of the body, as well as into the internal environment of the human body. They are responsible for the formation of a specific and individual aroma. Another important function is to protect the body from the penetration of harmful microbes. Their secretion has a bactericidal and mycostatic effect.

Four glands

Exocrine glands include:

• dairy;
• sweaty;
• salivary and lacrimal.

They are directly involved in regulating both interspecific and intraspecific relationships.

What are they responsible for?

Salivary glands are small and large. They are located in the human mouth. Small glands are located in the submucosa. The major salivary glands are paired organs located outside the oral cavity.

Secretory processes usually occur during the period of activity of hormonal processes. The main trigger is hormonal changes. The greatest intensity of secretory processes is observed closer to adolescence.

The mammary glands are presented in the form of transformed sweat glands of the skin. They are laid in the 6th-7th week. At first they look like thickenings of the epidermis. Then the formation of milk points occurs. Before puberty, the mammary glands are inactive. They develop differently in boys and girls.

Sweat glands, involved in the process of thermoregulation, are responsible for the production of sweat. They are represented by the simplest tubes, the ends of which are curled.

Conclusion

The radical absence of any of the glands can lead to disruption of the functioning of the others. Sometimes a person's death occurs. Today, only thyroid hormone replacement can be achieved through potent medications.

Bibliography

1. Arterial hypertension in pregnant women Preeclampsia (preeclampsia). Makarov O.V., Volkova E.V. RASPM; Moscow; TsKMS GOU VPO RGMU.-31 pp.- 2010.
2. New honey technology (Methodological recommendations) “Management of premature pregnancy complicated by premature rupture of membranes”; Makarov O.V., Kozlov P.V. (Edited by Volodin N.N.) - RASPM; Moscow; TsKMS GOU VPO RGMU-2006.
3. Anomalies of labor: a guide for doctors. UMO stamp for medical education. Podtetenev A.D., Strizhova N.V. 2006 Publisher: MIA.
4. Emergency care in obstetrics and gynecology: a short guide. Serov V.N. 2008 Publisher: Geotar-Media.
5. Ectopic pregnancy. UMO stamp for medical education. Sidorova I.S., Guriev T.D. 2007 Publisher: Practical Medicine
6. Non-developing pregnancy. Radzinsky V.E., Dimitrova V.I., Mayskova I.Yu. 2009 Publisher: Geotar-Media.

Endocrine system- a system for regulating the activity of internal organs through hormones secreted by endocrine cells directly into the blood, or diffusing through the intercellular space into neighboring cells.

The endocrine system is divided into the glandular endocrine system (or glandular apparatus), in which endocrine cells are collected together and form the endocrine gland, and the diffuse endocrine system. The endocrine gland produces glandular hormones, which include all steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and many peptide hormones. The diffuse endocrine system is represented by endocrine cells scattered throughout the body, producing hormones called aglandular - (with the exception of calcitriol) peptides. Almost every tissue of the body contains endocrine cells.

Endocrine system. The main endocrine glands. (left - man, right - woman): 1. Pineal gland (belongs to the diffuse endocrine system) 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testicle

Functions of the endocrine system

• Takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activities of all organs and systems.
• Ensures the preservation of homeostasis of the body under changing environmental conditions.
• Together with the nervous and immune systems, it regulates
  • height,
  • body development,
  • its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
  • takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.
• Together with the nervous system, hormones take part in providing
  • emotional
  • mental activity of a person.

Glandular endocrine system

The glandular endocrine system is represented by individual glands with concentrated endocrine cells. Endocrine glands (endocrine glands) are organs that produce specific substances and secrete them directly into the blood or lymph. These substances are hormones - chemical regulators necessary for life. Endocrine glands can be either independent organs or derivatives of epithelial (border) tissues. The endocrine glands include the following glands:

Thyroid

The thyroid gland, whose weight ranges from 20 to 30 g, is located in the front of the neck and consists of two lobes and an isthmus - it is located at the level of the ΙΙ-ΙV cartilage of the windpipe and connects both lobes. Four parathyroid glands are located in pairs on the posterior surface of the two lobes. The outside of the thyroid gland is covered by the muscles of the neck located below the hyoid bone; With its fascial sac, the gland is firmly connected to the trachea and larynx, so it moves following the movements of these organs. The gland consists of oval or round vesicles, which are filled with a colloid-type protein iodine-containing substance; Between the vesicles there is loose connective tissue. The colloid of vesicles is produced by the epithelium and contains hormones produced by the thyroid gland - thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate the intensity of metabolism, promote the absorption of glucose by the body's cells and optimize the breakdown of fats into acids and glycerol. Another hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is calcitonin (a polypeptide by chemical nature), it regulates the content of calcium and phosphate in the body. The action of this hormone is directly opposite to parathyroidin, which is produced by the parathyroid gland and increases the level of calcium in the blood, increasing its flow from the bones and intestines. From this point on, the action of parathyroidin resembles that of vitamin D.

Parathyroid glands

The parathyroid gland regulates calcium levels in the body within narrow limits so that the nervous and motor systems function normally. When calcium levels in the blood fall below a certain level, the calcium-sensing parathyroid glands become activated and secrete the hormone into the blood. Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium from bone tissue into the blood.

Thymus

The thymus produces soluble thymic (or thymic) hormones - thymopoietins, which regulate the processes of growth, maturation and differentiation of T cells and the functional activity of mature cells. With age, the thymus degrades, being replaced by a connective tissue formation.

Pancreas

The pancreas is a large (12-30 cm long) dual-acting secretory organ (it secretes pancreatic juice into the lumen of the duodenum and hormones directly into the bloodstream), located in the upper part of the abdominal cavity, between the spleen and duodenum.

The endocrine region of the pancreas is represented by the islets of Langerhans, located in the tail of the pancreas. In humans, the islets are represented by various types of cells that produce several polypeptide hormones:

• alpha cells - secrete glucagon (regulator of carbohydrate metabolism, direct antagonist of insulin);
• beta cells - secrete insulin (regulator of carbohydrate metabolism, reduces blood glucose levels);
• delta cells - secrete somatostatin (inhibits the secretion of many glands);
• PP cells - secrete pancreatic polypeptide (suppresses the secretion of the pancreas and stimulates the secretion of gastric juice);
• Epsilon cells - secrete ghrelin (“hunger hormone” - stimulates appetite).

Adrenal glands

At the upper poles of both kidneys there are small triangular glands called the adrenal glands. They consist of an outer cortex (80-90% of the mass of the entire gland) and an inner medulla, the cells of which lie in groups and are intertwined with wide venous sinuses. The hormonal activity of both parts of the adrenal glands is different. The adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids and glycocorticoids, which have a steroid structure. Mineralocorticoids (the most important of them is oox amide) regulate ion exchange in cells and maintain their electrolytic balance; Glycocorticoids (for example, cortisol) stimulate the breakdown of proteins and the synthesis of carbohydrates. The medulla produces adrenaline, a hormone from the catecholamine group, which maintains sympathetic tone. Adrenaline is often called the fight-or-flight hormone, since its release increases sharply only in moments of danger. An increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood entails corresponding physiological changes - the heart rate increases, blood vessels narrow, muscles tense, and pupils dilate. The cortex also produces male sex hormones (androgens) in small quantities. If disturbances occur in the body and androgens begin to flow in extreme quantities, the signs of the opposite sex intensify in girls. The adrenal cortex and medulla differ not only in different hormones. The work of the adrenal cortex is activated by the central, and the medulla - by the peripheral nervous system.

DANIEL and human sexual activity would be impossible without the work of the gonads, or sex glands, which include the male testicles and female ovaries. In young children, sex hormones are produced in small quantities, but as the body matures, at a certain point there is a rapid increase in the level of sex hormones, and then male hormones (androgens) and female hormones (estrogens) cause the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in a person.

Hypothalamic-pituitary system

Human glands are responsible for the regulation of physiological processes. These are specialized organs that secrete active substances. We talk about the types of human glands and their functions in this article.

Kinds

Hormones are biologically active organic substances that bind to cell receptors and affect their functioning in the body. Hormones promote growth and development. A secret is a liquid containing active substances or waste products of the cell. Secrets are released onto the surface of organs or into cavities, hormones are released into the blood.

The classification of glands depending on the fluids they secrete includes three types:

• endocrine or endocrine glands - the released hormone enters the blood;
• exocrine or exocrine glands - secretion is released onto the surface of organs;
• mixed secretion - glands secrete hormones and secretions.

Endocrine glands, unlike exocrine glands, do not have ducts; hormones are released into the blood directly from the cells. Mixed secretion glands have both ducts and secretory cells.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones. Their main function is the humoral regulation of human physiology.

Rice. 1. Endocrine glands.

The glands related to the endocrine system are described in the table.

The thymus decreases significantly in size towards the end of life. Most developed in children.

Endocrine or exocrine glands include:

• salivary - located in the oral cavity, producing saliva;
• gastric - secrete gastric juice and are found in the epithelium of the stomach;
• intestinal - located in the small intestine, secrete enzymes, leukocytes, mucus, amino acids that promote digestion;
• liver - located on the right side of the abdominal cavity, secretes bile, which promotes the breakdown of fats;
• greasy - located in the dermis, secrete sebum, which makes the skin elastic and waterproof;
• sweaty - located in the dermis, they secrete sweat, consisting of water, mineral salts, urea and helping to cool the surface of the skin;
• lachrymal - located in the upper outer corner of the eye, secrete tears that wet the eyeball;
• dairy - are located at a woman’s nipples and secrete milk.

Rice. 2. Exocrine glands.

The liver is the largest gland of vertebrates.

Mixed secretion glands include the digestive gland - the pancreas - and the sex glands - the ovaries and testicles.

Rice. 3. Glands of mixed secretion.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes and promotes the digestion of food, as well as a number of hormones - glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, which affects carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar levels.

The gonads do not produce secretions, but germ cells. Eggs mature in the ovaries, and sperm mature in the testicles. In addition, the gonads release hormones into the blood. Female hormones include two groups:

• estrogens affecting the functioning of the uterus;
• gestagens regulating the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, childbirth.

The testicles, the male reproductive glands, produce androgens, which are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in men. The most significant hormone in this group is testosterone.

What have we learned?

In the human body there are glands of internal, external and mixed secretion, which secrete hormones and secretions. Hormones enter directly into the blood, secretions are released through ducts on the surface or in the cavity. Endocrine glands use hormones to regulate metabolism and stimulate growth and development of the body. Exocrine glands secrete secretions that moisten surfaces and promote cooling or digestion. Mixed secretion glands simultaneously secrete hormones and secretions. These include the gonads and pancreas.

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All-Union Society for the Dissemination of Political and Scientific Knowledge

Series VIII Issue I No. 18. Publishing house "Knowledge" 1958. Circulation 55,000 copies.

Introduction

Pituitary gland diseases

Adrenal glands and their diseases

Introduction

Historical information. Human endocrine glands. Hormones and their role in the life of the body. Nervous system and endocrine glands.

On June 1, 1889, at a meeting of the Paris Biological Society, the famous scientist Brown-Séquard delivered a message that aroused great interest throughout the world. Brown-Séquard, who was 72 years old at the time, stated that by injecting extracts from the gonads (testes) of dogs and guinea pigs under his skin, he discovered the disappearance of senile decrepitude and a striking increase in physical strength and mental performance. Noting the rejuvenating effect of extracts from the male reproductive glands of animals, the French scientist suggested that other glands present in the body of humans and animals secrete some substances into the blood, without which the body declines and becomes painful.

True, even before Brown-Séquard, certain facts were known indicating the great importance for the life of the body of the endocrine glands, which seemed to medieval anatomists, who described them during autopsies of human and animal corpses, as mysterious formations.

Thus, even in ancient times, it was established that the removal of the gonads in male domestic animals (castration) causes and gives a particularly delicate taste to their meat. The widely practiced emasculation of young cockerels and boars was based on this. It was also known that castration of stallions and bulls dramatically changes their disposition and behavior, as a result of which it becomes easier to use them in harness. The influence castration has on a person’s voice was known already in the time of Aristotle.

All this information was, however, fragmentary in nature and related only to those changes that occur in animals and humans when the male gonads are removed.

In 1849, the German scientist Berthold proved that if you castrate a rooster and then transplant the removed testicle to any other place on the body, then such a rooster will retain a bright comb and beard, as well as rooster habits - pugnacity and the ability to sing, which disappear in capons (castrati). . Based on this first scientific experiment with the endocrine gland, Berthold came to the conclusion that the substance secreted by the sex glands affects the entire body through the blood.

In 1855, the significance of another endocrine gland, the adrenal gland, was discovered. The English doctor Addison established that severe destruction of the adrenal glands, most often as a result of their destruction by tuberculosis. In the same 1855, the famous French physiologist Claude Bernard introduced into science the concept of internal secretion, establishing that the liver, in addition to the bile poured into the duodenum, produces and releases glucose directly into the blood. At the same time, he suggested that “the organs that produce internal secretions are the spleen, thyroid gland, adrenal glands and lymph glands.”

In 1883, Swiss surgeons Kocher and Reverden described the painful phenomena that occurred after removal of the thyroid gland in humans. In 1886, neurologist Marie described a new disease - acromegaly, in which bone growth resumes in an adult; It was found that this disease is associated with disruption of the activity of a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain - the pituitary gland.

Almost every year, new, previously unknown diseases associated with dysfunction of the endocrine glands were described.

Over the past 50 years, a large number of clinical and experimental observations in this area have been accumulated. Domestic scientists made a significant contribution to this branch of knowledge: V. Ya. Danilevsky, L. V. Sobolev, A. A. Bogomolets, M. M. and B. M. Zavadovsky, V. D. Shervinsky and others. The study of endocrine glands has grown into an independent science - endocrinology, which has established the enormous role of these glands in the normal growth and development of the animal and human body. Great strides have also been made in the treatment of endocrine diseases, many of which until recently quickly led to the death of people who became ill with them.

Eight endocrine glands are now known: the pituitary gland (brain appendage), pineal gland (pineal gland), thyroid gland, thymus gland, parathyroid glands (in humans there are four), pancreas, adrenal glands (two) and gonads (two). It is possible that in the future, as our knowledge grows, new, not yet studied endocrine organs will be discovered.

Unlike the exocrine glands, such as salivary, sweat, sebaceous, kidneys, glands of the stomach and intestines, which secrete the products of their activity (saliva, sweat, sebum, urine, gastric and intestinal juice) through the excretory ducts to the outside or into the digestive tract, Endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts. The special substances they produce - hormones (from the Greek word “hormao”, meaning “to excite”, “to bring into action”) enter directly into the blood and are carried by it to all organs and tissues of the body, enhancing and directing the vital processes of the body in a certain direction.

The endocrine glands are under the control of the central and autonomic nervous systems, which regulate the intensity of hormone formation and the rate of their entry into the blood. In turn, hormones influence the activity of the nervous system, inhibiting or stimulating the activity of cells in the brain and spinal cord.

The influence of the nervous system on the endocrine glands is especially clearly seen in the study of endocrine diseases that arise after neuropsychic shocks. Strengthening or weakening the work of the endocrine glands causes dramatic changes in the psyche and behavior of humans and animals.

Thyroid gland and its diseases

Myxedema in children and adults. Thyrotoxicosis (Graves' disease). Treatment with radioactive iodine. Simple goiter.

The thyroid gland is located on the front surface of the neck, covering the underlying esophagus and trachea (windpipe). The shape of the thyroid gland, consisting of two lateral lobes connected to each other by a narrow isthmus, resembles a butterfly with outstretched wings. The length of the lobes of the thyroid gland is 5-8 cm, width - 3-4 cm and thickness 1.5-2.5 cm. The weight of this gland in an adult healthy person usually does not exceed 25-30 g. Despite this, the thyroid gland plays an exceptional role important role in the life of the body.

Blood enters the developed network of blood vessels of the gland through four large arteries; within one hour, all the blood circulating in the human body manages to pass through this organ.

If we examine the thyroid gland under a microscope, we can see that it consists of a large number of vesicles (follicles), inside of which a viscous, semi-liquid substance (colloid) produced by the cells of the gland accumulates (Fig. 1). Each such bubble is entwined with a dense network of tiny vessels - capillaries, abundantly supplying it with blood.

The colloid contains thyroid hormones - thyroxine and triiodothyronine, formed as a result of the combination of protein with iodine. These hormones, delivered by the bloodstream to all tissues of the body, are directly involved in the processes of tissue metabolism. It is estimated that the body of an adult contains only 15 mg of thyroxine, but this tiny amount of the hormone is necessary to maintain the normal functioning of the heart, intestines, kidneys, gonads and many other organs and systems.

Myxedema. If the thyroid gland is removed from a young animal, such as a puppy, and thus stops the flow of thyroid hormones into the blood, the animal’s growth stops. A cheerful, cheerful puppy becomes lethargic, lies motionless all day long, its body temperature drops, and its blood pressure drops below normal; all metabolic processes slow down. The puppy is noticeably delayed in growth and development. The same changes occur in a child who suffers from congenital underdevelopment of the thyroid gland or who has suffered some kind of infection that has caused inflammation of the thyroid gland, as a result of which the release of the corresponding hormones into the blood has decreased or completely stopped. Such a child lags behind his peers in growth and, if treatment is not started in a timely manner, remains a dwarf for life (the so-called thyroid-induced dwarfism). The development of such children is also sharply delayed: they begin to walk at the age of 3-5, and sometimes later, their teeth erupt very late, the replacement of milk teeth does not occur on time; Mental development especially suffers - they often pronounce their first words at the age of 5-7 years.

The appearance of children suffering from a severe form of thyroid insufficiency is characteristic - a disease called myxedema (translated as “mucoedema”). Their face is puffy and its expression is dull. The mouth is half open, with a thick tongue protruding from it. The voice is rough and hoarse due to swelling of the vocal cords. The abdomen is large, often with an umbilical hernia. The skin all over the body is dry and rough. Hair grows poorly (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. An 18-year-old girl with myxedema. Dwarf stature, swollen abdomen with umbilical hernia, lack of development of the mammary glands. A and B— Congenital hypothyroidism before and after treatment.

If myxedema occurs in an adult, then he develops edema of the entire body, which differs from edema of cardiac or renal origin in that when pressing with a finger on the swollen skin, no pit remains. Patients with myxedema complain of memory impairment, apathy and lethargy, general weakness, drowsiness, hair loss, and brittle nails. They are constantly cold (chilliness), body temperature is lowered to 35-36°, they even tolerate infectious diseases without a significant increase in temperature. During the hottest time of the year, patients with myxedema sleep under a warm blanket. Their skin becomes dry and flaky (especially on the elbows and shins); are developing.

It is enough for a patient with myxedema to start taking thyroidin (a drug available in pharmacies from the dried thyroid gland of animals, produced in meat processing plants), and in a short time the swelling disappears, memory is restored, drowsiness disappears, energy and cheerfulness return, and stop. Growth in children suffering from myxedema resumes after initiation of treatment with thyroidin; The remaining signs of the disease gradually disappear. With proper and systematic treatment, such children grow up to be full-fledged, healthy people.

Almost all patients with myxedema - both children and adults - must take thyroidin throughout their lives. Stopping the drug will result in a return of the disease. Only in rare cases, if myxedema occurred after surgery on the thyroid gland, due to the removal of almost all of its tissue, can cases of recovery from myxedema be observed. This is explained by the fact that the small amount of thyroid cells remaining after the operation can grow (regenerate) over time and meet the body’s need for thyroid hormones.

Thyrotoxicosis (Graves' disease). If with myxedema there is insufficient production of hormones by the thyroid gland, then with thyrotoxicosis, or Graves' disease (named after the German doctor Karl Graves's disease who described it in 1840), the thyroid gland, on the contrary, produces excessive amounts of thyroxine and triiodothyronine.

While myxedema is relatively rare, thyrotoxicosis is one of the most common endocrine diseases in humans. The occurrence of the disease, as has been precisely established, in the vast majority of cases (according to the observations of Professor N.A. Shereshevsky in 80% of patients) is associated with some kind of mental trauma or nervous experiences. This was pointed out 70 years ago by the outstanding Russian doctor S.P. Botkin, who wrote that grief, fright, anger or fear can be the cause of the development of severe thyrotoxicosis, which sometimes occurs extremely quickly, within a few hours. There are cases when people fell ill with thyrotoxicosis immediately after a fire, train or car accident, which caused nervous shock, after the difficult loss of a loved one. For example, the occurrence of severe thyrotoxicosis during one night was described in a woman who lost two sons in a few hours.

How do nervous experiences cause the development of this disease? The unusual excitation of the cerebral cortex that occurs in a person during mental shock can be transmitted to the thyroid gland directly through the nerve pathways or through a more complex path - through the cerebral appendage (pituitary gland), which has been found to secrete a special thyroid-stimulating hormone that enhances the functioning of the thyroid gland . The thyroid hormones produced in large quantities flood the body and cause poisoning. That’s why the disease is called “thyrotoxicosis,” which translated means “thyroxine poisoning.”

Women suffer from thyrotoxicosis approximately 8 times more often than men. The largest number of patients are between the ages of 20 and 40, but older people aged 60-70 can also get sick. Children develop thyrotoxicosis relatively rarely.

The appearance of patients with thyrotoxicosis, with a pronounced picture of the disease, is very characteristic. Particularly noteworthy is the protrusion of the eyes, which gives the patient’s face an angry and somewhat frightened expression (Fig. 3). The sign of protrusion of the eyes (the so-called exophthalmos) is observed very often, but is not obligatory - there are patients who do not have this sign.

Rice. 3. On the left is a patient with thyrotoxicosis, 42 years old. The symptom of bulging eyes is pronounced and disappeared, like all other signs of the disease, 5 months after treatment with radioactive iodine (right picture).

Patients with thyrotoxicosis are fussy, very mobile, always in a hurry, talkative, easily excitable, irritable. They lose a lot of weight, despite the fact that many have a good or even increased appetite. This is explained by the fact that their metabolic processes are significantly increased and the components of food - proteins, fats and carbohydrates - burn much faster than a healthy person. People with thyrotoxicosis often lose 12-16 kg or more in weight over a few months, and with a long course of the disease they can reach extreme degrees of exhaustion.

Constant signs of thyrotoxicosis are an enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) and increased heart rate. The size of the goiter does not significantly affect the severity of the disease: sometimes in seriously ill patients the goiter is barely noticeable and is detected only when palpating the neck, while in other cases, with very large goiters, other signs of the disease are insignificantly expressed. According to the severity of the disease, severe forms of thyrotoxicosis are distinguished, cases of moderate severity and mild forms that do not significantly affect the ability of patients to work.

Palpitations in patients with severe thyrotoxicosis are constant and bother patients day and night. Instead of 72-80 beats per minute, which is the norm for a healthy person, the number of heart contractions in thyrotoxicosis can reach 120-160, and sometimes 200 per minute. Such backbreaking work quickly wears out the heart muscle, causes rhythm disturbances, interruptions and, ultimately, heart failure (decompensation) with edema of the entire body. The cause of death in patients with severe forms of thyrotoxicosis is most often heart failure. At the end of the last century, when there were no reliable methods of treating this disease, patients with severe forms of thyrotoxicosis died, according to S.P. Botkin, within 2-3 years, and sometimes faster from heart failure. Nowadays, such an outcome of the disease is rarely observed and only in advanced cases, if treatment is started too late. Modern medicine has radical means of combating this disease.

Until recently, the main remedy was goiter removal surgery. Since the ultimate cause of the disease, as already indicated, is the excessive production of hormones by the thyroid gland and their poisoning of the body, it was natural to come to the idea that if most of the thyroid gland was surgically removed, then the source of excess amounts of these hormones entering the blood would be eliminated and the patient must recover.

And, indeed, after such an operation, from 80 to 90% of patients with thyrotoxicosis recover and regain their ability to work. However, the surgical method of treatment also has its negative sides. During the operation, the inferior laryngeal nerve may be accidentally damaged, resulting in temporary or permanent paralysis of the vocal cords and the patient is unable to speak in a full voice. If, along with the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands (small formations the size of a small pea) are removed, then the operated patient will develop seizures (tetany), requiring constant treatment. Finally, if the patients are significantly exhausted and have signs of heart failure, such an operation is associated with a risk to life.

True, the complications listed above rarely occur, but it is still impossible to completely guarantee the patient against them with the surgical method of treating thyrotoxicosis.

Therefore, it is clear that the great interest that aroused a new method of treating thyrotoxicosis, no less effective than the surgical method, and at the same time completely safe for patients, namely, treatment of Graves' disease with radioactive iodine.

With this method of treatment, patients with thyrotoxicosis are given to drink about a quarter glass of a colorless solution, indistinguishable in appearance from water, containing a certain amount of radioactive iodine. After 2-3 weeks, patients begin to feel improvement, and after 2 months, most of them fully recover; Only in some patients does the treatment have to be repeated.

In the Moscow hospital named after S.P. Botkin, during 1954-1957, we treated over 1000 patients with severe and moderate forms of thyrotoxicosis with radioactive iodine with consistently good results. About 60% of patients were cured with a single dose of radioactive iodine; in the rest, treatment had to be repeated 2-3 times and very rarely - 4 or 5 times. Even in very advanced cases, when due to the severity of the condition of the freed, surgical intervention was out of the question, treatment with radioactive iodine was successful.

How does radioactive iodine lead to the cure of such a serious disease as pronounced thyrotoxicosis? Radioactive iodine (J 131) belongs to the number of artificial radioactive isotopes, i.e. substances similar in their chemical properties to ordinary elements common in nature, but differing from them in radioactivity - the ability to emit rays invisible to the eye. Radioactive iodine has become available for medical purposes only in recent years due to the expansion of the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Thus, in a nuclear reactor, ordinary phosphorus, whose atomic weight is 31, can turn into radioactive one with an atomic weight 32, and ordinary cobalt (Co 59) into radioactive cobalt with an atomic weight 60. Radioactive iodine with an atomic weight 131 is one of the so-called “ short-lived isotopes”, since its half-life is only eight days, i.e. after eight days it loses half of its activity.

Once injected into an animal or a person, radioactive iodine is quickly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and enters the blood, which carries it throughout the body. The thyroid gland has an “affinity” for both regular and radioactive iodine and stores it in large quantities. Iodine is used to build the hormones it produces - thyroxine and triiodothyronine (the molecule of the first contains four iodine atoms, the molecule of the second - three atoms).

In a healthy adult, 24 hours after he receives radioactive iodine, up to 30% of it is taken up by the thyroid gland, while the remaining 70% is excreted through the kidneys in the urine.

In patients with thyrotoxicosis, the ability of the gland to accumulate iodine increases sharply and can reach 70-90% of the administered dose. In other words, almost all radioactive iodine introduced into the body of a patient with thyrotoxicosis is captured by the thyroid gland and is firmly retained by it for several days.

As radioactive iodine decays, it emits gamma rays and beta particles. Gamma rays, which easily penetrate all tissues, do not cause any changes in the gland. Beta particles behave differently. They are able to run a very short path through tissues - only about 2 mm, and therefore end their run in the very thickness of the thyroid gland. By giving their energy to the cells of the gland, beta particles cause their death and the cessation of their secretion of hormones. How strong the bombardment of thyroid cells by beta particles that occurs can be judged by the fact that in 1 millicurie of radioactive iodine, 37 million beta particles are formed every second (1 Curie is a unit of measurement of radioactivity; millicurie is 1/1000 curie). But in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis, in most cases we inject patients with 6-8 millicuries of radioactive iodine.

Thyroid cells that die under the influence of beta particles shrink; in their place, denser connective tissue is formed. As a result, the goiter decreases or completely disappears. A small number of cells that continue to produce moderate amounts of hormones necessary for the functioning of the body remain only on the periphery of the gland.

Thus, the use of radioactive iodine performs a bloodless operation. The functional activity of the gland decreases significantly, and the patient with thyrotoxicosis begins to recover. In most patients, 20 days after taking radioactive iodine, palpitations, insomnia and hand tremors gradually disappear, the gastrointestinal disorders that often accompany thyrotoxicosis disappear, and body weight begins to increase (Fig. 4). Last of all, bulging eyes disappear, which is sometimes noticeable for many months, although all other signs of thyrotoxicosis have already passed.

Rice. 4. On the left is a 46-year-old patient with thyrotoxicosis. On the right - the same patient 14 months after the start of treatment with radioactive iodine; the disappearance of goiter and bulging eyes is visible; gained 7.5 kg in weight. Full recovery.

The only complication that should be avoided when treating thyrotoxicosis with radioactive iodine is the onset of hypothyroidism, or myxedema (see page 7). This complication is observed in cases where, due to the increased sensitivity of the thyroid gland to the action of radioactive iodine, the death of all gland cells occurs. We observed such increased sensitivity in 5% of patients treated with radioactive iodine; to feel completely healthy, they had to take 1-2 tablets of thyroidin per day. After several months of such treatment, myxedema went away.

This complication during treatment with radioactive iodine occurs no more often than after surgical treatment of patients with thyrotoxicosis. At the same time, radioactive iodine therapy has undoubted advantages over the surgical treatment of thyrotoxicosis, as it relieves patients from the fear of surgery and its possible complications.

It should, however, be emphasized that not all cases of the disease can be treated with radioactive iodine. Patients whose disease is caused by diffuse (solid) enlargement of the thyroid gland are most quickly curable with radioactive iodine. For nodular thyrotoxic goiter and the so-called thyrotoxic adenoma, surgery remains the preferred method of treatment.

Simple goiter. An enlarged thyroid gland is not always accompanied by signs characteristic of thyrotoxicosis. A person may also have a so-called simple goiter, in which there is no increased heart rate, no bulging eyes, no emaciation. There are five degrees of goiter; with the first and second degrees of enlargement of the thyroid gland, it is not visible to the eye and is determined only by palpating the neck; with the third degree, thickening of the neck is visible; and, finally, with the fourth and fifth degrees of enlargement, the goiter reaches a large size and can make breathing and swallowing difficult (Fig. 5).

Rice. 4. Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) on the left - 5th degree, on the right - 4th degree.

The cause of simple goiter in most cases is a reduced ability of the patient’s body to absorb iodine or a lack of iodine in the soil, water and air, as well as in food products - vegetables, milk, meat, etc. Treatment of simple goiter consists of patients taking medications for a long period of time , containing iodine, under the influence of which the goiter gradually decreases and may completely disappear after several years of treatment.

In those areas where simple or, as it is called, endemic (local) goiter is often found, the salt that goes on sale is iodized (only 10-25 g of potassium iodide is added per ton of salt, so this additive is completely undetectable in taste). use of iodized salt in food). In the USSR, a lack of iodine in nature is observed in some areas of the Urals, the Caucasus, Altai, Transbaikalia, the Mari and Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as in certain areas of the Gorky, Ivanovo and Moscow regions. As a result of salt iodization and other health measures carried out under Soviet rule, endemic goiter, which was very common in the past among the population of these places, has been almost completely eliminated.

To prevent the possibility of developing goiter in children living in such areas, they are given once a week an “antistrumin” tablet, a drug containing iodine, or 1-2 teaspoons of potassium iodide solution.

Pancreas and its diseases

Diabetes mellitus and modern methods of its treatment. The use of insulin and new sulfonamide drugs. Hypoglycemic disease.

The pancreas not only produces and secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, which contains enzymes that break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates, but also releases the hormone insulin directly into the blood, without which the body cannot properly absorb sugar (glucose), which is the main source of nutrition for all tissues. bodies.

One of the most common diseases associated with disruption of the intrasecretory activity of the pancreas is diabetes mellitus, or diabetes mellitus. The number of people with diabetes is very significant. Thus, in the United States, according to the latest statistics, the number of people suffering from diabetes exceeds 2 million people. There are hundreds of thousands of diabetic patients in other countries.

When diabetes occurs, a person experiences extreme thirst and frequent urination. The amount of water, tea and other liquids that a diabetic patient drinks can reach 6, 8 or even 10 liters per day instead of the 1.5-2 liters consumed by a healthy adult. Accordingly, the volume of urine excreted from the body increases. The appetite of diabetic patients is often greatly increased, however, despite this, patients lose weight by 3-5 kg ​​or more per month and lose a lot of weight. When examining a patient's urine, sugar is found in it, which is usually absent in the urine of a healthy person. The loss of a significant amount of sugar in the urine (up to 300-500 g per day) explains the exhaustion and increasing weight loss of diabetic patients.

People suffering from diabetes complain of general weakness, pain in the limbs, blurred vision and decreased performance. It is often accompanied by various skin diseases - eczema, the appearance of pustules and abscesses (boils), as well as itching of the skin, which does not respond to any means until the root cause of the disease is determined and the correct treatment is prescribed. Very often, with diabetes, diseases of the liver, kidneys and cardiovascular system occur.

The appearance of sugar in the urine is only one of the signs of diabetes, which is a chronic disorder of many types of metabolism - primarily carbohydrate, and then fat and protein. The blood of diabetic patients contains significantly more sugar than healthy people (usually 200-300 or more mg% versus 80-120 mg% in healthy people). Very often, in patients with diabetes, the level of cholesterol in the blood, one of the products of fat metabolism, increases.

Both men and women suffer from diabetes. The onset of the disease occurs predominantly in adulthood and old age. Children and adolescents get sick relatively rarely, and their illness is usually more severe than in adults. The causes of diabetes are varied. The disease can occur after various infections, mental and physical trauma, with excessive nutrition leading to obesity, with inflammatory processes and tumors of the pancreas. Statistics indicate the role of hereditary predisposition to this disease: 40% of patients also have parents or close relatives who suffer from diabetes. Sometimes combined with other endocrine diseases - acromegaly, gigantism, Itsenko-Cushing's disease (see diseases of the pituitary gland and adrenal glands).

In most cases of diabetes mellitus, the immediate cause that causes a violation of carbohydrate, and subsequently fat and protein metabolism, is the insufficient formation of one of its hormones in the pancreas - insulin. This is proven by the following experiment. If the entire pancreas of an animal (dog, cat) is surgically removed, then it always shows signs of diabetes - thirst, frequent urination, sugar is detected in the urine and its content in the blood increases. It is enough, however, to start administering insulin to such animals, as the signs of diabetes soften and may completely disappear if insulin is administered systematically and in sufficient quantities. When insulin administration is stopped, the disease returns again.

In addition to insufficient production of insulin, the cause of diabetes may be an increased secretion by the pancreas of the second hormone it produces - glucagon, which has the exact opposite effect of insulin. Finally, it may be a consequence of excessive formation of a special enzyme in the liver - insulinase, which destroys insulin.

Cure of diabetes is extremely rare. In the vast majority of cases, the disease continues throughout life. Therefore, the correct regimen and appropriate treatment are necessary conditions for maintaining working capacity and preventing complications that arise in advanced cases. One of the most dangerous complications is diabetic coma, which can lead to the death of the patient if emergency measures are not taken to save him.

Coma in a diabetic patient is an acute poisoning of the body by underoxidized products of fat metabolism - acetone, acetoacetic and beta-hydroxybutyric acids. Coma occurs in cases where a diabetic patient becomes ill with any infectious disease, with poor diet (excessive consumption of fatty foods), drinking alcohol, and with irregular administration of insulin in cases where it is impossible to do without treatment with this hormone. Before the discovery of insulin, diabetic coma in most cases ended in the death of the patient.

Insulin was first obtained in 1921 in Canada by scientists Banting and Best and already in 1922 it was used to treat patients with diabetes. The discovery of insulin was preceded by a large number of experimental studies carried out on animals, and the work of the Russian scientist L. V. Sobolev was especially important.

The discovery of insulin revolutionized the treatment of diabetes and saved the lives of hundreds of thousands of patients. Currently, diabetes treatment consists of establishing a specific individual diet for each patient and systematically administering insulin. In mild cases, it is possible to do without insulin and achieve a satisfactory course of the disease on diet alone.

Insulin is administered to diabetic patients under the skin using a syringe, since when taken orally it is destroyed by digestive juices and has no effect.

However, with a single subcutaneous injection, insulin acts for a short period of time: after 6-8 hours, the blood sugar level begins to rise again. Therefore, in severe and moderate cases of diabetes, insulin must be administered 2-3 times, and in rare cases, even 4 times a day.

A well-known step forward in the treatment of patients with diabetes is the introduction into medical practice of protamine-zincinsulin, the production of which was mastered in 1957 by the Moscow plant of endocrine drugs. This compound, which is a combination of regular insulin with zinc and the protein substance protamine, is absorbed more slowly and has the effect inherent in insulin throughout the day. Therefore, a diabetic patient can administer the required daily dose of insulin in one injection, for example in the morning.

Is it not possible, however, when treating diabetic patients to completely abandon injections, that is, to administer the necessary medicinal substance in some other way?

All attempts to use insulin orally, through the rectum (in suppositories or enemas), under the tongue or by injecting it into the nose, ended in failure: insulin either did not work at all, or it had to be administered in very large quantities, which significantly increased the cost of treatment. The search for insulin substitutes also did not yield any results until 1955, when it was discovered that some sulfonamide drugs have an insulin-like effect and are capable of reducing blood sugar in humans and animals.

Such drugs are nalizan (belonging to the carbutamide group and also known as BZ-55) and rastinone (tolbutamide D-860). Over the past two years, these drugs have been tested in medical institutions in Germany, England, France, the USA and the USSR on more than 150 thousand diabetic patients.

It turned out that these drugs, taken orally in the form of tablets, can indeed replace insulin injections, but not in all cases of diabetes. Their use is effective mainly in patients of the older age group (40-45 years), who, before switching to treatment with nadizan or rastinone, needed relatively small doses of insulin (up to 40 units per day). Such drugs cannot replace insulin injections for diabetes complicated by acidosis, skin manifestations, diabetic polyneuritis, cataracts, etc.

It also turned out that nadizan has undesirable side effects with long-term use (deteriorates liver function and negatively affects the blood). Rastinone is significantly less toxic, and therefore, currently, most clinicians use only the latter drug in cases of diabetes where the use of sulfonamides is possible.

Consequently, so far only the first step has been taken towards replacing insulin injections in the treatment of diabetic patients with medications taken orally. The task of endocrinologists is to further test appropriate drugs that would be completely harmless to humans and have the same active effect on carbohydrate metabolism as insulin. It is very likely that such drugs will be found over time.

Hypoglycemic disease(hyperinsulinism) became known only about 30 years ago and is, in terms of the cause that causes it, the direct opposite of diabetes mellitus. In hypoglycemic disease, the pancreas releases excessive amounts of insulin into the blood, causing blood sugar to drop to abnormally low levels (a condition called hypoglycemia).

The signs of hypoglycemia are well known, as they can also occur in diabetic patients if they are given too much insulin. This is a sharp feeling of hunger, sweating, palpitations, trembling of limbs, dizziness, the onset of convulsions and, finally, unconsciousness.

Elimination of the hypoglycemic state, both with excessive administration of insulin in patients with diabetes and in patients with hypoglycemic disease, is achieved by drinking sweet drinks or administering glucose intravenously or subcutaneously. Usually, within a few minutes after the administration of glucose, the patient, who has fallen into an unconscious state, comes to his senses; blood sugar, which during an attack drops to very low numbers (20-30 mg%), returns to normal (80-120 mg%). However, since attacks of hypoglycemia can sometimes be repeated several times a day, patients with hypoglycemic disease are forced to consume a lot of sugar to prevent them (in some cases we observed - up to 500 g of sugar daily), as a result of which they become very fat. Frequently recurring attacks of hypoglycemic disease pose a threat to the lives of patients.

The only way to radically cure hypoglycemic disease is through surgery, during which the pancreas is carefully examined. If a tumor (adenoma) of the pancreas is detected, then removal of this tumor leads to complete recovery of patients with hypoglycemic disease. In the absence of a tumor, the cause of hypoglycemic disease may be an increase in the volume (hyperplasia) of the pancreas. In such cases, partial removal of the gland tissue (resection) is performed, which also improves the condition of the patients.

Pituitary gland diseases

Dwarf stature. Gigantism and acromegaly. Itsenko-Cushing's disease. Diabetes insipidus.

The pituitary gland, or brain appendage, is a small gland smaller than a cherry. Its weight in humans is only 0.5-0.7 g. It is located at the base of the brain and is placed in a special recess of the skull, known as the “sella turcica”.

Despite the small size of the pituitary gland, this gland plays an extremely important role in the life of the body. It regulates the activity of many other endocrine glands: adrenal glands, gonads, thyroid and pancreas. Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland affect water-salt, fat, carbohydrate and protein metabolism, the formation and secretion of milk in nursing women and many other functions of the body. The activity of the pituitary gland, in turn, is controlled by the interstitial medulla and the cerebral cortex, with which it is connected by numerous nerve pathways.

The role of the pituitary gland as a gland that regulates growth became known first of all. If you remove the pituitary gland from a young animal, it stops growing and remains a dwarf. In this case, the animal does not develop a reproductive system and is deprived of the ability to have offspring.

The same phenomena are observed in humans in cases where there is congenital underdevelopment of the pituitary gland or some infection suffered in early childhood caused damage to the pituitary gland and disrupted the normal formation of growth hormone in it. Such children grow very slowly; they rarely reach 120-130 cm even by the age of 18-20, when human growth normally stops. This disease is called pituitary dwarfism. In male pituitary dwarfs, a beard and mustache do not grow; the genitals remain at the childhood stage of development: they cannot have offspring. The same applies to pituitary dwarfs, in whom the reproductive system does not develop (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. A 22-year-old girl suffering from pituitary dwarfism. Height 122 cm, weight 27 kg. Lack of secondary sexual characteristics. B, C - When Vanya came to the Institute of Pediatric Endocrinology, he was slightly taller than 80 cm and was far behind his peers. Over 6 years of treatment with growth hormone, he grew by 60-65 cm and by the age of 12 he reached a height of 145 cm.

Mentally, pituitary dwarfs develop normally, which makes them sharply different from thyroid-producing dwarfs.

Before the revolution, it was often possible to see “troupes of Lilliputians” - pituitary dwarfs, touring at fairs, circuses and booths. Although genuine artistic talents are found no more often among pituitary dwarfs than among people of normal height, such troupes of dwarfs have always enjoyed success with spectators who did not think that sick people were performing before them. In the Soviet Union, where education has become generally available, many pituitary dwarfs successfully graduate not only from high school, but also from higher educational institutions, gaining the opportunity to engage in mental work.

Until recently, treatment for pituitary dwarfs was not very effective. They tried to irradiate the area of ​​the pituitary gland and interstitial medulla with small doses of X-rays in the dwarfs in the hope of increasing the release of growth hormone, prescribed small doses of thyroidin, and transplanted pituitary glands taken from animals under the skin of the dwarfs, but all these methods of treatment, if they increased their growth, then greatly to a minor extent.

Only in recent years has a method been developed for transplanting pituitary glands into such patients, taken from people who accidentally died in various accidents. In order for the pituitary gland, transplanted to a dwarf, say, in the shoulder area, to take root, the vessels of the pituitary gland are sutured to the blood vessels of the dwarf. In 1956, Professor T. E. Gnilorybov reported successful pituitary gland transplants using this method, performed on 11 pituitary dwarfs in the surgical clinic of the Dnepropetrovsk Medical Institute. As a result of the transplants, the pituitary dwarfs grew by 11-13 cm within 2-3 years.

It is much more difficult to treat such dwarfs by administering growth hormone obtained from the pituitary glands of animals over several years. This hormone needs to be thoroughly cleaned before being administered to humans; In addition, it is very unstable and quickly deteriorates during storage. Treatment of underdevelopment of the reproductive system in pituitary dwarfs is carried out with male and female sex hormones.

Giant growth and acromegaly. If extracts or extracts from the pituitary gland are administered to young animals, such as puppies or rat pups, for a long time, then such experimental animals grow to gigantic sizes and are 2-3 times larger in weight and height than normal animals of the same age. Thus, for example, as a result of daily injections for a year of crude pituitary extracts containing growth hormone, rats were grown weighing from 700 to 900 g, while normal rats of the same age weighed only 300-450 g. The same giant dogs were raised from puppies that, starting at seven weeks, were injected daily for 14 months with pituitary gland extracts containing growth hormone. The giant dogs weighed 44 kg, while control dogs of the same litter (not receiving growth hormone) weighed on average 23 kg.

Thus, in experiments on animals, an undoubted dependence of gigantism, occasionally observed in humans, was established on the increased secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland. Such giant people have been described more than once.

The highest limit of normal human growth is considered to be 180 cm. Height from 180 to 200 cm is conventionally recognized as “subgiantism,” and over 2 m is considered gigantic growth (N. A. Shereshevsky). The tallest precisely determined height was the giant reported by Bushan - 2 m 83 cm.

Gigantism, according to modern concepts, is a disease that depends on the excessive secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland. The reason for this may be an increase in the mass of pituitary tissue or the formation of tumors (eosinophilic adenomas) in the pituitary gland.

A disease close to gigantism is acromegaly. This disease is characterized by the resumption of growth of bone and other tissues in an adult. Due to the fact that after puberty, further growth in height is impossible (due to the closure of growth zones in the long tubular bones), patients with acromegaly grow predominantly in width. At the same time, they increase in size (all skeletal bones and body tissues thicken. Internal organs - heart, liver, kidneys, etc. - increase 1.5-2 times compared to normal ones. Even the hair of a patient with acromegaly is 2 times thicker than in a healthy person, the arms and legs reach especially large sizes (acromegaly - a name made up of the Greek words: “akron” - limb and “megas” - large), as well as the lower jaw, nose and ears, and therefore, if the disease arose a long time ago, the diagnosis can be made based on the appearance of the patients alone (Fig. 7).

With acromegaly, an x-ray of the patient's head almost always reveals an increase in the size of the sella turcica, in which, as indicated, the pituitary gland is located. This enlargement is caused by a pituitary tumor consisting of eosinophilic cells (stained pink with acidic dyes) that secrete growth hormone. A growing tumor of the pituitary gland puts pressure not only on the walls of the sella turcica, but also on the brain, as a result of which patients with acromegaly often complain of severe headaches, often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Directly above the pituitary gland in a person there is a chiasm of the optic nerves, and if a tumor of the pituitary gland compresses these nerves, the patient with acromegaly will experience significant deterioration and then loss of vision. In such cases, it is necessary to remove the pituitary tumor.

In men with acromegaly, sexual sensation and potency decrease; in women, menstruation almost always (87% of patients) stops. With acromegaly, increased activity of the thyroid gland and the appearance of goiter are often observed (due to increased secretion by the pituitary gland, in addition to growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, which stimulates the thyroid gland). Some patients develop acromegaly.

Until recently, the main method of treating acromegaly was irradiation of the pituitary gland and interstitial brain with X-rays. Under their influence, the pituitary tumor cells died and were replaced by connective tissue, as a result of which the further development of the disease was stopped. During irradiation, it was customary to prescribe 100-200 roentgens per day to patients. For the entire course of treatment, which lasted from 15 to 30 days, depending on whether the irradiation was carried out daily or every other day, the patient received 3-4 thousand roentgens. Treatment lasted 2-3 years, during which patients with acromegaly received 4-5 courses of radiotherapy, for a total of 12-15 thousand roentgens. However, despite such a long-term treatment, not all patients were able to stop the development of the disease.

In 1952, a report by S. Johnsen appeared in a Scandinavian medical journal about the use of a modified method of radiotherapy in 23 patients with acromegaly. This doctor increased the daily dose of radiation to the pituitary-intermediate region to 600 roentgens, and reduced the course of treatment to 5 days, during which the patients received 3 thousand roentgens. He repeated similar courses of treatment 2-3 times every 2 months. After such massive radiotherapy, according to Johnsen, complete recovery occurred in almost all patients observed by him from 1 to 20 years. In 15 patients, as a result of this treatment, the external signs of acromegaly became less pronounced, and in five patients, further enlargement of the limbs stopped (Fig. 8).

Rice. 7. Appearance of a patient with acromegaly. Noteworthy is the enlargement of the lower jaw, ears, and nose. Rice. 8. On the left is a patient with acromegaly before the start of radiotherapy. The right picture shows him 8 years after treatment with massive doses of X-rays.

The effectiveness of treating acromegaly with massive doses of X-rays is currently being tested in a number of clinics both abroad and in the USSR.

Itsenko-Cushing's disease. In 1932, the American physician Cushing described a disease that is characterized by obesity of the face and torso (while the arms and legs remain relatively thin), increased blood pressure, the appearance of special blue-purple stripes on the body and thinning of bone matter, as a result of which the bones lose their strength. Cushing attributed the disease to the appearance in the pituitary gland of tumors consisting of basophilic cells (stained blue with basic dyes). However, back in 1924, Soviet neuropathologist N. M. Itsenko described the same disease, explaining its occurrence by changes in the centers of the interstitial brain, which regulate the functioning of the pituitary gland. Therefore, it is customary for us to call this disease by the name of both authors who described it as Itsenko-Cushing’s disease.

This disease is observed in women much more often than in men. The face of patients takes on a round, “moon-shaped” shape with a purple blush. Patients complain of weakness, drowsiness, memory loss, pain in the bones and especially often in the spine; Women stop menstruating. On the face and body of women, there is increased hair growth (beard and vellus-type mustache), the skin is dry, flaky, and pustular rashes and abscesses often appear on it. Some patients develop diabetes.

Due to the increase in blood pressure that often accompanies this disease, secondary diseases of the kidneys, cardiovascular system, liver and other organs occur, and spontaneous bone fractures (especially often vertebrae) can occur.

In some people suffering from Itsenko-Cushing's disease, a thorough clinical examination can detect proliferation of the adrenal cortex or, as doctors say, hyperplasia, and sometimes adrenal tumors. In such cases, partial surgical removal of the cortex or removal of the adrenal tumor leads to complete recovery. In other cases, when the cause of the disease is changes in the interstitial medulla or a tumor of the pituitary gland, X-ray irradiation of the head and treatment with sex hormones are used.

Diabetes insipidus, or diabetes insipidus, is characterized by unbearable thirst and increased urine output. The amount of water drunk per day in patients with diabetes insipidus, depending on the age and severity of the case, ranges from 3 to 15-20 liters, but in some, especially severe cases, it can reach huge quantities - 30-40 liters. Patients experience constant thirst both day and night, and just as often feel the need to empty the bladder. In cases of severe diabetes insipidus, patients drink every hour, drinking up to 1 liter of water or other liquids at a time, and wake up up to 10 times a night due to thirst and the need to urinate.

Patients with diabetes insipidus usually also complain of poor appetite, which is apparently due to the large amount of fluid they absorb. In this regard, patients quickly lose weight, sometimes 8-10 kg in a short period of time. If the disease began in childhood, growth retardation due to chronic malnutrition is also noted.

Loss of large amounts of fluid in urine leads to dehydration of body tissues. Therefore, patients have dry skin, they hardly sweat even with significant physical work. Saliva production is reduced, and there is a constant feeling of dry mouth. Patients complain of chilliness and joint pain.

Men suffer from diabetes insipidus somewhat more often than women. The disease can occur at any age: cases of diabetes insipidus have been described even in infants 4-10 months old. In older children, the disease is often accompanied by bedwetting.

Experiments on animals and observations of sick people have established that diabetes insipidus occurs due to insufficient secretion of the antidiuretic hormone by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which prevents the excessive release of water by the kidneys. If a person suffering from diabetes insipidus is injected under the skin with an extract from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (pituitrin), he will stop drinking and urinating for several hours. The effect of a single injection of pituitrin lasts, however, only 5-6 hours, and then thirst resumes with the same intensity. Therefore, to eliminate it, patients with diabetes insipidus had to administer pituitrin three and sometimes four times a day.

In 1935, the author of this brochure prepared and first used in the USSR a drug for the treatment of diabetes insipidus, which he called adiurecrine. This drug, which is a powder, is sucked into the nose by patients, like snuff, and relieves them, just like pituitrin, from thirst for 5-6 hours. Thus, 3-4 sniffs of adiurecrine per day are enough to eliminate all signs of the disease.

Adiurecrin is produced in meat processing plants from the pituitary glands of cattle, sheep, pigs and other animals. The brain appendage is cleared of connective tissue, degreased and then crushed into powder. Adiurecrine drawn into the nose ends up on the nasal mucosa. The hormone contained in adiurecrin is absorbed by the nasal mucosa, enters the lymphatic tract and blood vessels and exerts its effect within 30 minutes after the patient has inhaled the powder into the nose.

Over more than 20 years of use of adiurecrin in the USSR, the drug was tested on hundreds of patients with diabetes insipidus. In almost all cases, it has an excellent therapeutic effect, relieving patients of the need for injections. Only occasionally, when patients with diabetes insipidus have atrophic changes in the nasal mucosa (the so-called atrophic rhinitis), which prevent the absorption of adiurecrin, do patients have to resort to the old method of treatment - pituitrin injections.

No matter how much the use of adiurecrin facilitates the course of diabetes insipidus, it does not eliminate the causes of the disease. Once it has arisen, sugar insipidity continues, with rare exceptions, throughout life.

What are the causes of diabetes insipidus? A study of the circumstances preceding the disease shows that most often the appearance of thirst in a patient was preceded by an illness with influenza, malaria, typhoid or typhus, syphilis or some other infection. Rarely, the cause of the disease may be a skull injury that causes bleeding in the brain.

During autopsies of people who suffered from diabetes insipidus during their lifetime, scars or other changes were found in the pituitary gland or interstitial medulla that disrupted the normal release of antidiuretic hormone by the pituitary gland. Only in rare cases, treatment started immediately after influenza, malaria and other diseases with penicillin, streptomycin, quinine and other antibiotics and drugs can prevent the onset of persistent changes in the pituitary gland or interstitial medulla and cure diabetes insipidus.

Attempts have been made to cure patients with diabetes insipidus by transplanting pituitary glands taken from various animals, including monkeys, under their skin. So far, all such attempts have failed; After 2-3 weeks, the pituitary gland transplanted to the patient was resorbed and thirst and frequent urination reappeared. It is possible that in the future it will be possible to improve the operation of transplanting the pituitary gland on a vascular pedicle, just as it began to be done for pituitary dwarfs. This will radically cure people suffering from diabetes insipidus.

Adrenal glands and their diseases

Addison's or bronze disease. Adrenal hormones and their therapeutic use. Disturbances in the production of sex hormones by the adrenal glands.

The adrenal glands are small endocrine glands located directly above the kidneys, to which they are closely adjacent. The weight of one adrenal gland in humans is only 5-7 g; its shape resembles a triangle and consists of two layers of tissue called the medulla and the cortex. Despite the small size of the adrenal glands, the hormones they secrete play an extremely important role in maintaining the normal functioning of the body. Without the adrenal glands, human and animal life is impossible. Animals surgically deprived of both adrenal glands die within a few days.

Partial disruption of the adrenal glands leads to the development of a serious disease in a person, known as bronze or Addison's disease (named after the doctor who first described it). In eight out of ten cases, Addison's disease occurs due to the destruction of most of the adrenal glands by tuberculosis. With bronze disease, extreme general weakness, emaciation, and low blood pressure develop; the skin of patients acquires a peculiar brownish-black color, reminiscent of the color of bronze. This coloration of the skin is especially noticeable in the waist area and other areas of the body that are subject to friction from clothing. Brown or black spots also appear on the tongue, inner cheeks and gums. Very often the disease is accompanied by gastrointestinal disorders, which further deplete the patients.

Addison's disease usually occurs between the ages of 30 and 50, and it affects men somewhat more often. Until recently, there were no effective treatments for this disease. Currently, the situation has changed radically.

In 1931, an extract of the adrenal cortex, cortin, was produced, the systematic administration of which made it possible to maintain the life of animals with removed adrenal glands. In 1936, an even more active hormone of this gland, cortisone, was obtained; finally, in 1938, a hormone was isolated from the adrenal cortex that affects water-salt metabolism and increases blood pressure - deoxycorticosterone. The use of these hormonal drugs in the treatment of Addison's disease gives amazing results. Systematic administration of cortisone in minute quantities - only 12.5 to 25 mg per day - transforms patients with Addison's disease: dark skin color disappears, muscle strength is restored, blood pressure returns to normal, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea stop, patients gain weight; many patients who have become completely disabled return to work.

Twenty years ago, the life expectancy of those with severe Addison's disease usually did not exceed two to three years, and sometimes death occurred within a few months after the onset of the disease. Now people suffering from Addison's disease live for decades, while maintaining good health and performance. Women suffering from Addison's disease can now have children. There are already many known cases of pregnancy and successful childbirth in such patients.

In recent years, many new facts have become known indicating the exceptional importance of the adrenal glands in protecting the human body from any harmful influences. Thus, it has been established that when infected with an infectious disease, wounds, bruises, burns, frostbite, electric shock, etc., under the influence of impulses coming from the central nervous system, there is a rapid, within several hours, increase in the volume of the adrenal glands and a corresponding increase in their work. At the same time, the adrenal glands begin to release a large amount of hormones into the blood that increase the body’s resistance to any harmful influences, in particular, helping it cope with infection. If a serious illness lasts for a long time, exhaustion of the hard-working adrenal glands may occur, and the person dies due to symptoms of adrenal insufficiency.

These observations served as the basis for the use of adrenal hormones not only for bronze and other diseases associated with disruption of the normal functioning of the adrenal glands, but also for other diseases. Thus, adrenaline and deoxycorticosterone, which increase blood pressure, can now save the lives of people in a state of shock or collapse. The use of cortisone or adrenocorticotropic hormone of the pituitary gland (ACTH) gives an amazing effect in many diseases that were previously difficult to treat.

In 1949, cortisone was first used to treat acute articular rheumatism, as well as ankylosing polyarthritis - a disease in which inflammation of the joints makes them stiff, and then completely deprives a person of the ability to move, i.e. turns him into a complete invalid who is confined to a bed for years. bed and cannot move his arms or legs.

If cortisone treatment is started in a timely manner, joint swelling subsides within 2-3 days and the temperature drops to normal; Mobility in the affected joints is gradually restored. In acute rheumatic inflammation of the joints, early use of cortisone or ACTT, according to the observations of Soviet doctors, reduces the number of complications (damage to the heart valves, etc.).

Cortisone or ACTH in many cases eliminates asthma attacks for several weeks or months. The same drugs are successfully used for gout, ulcerative colitis, and some eye and skin diseases. In case of extensive burns, cortisone saves the lives of people who in the past were considered doomed.

Obtaining cortisone from the adrenal glands of animals (cows, sheep, pigs) is very labor-intensive and expensive: less than one gram of cortisone is obtained from one ton of adrenal glands. Therefore, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the method currently developed by chemists for the synthetic production of cortisone from various substances of animal and plant origin.

The production of this hormonal drug in unlimited quantities is of exceptional importance for increasing the effectiveness of the treatment of many diseases.

Disturbances in the production of sex hormones by the adrenal glands. In addition to the hormones that we have already mentioned, the adrenal cortex secretes male and female sex hormones into the blood. With hyperplasia of the adrenal gland or the formation of a tumor in it, the production of sex hormones increases sharply. In such cases, children may experience early puberty. Men experience feminization (development of a feminine appearance), and women experience virilization (development of masculinity). This disease is much more common among women.

Signs of a similar disease, called adrenal-genital syndrome, are as follows: a previously healthy woman begins to grow a beard and mustache, hair appears on the chest, abdomen and legs, the mammary glands atrophy, and menstruation stops. The patient's appearance changes - instead of the soft, rounded lines characteristic of the female figure, a muscular male torso develops. The voice also changes, acquiring a low masculine timbre. Patients are depressingly affected by the need to constantly destroy the hair growing on their face so as not to attract the attention of others.

The doctor’s task in such cases is to establish whether the disease is actually caused by an adrenal tumor, since very similar diseases can also occur with ovarian tumors or the presence of changes in the interstitial medulla and pituitary gland. To find out which endocrine gland is responsible for the appearance of masculinity in a woman, a comprehensive examination of the patient is carried out: an X-ray of the adrenal glands is taken after introducing oxygen into the perinephric tissues, the content in the urine of the so-called 17-ketosteroids - metabolic products of adrenal hormones is examined (in case of adrenal tumors, their release increases significantly with urine); They also take pictures of the skull, repeat gynecological examinations, etc.

Once it is determined which adrenal gland the tumor is located in (left or right), it is surgically removed. After some time, the patients recover (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. On the left is a 39-year-old woman with a masculine appearance. On the right is the same woman 11 months after removal of a tumor of the left adrenal gland, which reached the size of a large tangerine.

Until recently, such operations were associated with great risk, since if there is a tumor in one of the adrenal glands, the second adrenal gland is in an inactive (atrophic) state. Therefore, when an adrenal tumor was removed, patients often died from acute adrenal insufficiency. Now, thanks to the discovery of cortisone, this danger has passed: from the very first day after surgery, patients receive cortisone and feel great. 7-8 days after surgery, cortisone administration is stopped. By this time, the patient’s remaining second adrenal gland begins to produce sufficient quantities of the corresponding hormone.

Multiple diseases of the endocrine glands

Obesity and wasting. Premature puberty. Premature old age.

In this section we will focus on several diseases that depend on the disruption of the simultaneous activity of two or more endocrine glands.

An example of such a disease is Frohlich's disease, who first described it in 1901, or adipose-genital dystrophy. The first striking sign of this disease is excessive sickness, whose weight can reach 150-180 kg or more.

It should be noted that not everything indicates the presence of Fröhlich's disease. You can often find overweight, obese people, especially among people who do not engage in physical labor. This is the so-called exogenous, i.e. from external causes, associated mainly with poor nutrition (overeating, excessively high-calorie foods) and insufficient expenditure of physical energy.

Thus, Fröhlich's disease is the result of a disturbance in the activity of several endocrine glands; Therefore, the treatment of this disease is complex, consisting of the administration of many drugs - hormones of the gonads, pituitary gland and thyroid gland. If a tumor of the brain or pituitary gland is detected in patients, treatment with X-rays is prescribed as for acromegaly, or the tumor is removed surgically. In addition, for Frohlich's disease, general measures that are carried out for any type of obesity are also useful: limiting food and easily digestible carbohydrates (sugar, sweets, starchy foods), fasting days prescribed 1-2 times a week (on such days the patient receives 1-1.5 kg of fruit or the same amount of milk or kefir), as well as various physiotherapeutic methods of treatment (therapeutic gymnastics, hydrotherapy, etc.).

The opposite of Froehlich's disease in its effect on fat metabolism is Simmonds' disease, which first described it in 1914, or pituitary cachexia. With this disease, an extreme degree of weight loss is observed, patients lose half of their original weight or more; their hair falls out all over their body, general weakness and complete physical exhaustion develop, in which even the easiest work becomes unbearable; Women stop having periods, and men have decreased sexual ability. Blood pressure during this disease decreases significantly, blood sugar levels also drop, and body temperature is 1-2 degrees lower than normal. The skin of patients is extremely dry, and tooth loss is noted.

Simmonds' disease develops due to a decrease in size (atrophy) of the anterior pituitary gland as a result of hemorrhages or inflammatory processes after typhus, influenza, syphilitic and other infections. Disruption of the pituitary gland entails a decrease in the function of the gonads, adrenal glands, and thyroid gland.

Until recently, treatment for Simmonds' disease had little success. Only in cases caused by syphilis or tuberculosis could one expect an improvement in the condition of the patients if anti-syphilitic or anti-tuberculosis treatment was carried out in the early stages of the disease. Currently, when there are active hormonal preparations of the pituitary gland, gonads and adrenal glands, treatment of this disease with such drugs gives good results.

Premature puberty is characterized by the appearance in childhood of signs characteristic of adult men and women. Normally, in our climate, puberty begins at 12-13 years of age and ends completely by 18-20 years of age. With premature puberty in children, at 5-7 years of age or even earlier, the growth of the genital organs and the development of secondary sexual characteristics begin. In girls, the mammary glands become enlarged, pubic and armpit hair appears, and menstruation may begin. In boys, premature growth of mustache and beard begins, and the genitals reach the size characteristic of adult men. During early puberty, children are usually significantly ahead of their peers in height. So, for example, a 4½-year-old girl with well-developed mammary glands, pubic hair and regular menstruation had a height of 117 centimeters, i.e., the same height as an 8-year-old girl. The boy, whose premature development of the reproductive system began at the age of 7, had a height of 1 m 52 cm at the age of 9. He looked like an 18-year-old boy and spoke in a deep voice. However, in the future, such children stop growing, and ultimately their height does not exceed the average height of an adult.

There are two forms of early puberty in children. With one of them, only premature physical and sexual development is observed, while the psyche and behavior remain at the childhood stage. In the second case, premature physical and sexual development is accompanied by early development of mental abilities.

The causes of early sexual development in children are varied. Most often, these are tumors of the gonads (testes in boys and ovaries in girls), and these tumors can be malignant. In this case, the glands produce an excess amount of sex hormones, under the influence of which secondary sexual characteristics develop earlier than normal. Early puberty can also occur with tumors of the adrenal glands, pineal gland (epiphysis), hydrocele and tumors in the interstitial brain or in the immediate vicinity of the pituitary gland. It is possible that with brain tumors, the mechanical pressure they exert on the pituitary gland causes an increased release of gonadotropic hormones that stimulate the early development of the genital organs.

Premature sexual development can easily be achieved in animal experiments by injecting them with gonadotropic hormones obtained from the anterior pituitary gland. Occasionally, early sexual development in children is explained by heredity and does not represent a disease in the literal sense of the word.

In each case of early puberty, it is necessary to carry out a thorough clinical examination of children to establish the cause of its occurrence. If a tumor is detected (as already indicated, sometimes malignant), it, of course, should be removed surgically as early as possible. In such cases, the signs of early puberty quickly disappear: in boys, the beard and mustache fall out and the genitals decrease in size; in girls, menstruation stops and the mammary glands undergo reverse development. In the future, such children develop normally.

Early aging. This rare endocrine disease is associated with simultaneous disruption of the activity of many endocrine glands. In the case described by Dr. N.I. Tsyganova, the 16-year-old girl looked like an elderly woman of 50 years old (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Premature aging in a 16-year-old girl. B - Kazakh, 24 years old. B - Woman, 30 years old.

Premature aging may be a consequence of sclerosis of the vessels supplying blood to the endocrine glands. The resulting deterioration in the nutrition of the endocrine glands reduces the amount of hormones they produce. In turn, the phenomena of sclerosis can be caused by chronic infection (syphilis, malaria, etc.). Therefore, therapy for early aging consists, on the one hand, in the treatment of the underlying disease and, on the other, in the constant administration of hormones of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands and sex glands that are missing in the body.

Gonads and their diseases

Male and female sex hormones. Treatment of gonadal insufficiency.

The sex glands - the testes in men and the ovaries in women - are paired organs that secrete sex hormones into the blood, influencing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Male sex hormones cause the growth of a beard and mustache; the development of the muscles characteristic of a man, the development of the genital organ, and a low male voice depend on the presence of these hormones. Female sex hormones influence the development of the mammary glands, the growth of the uterus, and the deposition of adipose tissue in certain places of the body, which is characteristic of the female figure.

The changes that occur in the development of a person deprived of the gonads in childhood were well studied in the last century during examinations of the eunuchs sect that existed in tsarist Russia. Representatives of this religious sect believed that people who are sexually active fall into “sin.” To ensure their place in heaven, members of the sect mutually castrated (castrated) each other, subjecting this operation to their children, who over the years developed a so-called eunuchoid physique, which is characterized by high growth and imbalance of body proportions due to excessive lengthening of the legs. The length of the arms also increased noticeably. The castrated youths retained a high, childlike timbre of their voices, their mustaches and beards did not grow, and their genitals remained at the childhood stage of development. Castrati girls did not develop mammary glands and did not have periods; they became unable to conceive.

Similar changes in growth and development are observed in cases where a child has congenital underdevelopment of the gonads or if in early childhood the gonads are inactive as a result of inflammatory processes or injuries. This disease is called eunuchoidism.

If the gonads are removed from an adult, after puberty (the doctor is forced to do this in case of tuberculosis or malignant tumors of the gonads, their wounds), and also if these glands have stopped secreting sex hormones due to inflammatory changes that have occurred in them, then the picture of the disease will be somewhat different. other. Castration will not have an effect on growth, but significant changes will be found in the appearance and mental state of the patient.

In men, after castration, the growth of the beard and mustache slows down or completely stops, the size of the genital organs decreases, and partial or complete impotence occurs (inability to have sexual activity). In women, menstruation stops, the mammary glands become smaller, and painful sensations of heat and sweating (hot flashes) occur. Castration also causes changes in the neuropsychic sphere: increased nervous excitability, imbalance, periods of depression (depressed mood), deterioration of memory and performance.

With partial damage to the gonads as a result of an inflammatory disease, the phenomena characteristic of castration do not occur, but, depending on the degree of decrease in the production of sex hormones by the glands, more or less pronounced signs of their insufficiency are noted. This condition is called hypogenitalism.

Until recently, doctors did not have active means with which to eliminate the consequences of castration or hypogenitalism. Currently, such active hormonal drugs are available.

In 1931, the first male sex hormone, androsterone, was isolated from human urine, and in 1935, an even more active hormone, testosterone, was obtained from the testes of a bull, various compounds of which are currently used for treatment.

Between 1929 and 1935, four female sex hormones were discovered: estrone, estriol, estradiol and progesterone (corpus luteum hormone). With the help of these hormonal drugs, it is possible to eliminate developmental abnormalities and painful phenomena that depend on the insufficiency of the gonads in women.

Of the female sex hormones, folliculin, administered by injection, and synthetic drugs - sinestrol and diethylstilbestrol, used in tablets orally, as well as in injections, are widely used. The three listed female hormonal drugs are estrogens, i.e. substances that can restore estrus (“estrus”) in castrated female animals.

The use of male sex hormones is equally effective. Our experience in treating men who were castrated for medical reasons (wounds in the groin area with crushing of the gonads) has shown that to restore sexual potency and secondary sexual characteristics, it is sufficient to administer to patients the male sex hormone (testosterone propionate) at a dose of 20 mg per week . In other words, to replace the function of the missing gonads in an adult male, only about 1 g of testosterone propionate is required over the course of a year.

Testosterone propionate is administered intramuscularly by injection. There is another male sex hormone drug - methyltestosterone, taken in tablets placed under the tongue. Slowly dissolving, the hormone contained in the tablet is absorbed by the mucous membrane of the mouth and enters the blood through the lymphatic tract.

Patients who need long-term treatment with sex hormones (for eunuchoidism, castration) are given hormone tablets. To do this, they use a specially designed syringe into which small hormone tablets are placed. Through a needle with a wide hole, such a tablet is injected, for example, under the skin of the abdomen, forming here a kind of “hormonal depot”, from which, as the tablet dissolves, the hormone is slowly absorbed and enters the blood. The effect of one such “replacement” lasts from 4 to 6 months, so they need to be repeated no more than 2-3 times a year.

When treating hypogenitalism in both men and women, significantly smaller amounts of hormonal drugs are required than in the complete absence of the gonads.

At the age of 45-50 years, when most women experience a decline in the activity of the sex glands and menstruation stops (menopause), a condition characterized by increased nervous excitability, deterioration of sleep, a feeling of numbness in the hands, and frequent hot flashes may develop. While most women experience menopause without any signs of deterioration in their health, some experience it very difficult. Elimination of such problems is achieved by taking small doses of estrogens (for example, sinestrol tablets). It should be noted that estrogen medications for menopausal disorders can be taken only after a gynecological examination, with the permission of a doctor. If you have fibroids or fibroids of the uterus, estrogen hormones cannot be taken, as they enhance the growth of these tumors.

The use of hormonal drugs for various diseases

At the dawn of endocrinology, aqueous, alcoholic or glycerin extracts (extracts) from animal glands or directly crushed tissue of endocrine glands were used for medicinal purposes. In most cases, such organotherapeutic preparations contained an insignificant amount of hormones, and therefore treatment with them was not very successful.

Modern organopreparations undergo complex processing and purification from impurities, as a result of which they become much more active. Thanks to the successes of modern chemistry, many hormones are now extracted not from animal glands, but synthetically, and in their action they are no different from natural hormones.

All hormonal drugs that go on sale are pre-standardized, that is, they are tested in state control laboratories, where the drugs are tested on animals; The potency of each hormonal drug is indicated on the label in standard international “units of action.” So, for example, the unit of action of the female sex hormone (estrogen) is the amount of the drug that restores estrus in a castrated female mouse; a unit of insulin action is considered to be the amount of this hormone that reduces the rabbit’s blood sugar by half (from 90 to 45 mg%), etc.

The diverse influence exerted by hormonal drugs on metabolic processes in the body is currently used to treat not only endocrine, but also other diseases. Below is a summary of the use of hormonal drugs for some of these diseases.

Painful periods not associated with inflammatory diseases in the pelvis. For so-called dysmenorrhea - menstruation that occurs with significant pain, the therapeutic effect is exerted by the hormone of the corpus luteum (progesterone), prescribed by injection at 0.005, or its substitute - pregnin, taken three tablets twice a day under the tongue. The effect of the corpus luteum hormone in dysmenorrhea is explained by the fact that it reduces the excitability of the muscles of the uterus and weakens its contractions that cause pain. Progesterone or pregnin is taken within 6-7 days before the expected period of menstruation as prescribed by a gynecologist and under his supervision.

Bronchial asthma. In addition to cortisone and ACTH, the use of which in bronchial asthma has already been reported, good results in this disease are obtained by the administration of parathyroidocrine, a drug obtained from the parathyroid glands of animals. Parathyreocrine has the ability to increase calcium levels in the blood, which eliminates spasm of bronchioles (the smallest branches of the bronchi in the lungs) and stops asthma attacks. Parathyrocrine is administered subcutaneously at a dose of 2 ml daily for 10-15 days.

Bedwetting in children. In many cases, adiurecrine has a good effect in this disease. The drug is drawn into the nose (both nostrils) once a day, just before bedtime. The dose for children under 10 years of age is 0.02. The effect of adiurekpine for bedwetting is explained by the fact that it increases the tone of the sphincter (locking muscle) of the bladder. When treating with adiurecrine, it is necessary to ensure that children empty their bladder before going to bed. In most cases, the use of adiurecrin for 2-3 weeks relieves the child of this disease.

General exhaustion. For low nutrition associated with poor appetite, which cannot be explained by any general disease, insulin injections under the skin of 4-6 units are used once or twice a day. Insulin causes a decrease in blood sugar, which reflexively causes a feeling of hunger and a good appetite. Insulin should be administered 10-15 minutes before meals, and if after the injection it is not possible to have a hearty breakfast or lunch, be sure to eat 4-5 pieces of sugar to avoid the onset of hypoglycemia (see page 18). The course of insulin therapy for exhaustion lasts 20-30 days. It is recommended to weigh yourself before and after completing treatment to know how much weight you have gained.

Obesity. Along with diet (limiting floury and fatty foods), fasting days, hydrotherapy and physical exercise, reducing body weight in obesity is achieved by using thyroidin. This treatment must be carried out under the supervision of a doctor. Some obese people tolerate taking thyroidin in large doses for a long time - 0.4-0.6 per day, while for others, administration of this drug even in small doses (0.1) causes palpitations within a few days , sweating, poor sleep, and therefore the intake of thyroidin has to be interrupted or stopped altogether.

Stomach or duodenal ulcer. Female sex hormones have a vasodilating effect and improve blood supply to tissues, thereby promoting the healing of ulcers, wounds, abrasions and other violations of the integrity of body tissues. This property of female sex hormones is the basis for their use in both men and women for gastric or duodenal ulcers. One of the estrogen drugs - folliculin, sinestrol or diethylstilbestrol - is administered intramuscularly at 10-20 thousand units for 2-3 weeks. In a significant number of patients, this treatment, even without diet, eliminates pain and leads to scarring of the ulcer.

The same good results are obtained by treating long-term non-healing, so-called trophic ulcers on the surface of the body (often on the legs) with folliculin ointment (5 thousand units of folliculin or sinestrol per 15 g of petroleum jelly or lanolin). When dressings with such an ointment are applied for several weeks (the dressings are changed 2 times a week), many patients experience healing of ulcers that had previously been resistant to treatment for a number of months. Cracked nipples in nursing mothers heal completely when the same follicular ointment is used for 7-10 days in almost all cases. For underdeveloped and inverted nipples, local use of follicular ointment is also useful in the prenatal period to prepare the mammary glands for feeding, since estrogen hormones promote nipple development.

We talked about some diseases of the endocrine glands and new methods of treating them. Of course, in a small popular science brochure it is impossible to touch on all known endocrine diseases, much less talk about them in detail. This would require a significant increase in the size of the brochure. For this reason, we did not provide information about other types of dwarfism, except those caused by diseases of the pituitary gland and thyroid gland, and we did not describe diseases associated with insufficiency of the parathyroid glands (tetany, etc.), as well as some other relatively rare endocrine diseases. The section on the use of hormonal drugs for various diseases provides an overview of only some of them, the most common ones. However, even the information that the reader will receive from this popular science essay will convince him that medical science and, in particular, one of its branches - endocrinology, is moving forward at a rapid pace, increasing from year to year the power of man in the fight against the most various diseases.

This article turned out to be the largest on the blog. It reveals the basic concepts of the influence of the endocrine system and hormones produced by the endocrine glands on a person’s well-being and health. I propose to understand the issues of endocrine diseases that are unclear to many people and prevent serious disorders in your body.

This publication uses materials from articles posted on the Internet, materials from academic literature, the Guide to Endocrinology, lectures by Professor Park Jae-Woo and my personal experience as a reflexologist.

Endocrine glands or endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts. They release the products of their vital activity - hormones - into the internal environment of the body: into the blood, lymph, tissue fluid.

Hormones are organic substances of various chemical natures, have:

High biological activity, therefore produced in very small quantities;

The specificity of the action affects organs and tissues located far from the place of hormone production.

Entering the blood, they are distributed throughout the body and carry out humoral regulation of the functions of organs and tissues, stimulate or inhibit their work.

The endocrine glands, with the help of hormones, influence metabolic processes, growth, mental, physical, sexual development, the body’s adaptation to changing conditions of the external and internal environment, ensure homeostasis - the constancy of the most important physiological indicators, and also ensure the body’s response to stress.

If the activity of the endocrine glands is disrupted, endocrine diseases occur. Disorders can be associated with increased function of the gland, when an increased amount of the hormone is formed and released into the blood, or with decreased function, when a reduced amount of the hormone is formed and released into the blood.

The most important endocrine glands: pituitary gland, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, pineal gland. The hypothalamus, the subthalamic region of the diencephalon, also has an endocrine function.

The most important endocrine gland is the pituitary gland or the lower appendage of the brain, its mass is 0.5 g. It produces hormones that stimulate the functions of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland has three lobes: anterior, middle and posterior. Each produces different hormones.

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces the following hormones.

A. Hormones that stimulate synthesis and secretion:

- thyroid gland – thyrotropins;

- adrenal glands - corticotropins;

- sex glands - gonadotropins;

B. Hormones affecting fat metabolism - lipotropins;

With a lack of hormones of the anterior pituitary gland, increased separation of water from the body with urine, dehydration, lack of skin pigmentation, and obesity occurs. An excess of these hormones increases the activity of all endocrine glands.

B. Growth hormone is somatotropin.

It regulates the growth and development of the body at a young age, as well as protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism.

Excessive production of the hormone in childhood and adolescence causes gigantism, and in adults the disease is acromegaly, in which the ears, nose, lips, hands, and feet grow.

Lack of somatotropin in childhood leads to dwarfism. Body proportions and mental development remain normal.

Normally, the production of the hormone somatotropin is promoted by sufficient good sleep, especially in childhood. If you want to sleep, sleep. It promotes mental health and beauty. In adults, somatotropin during sleep will help eliminate muscle blocks and relax tense muscles.

Growth hormone is released during deep sleep, so a calm, quiet, comfortable place to sleep is very important.

The middle lobe of the pituitary gland produces a hormone that affects skin pigmentation - melanotropin.

Hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland increase the reabsorption of water in the kidneys, reduce urination (antidiuretic hormone), and increase the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus (oxytocin).

Oxytocin is a pleasure hormone that is produced from pleasant communication.

If a person has little oxytocin, then he has little contact, is irritable, and lacks sensual relationships and tenderness. Oxytocin stimulates the production of mother's milk and makes a woman feel tender towards her baby.

Body hugs, sexual contact, massage, and self-massage promote the production of oxytocin.

The pituitary gland also produces the hormone prolactin. Along with the female sex hormone progesterone, prolactin ensures the growth and development of the mammary glands, and their production of milk during the feeding period.

This hormone is called stress. Its content increases with increased physical activity, fatigue, and psychological trauma.

An increase in prolactin levels can cause mastopathy in women, as well as discomfort in the mammary glands during “critical days”, which can cause infertility. In men, excess levels of this hormone cause impotence.

Thyroid located in a person’s neck in front of the trachea on top of the thyroid cartilage. Consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus.

It produces the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which regulate metabolism and increase the excitability of the nervous system.

With excessive production of thyroid hormones, Graves' disease occurs, metabolism and nervous system excitability increase, goiter and bulging eyes develop.

With a lack of hormones, the disease myxedema develops, metabolism decreases, nervous and mental activity is inhibited, lethargy, drowsiness, apathy develop, swelling of the face and legs, obesity appears, and in adolescence dwarfism and cretinism develop - delayed mental and physical development.

About thyroxine. This is an energy hormone.

Affects a person’s well-being and level of mood. Controls the functioning of vital organs - gall bladder, liver, kidneys.

Physical activity, gymnastics, breathing exercises, meditation, and eating iodine-containing foods: sea fish, seafood - shrimp, mussels, squid, seaweed - can increase the level of thyroxine.

Parathyroid glands. There are four of them. They are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They produce parathyroid hormone, which regulates the exchange of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

With excess function of the glands, the release of calcium from the bones into the blood and the removal of calcium and phosphates from the body through the kidneys increases. In this case, muscle weakness develops, calcium and phosphorus can be deposited in the form of stones in the kidneys and urinary tract.

When the parathyroid glands are damaged and the level of calcium in the blood decreases, the excitability of the nervous system increases, cramps of all muscles appear, and death may occur from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.

Thymus gland (thymus). A small lymphoid organ located behind the upper part of the sternum in the mediastinum. Produces the hormones thymosin, thymopoietin and thymalin.

This is an endocrine gland, involved in lymphopoiesis - the formation of lymphocytes and immunological defense reactions, is the central organ of cellular immunity, and takes part in the regulation of humoral immunity. In childhood, this gland forms immunity, so it is much more active than in adults.

Pancreas located in the abdominal cavity below the stomach. In it except for digestive enzymes, The hormones glucagon, insulin and somatostatin are produced.

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels, breaks down glycogen, and releases glucose from the liver. With an excess of glucagon, blood glucose levels increase and fat breakdown occurs. If there is a deficiency, the level of glucose in the blood decreases.

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels and moves glucose into the cell, where it is broken down to produce energy. This supports the vital processes of the cell, glycogen synthesis, and fat deposition.

With insufficient insulin production, type 1 diabetes mellitus occurs, in which glucose levels rise and sugar may appear in the urine. Thirst, excessive urine production, and skin itching appear.

As the disease progresses, pain appears in the limbs, vision is impaired due to damage to the retina, appetite decreases, and kidney damage develops. The most severe complication of diabetes is diabetic coma.

With an excess of insulin, a hypoglycemic state may occur, accompanied by convulsions, loss of consciousness, and a hypoglycemic coma may develop.

Somatostatin – inhibits the formation and release of glucagon.

Adrenal glands. They are located in the upper part of the kidneys, above them. They have two layers: outer - cortical and inner - medulla.

Hormones of the cortical layer - corticoids (glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormones, aldosterone) regulate the exchange of mineral and organic substances, the release of sex hormones, and suppress allergic and inflammatory processes.

Excessive function of these hormones in youth leads to early puberty with rapid cessation of growth, and in adults – to disruption of the manifestation of secondary sexual characteristics

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With a lack of these hormones, bronze disease (Addisson's disease) occurs, manifested by a bronze skin tone reminiscent of a tan, weakness, weight loss, decreased appetite, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, and abdominal pain. Removal of the adrenal cortex or hemorrhage into these organs can lead to death due to the loss of large amounts of fluid - dehydration.

The adrenal hormones cortisol and aldosterone play a particularly important role.

Cortisol is produced in large quantities during stress. It triggers immune defense processes: protects against stress, activates the activity of the heart and brain.

With elevated cortisol levels, increased fat deposition occurs in the abdomen, back, and back of the neck.

A decrease in cortisol below normal impairs immunity, a person begins to get sick often, and acute adrenal insufficiency may develop.

At the same time, blood pressure sharply decreases, sweating, severe weakness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea appear, arrhythmia develops, urine output sharply decreases, consciousness is impaired, hallucinations, fainting, and coma occur. In this case, emergency hospitalization is necessary.

Aldosterone regulates water-salt metabolism, sodium and potassium levels in the blood, maintains sufficient levels of glucose in the blood, the formation and deposition of glycogen in the liver and muscles. The last two functions of the adrenal glands are performed jointly with pancreatic hormones.

Hormones of the adrenal medulla - adrenaline and norepinephrine, regulate the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, digestion, and break down glycogen. They are released during strong stressful emotions - anger, fear, pain, danger. Provides the body's response to stress.

When these hormones enter the blood, a rapid heartbeat occurs, narrowing of blood vessels except those of the heart and brain, increased blood pressure, increased breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles to glucose, inhibition of intestinal motility, relaxation of the bronchial muscles, increased excitability of the receptors of the retina, auditory and vestibular apparatus . The body's strength is mobilized to endure stressful situations.

Adrenaline is the hormone of fear, danger and aggression. In these states Under the influence of adrenaline, a person is at the maximum of physical and mental abilities. An excess of adrenaline dulls the feeling of fear, a person becomes dangerous and aggressive.

People who have poor adrenaline production often give in to life's difficulties.

Adrenaline levels are increased by physical activity, sex, and black tea.

Calming infusions of medicinal herbs - motherwort herb, valerian root and rhizome - reduce adrenaline and aggression.

Norepinephrine is a hormone of relief and happiness. It neutralizes the fear hormone adrenaline. Norepinephrine provides relief, relaxes, and normalizes the psychological state after stress, when you want to breathe a sigh of relief “the worst is over.”

The production of norepinephrine is stimulated by the sound of the surf, contemplation of pictures of nature, the sea, distant mountains, beautiful landscapes, and listening to pleasant relaxing music.

Sex glands (gonads).

Testicles in men, allocate spermatozoa into the external environment, and sperm into the internal environment androgen hormone - testosterone.

It is necessary for the formation of the reproductive system in the embryo according to the male type, is responsible for the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, stimulates the development of the gonads, and the maturation of germ cells.

It also stimulates protein synthesis, and this accelerates the processes of growth, physical development, and increase in muscle mass. This is the most male hormone. It incites a man to aggression, forces him to hunt, kill prey, provide food, protect his family and home.

Thanks to testosterone, men grow a beard, their voice becomes deep, a bald spot appears on their head, and the ability to navigate in space develops. A man who has a deeper voice tends to be more sexually active.

In men who drink alcohol excessively and smokers, testosterone levels decrease. A natural decline in testosterone levels in men occurs after 50 - 60 years, they become less aggressive, willingly babysit children and do housework.

Currently, many and even young men have low testosterone levels. This is due to the wrong lifestyle of men. Alcohol abuse, smoking, unbalanced diet, insufficient sleep, and insufficient physical activity create health problems and reduce testosterone levels.

Wherein:

- sexual function and libido decrease,

- muscle mass decreases,

- secondary sexual characteristics disappear: the low voice disappears, the man’s figure acquires rounded shapes,

- vitality decreases,

- fatigue, irritability appear,

- depression develops

- decreased ability to concentrate,

- memory and ability to memorize deteriorate,

- slowing down metabolic processes and deposition of adipose tissue.

Testosterone levels can be increased naturally.

1.Due to nutrition.

Minerals. The body must enter zinc in sufficient quantities, which is needed for the synthesis of testosterone.

Zinc is found in seafood (squid, mussels, shrimp), fish (salmon, trout, saury), nuts (walnuts, peanuts, pistachios, almonds), pumpkin and sunflower seeds. Other minerals involved in testosterone synthesis: selenium, magnesium, calcium.

Vitamins. They play an important role in the synthesis of testosterone vitamins C, E, F and B vitamins. They are found in citrus fruits, black currants, rose hips, fish oil, avocados, and nuts.

Food must contain proteins, fats, and carbohydrates as the basis of human nutrition. The diet of men should include lean meat and fats as a source of cholesterol, from which testosterone is synthesized.

2. To maintain normal testosterone levels, a man needs moderate physical activity– working out in the gym with weights, working in a summer cottage.

3. Sleep at least 7 - 8 hours in complete silence and darkness. Sex hormones are synthesized during deep sleep. Constant lack of sleep reduces testosterone levels in the blood.

Ovaries in women, secrete into the external environment of the egg, and hormones - estrogens and progestins - into the internal environment.

Estrogens include estradiol. This is the most female hormone.

It determines the regularity of the menstrual cycle, in girls it causes the formation of secondary sexual characteristics - enlargement of the mammary glands, growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits corresponding to the female type, and the development of a wide female pelvis.

Estrogen prepares a girl for sexual life and motherhood.

Estrogen allows adult women to maintain youth, beauty, good skin condition and a positive attitude towards life.

This hormone creates a woman’s desire to nurse children and protect “her nest”.

Estrogen also improves memory. And during menopause, women have difficulty remembering.

Estrogen causes women to store fat and gain weight.

An indicator of high levels of estrogen in the blood of women and the ability to conceive a child is light hair color. After the birth of her first child, a woman's estrogen levels decrease and her hair darkens.

Many women face a lack of estrogen.

In childhood, this is the slow and insufficient development of the genital organs, mammary glands and skeleton.

In adolescents - a decrease in the size of the uterus and mammary glands, absence of menstruation.

In women of childbearing age: insomnia, mood swings, irregular periods, decreased libido, pain in the lower abdomen during menstruation, memory loss, decreased performance, changes in the skin - stretch marks, inflammation, decreased elasticity - hardening. Low estrogen levels can result in infertility.

Reasons for decreased estrogen levels: lack of vitamins, poor nutrition, sudden weight loss, menopause, long-term use of oral contraceptives.

The decision to increase estrogen levels must be made by a gynecologist.

How to increase estrogen levels?

In addition to taking hormonal medications and vitamin E, which are prescribed by a gynecologist, estrogen levels, if necessary, can be increased by certain foods that are included in the diet.

These include:

- cereals and legumes - soybeans, beans, peas, corn, barley, rye, millet;

- fats of animal origin, which are found in dairy products, meat, hard cheese, fish oil;

- vegetables – carrots, tomatoes, eggplants, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts;

- fruits – apples, dates, pomegranates;

- green tea;

- sage decoction.

It should be recalled that excess estrogen in a woman’s body can lead to headaches, nausea, and insomnia, so women should discuss estrogen treatment with their doctor.

Progestins include progesterone, a hormone that promotes the timely onset and normal development of pregnancy.

It is necessary for the attachment of a fertilized egg - an embryo - to the wall of the uterus. During pregnancy, it inhibits the maturation and ovulation of other follicles.

Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, placenta and adrenal glands. This is the hormone of parental instinct. Under its influence, a woman physically prepares for childbirth and experiences psychological changes. Progesterone prepares a woman's mammary glands to produce milk when the baby is born.

A woman's blood progesterone levels increase when she sees small children. This is a strong reaction. Progesterone is actively released even if a woman sees a soft toy (doll, teddy bear) similar to a baby.

Lack of progesterone can disrupt the female reproductive system and contribute to the development of gynecological diseases (endometriosis, uterine fibroids, mastopathy).

The main symptoms of progesterone deficiency: irritability and bad mood, headaches, breast swelling, swelling in the legs and face, irregular menstrual cycle.

Reasons for decreased progesterone levels: stress, poor nutrition, alcohol abuse and smoking, unfavorable environmental conditions.

To naturally increase progesterone levels, you should take B vitamins and vitamin E, and the microelement zinc.

The diet should include nuts, beef liver, rabbit meat, pumpkin and sunflower seeds, beans and wheat bran, soybeans, meat and fish products, eggs, cheese, red and black caviar.

During menopause, a woman's estrogen level decreases and the level of testosterone, which is produced by the adrenal glands in women, increases. Her behavior changes, she becomes more independent, decisive, shows organizational skills and a penchant for entrepreneurial activity. There may be growth of facial hair, a tendency to stress, and the likelihood of developing a stroke.

In the period from the 21st to the 28th day of the monthly cycle, the level of female hormones in the blood drops sharply, and “critical days” begin.

The following symptoms develop: irritability, increased fatigue, aggression, tearfulness, sleep disturbance, headaches, and depression. Acne, pain in the lower abdomen, “hardening” of the mammary glands, swelling in the legs and face, constipation, and increased blood pressure may appear. This is due to excess estrogen and lack of progesterone.

The pineal gland is a gland connected to the thalamus. Produces the hormones serotonin and melatonin. They regulate puberty and sleep duration.

Excess of them leads to premature puberty.

The lack of these hormones in youth leads to underdevelopment of the sex glands and secondary sexual characteristics.

Serotonin is the hormone of happiness. It improves mood, reduces stress, and causes a feeling of satisfaction and happiness. This is not just a hormone, it is a neurotransmitter - a transmitter of impulses between nerve cells of the human brain.

Under the influence of serotonin, human cognitive activity improves. It has a positive effect on motor activity and muscle tone, creating a feeling of uplifting mood. In combination with other hormones, serotonin allows a person to experience the full range of emotions from satisfaction to happiness and euphoria.

A lack of serotonin in the body causes decreased mood and depression.

In addition to mood, serotonin is responsible for self-control or emotional stability. It controls susceptibility to stress, that is, to the hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine.

In people with low serotonin levels, the slightest negative triggers a strong stress reaction.

People with high levels of serotonin dominate society.

To produce serotonin in the body you need:

- ensure the supply of the amino acid tryptophan, which is necessary for the synthesis of serotonin, with food;

- take carbohydrate foods, chocolate, cake, banana, which will increase the level of tryptophan in the blood and, accordingly, serotonin.

It is better to increase serotonin levels with moderate physical activity in the gym, use your favorite perfume, or take a warm bath with your favorite scent.

Melatonin is a sleep hormone, produced in the blood in the dark, regulates the sleep cycle, body biorhythms in the dark, increases appetite, promotes fat deposition.

Endorphin is a hormone of joy, a natural drug, similar in action to serotonin, the main substance that affects the body’s pain-relieving system. Reduces pain and brings a person to euphoria, affects mood, creating positive emotions.

Endorphin is produced in brain cells from betalipotropin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland in stressful situations and fights. At the same time, the pain from the blows is felt less.

Endorphin also:

- calms down,

- increases immunity,

- accelerates the process of tissue and bone restoration in case of fractures,

- increases blood flow to the brain and heart,

- restores blood pressure after stress,

- restores appetite,

- improves the functioning of the digestive system,

- promotes memorization of information received when reading books, watching TV shows, listening to lectures, talking with interlocutors.

Ways to increase endorphins:

- sports involving heavy loads (boxing, wrestling, barbell);

- creativity: painting pictures, composing music, knitting, weaving, wood carving, observing the creativity of others, visiting theaters, museums, art galleries;

- ultraviolet irradiation under the sun;

- laughter.

The production of endorphins is facilitated by power, fame, and the completion of a given task: writing an article, cooking, preparing firewood, etc. Any completed task or achievement of a goal increases endorphin in the body.

Sex promotes the production of endorphin, the hormone of joy and happiness.. Sex, like intense physical activity, improves blood supply to the body's organs.

With regular sexual activity, the body produces adrenaline and cortisol, which stimulate brain function and prevent migraines. Sex increases the ability to concentrate, stimulates attention, creative thinking, and prolongs life.

Dopamine is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. Produced in brain cells, as well as in the adrenal medulla and other organs, such as the kidneys.

Dopamine is a biochemical precursor of norepinephrine and adrenaline. This is the “flight” hormone. Provides good functioning of all muscles, easy gait, feeling of lightness and speed. If there is not enough dopamine in the body, the body becomes heavy and the legs move poorly.

Dopamine also:

- stimulates thinking,

- reduces the sensation of pain,

- gives a feeling of flight and bliss,

- influences the processes of motivation and learning,

- causes a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction.

Dopamine is produced during what a person perceives as a positive experience, eating tasty food, during sex, and pleasant bodily sensations. Dancing stimulates the production of dopamine.

The functioning of the endocrine glands, which form the endocrine system, is carried out in interaction with each other and with the nervous system.

All information from the external and internal environment of the body enters the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain, where it is processed and analyzed. From them information signals are transmitted to hypothalamus– subtubercular region of the diencephalon.

The hypothalamus produces regulatory hormones that enter the pituitary gland and through it exert their regulating effect on the work of the endocrine glands.

Thus, the hypothalamus is the “supreme commander” in the endocrine system and performs coordinating and regulatory functions.

A review of the endocrine system has been completed, the main hormones and their effect on humans are reflected, signs of disorders in the endocrine system are indicated, and the main symptoms indicating certain endocrine diseases are given.

If you have discovered these signs and symptoms, then you should visit a therapist and endocrinologist, undergo an appropriate examination (blood test for the content of a particular hormone, ultrasound, computer examination of the problem gland) and treatment with the drugs prescribed by the attending physician.

Is it possible for a person himself in everyday life at home to influence the endocrine system to optimize its work and on individual endocrine glands in case of violations of their function?

Yes, you can. To do this, you can use the capabilities of reflexology.

There are special energy points on the hands - basic points (see pictures), which should be warmed up with lighted wormwood sticks using up and down pecking movements.

Energy points on the hand.

To warm up the points, you can use a high-grade, well-dried cigarette, the end of which is set on fire and the points are warmed up with pecking movements “up and down”, without touching the skin. You should not smoke in this case, as it is very harmful.

The base points can be stimulated with hot pepper seeds, which are glued to the base points with a patch and kept there until a feeling of warmth and redness of the skin appears.

Health, immunity and life expectancy largely depend on the state of the body's endocrine system. In order for the endocrine glands to work effectively, they should also be influenced by reflexology techniques.

You should find the points corresponding to the endocrine glands (see figure), massage them thoroughly, warm them using the above technique and place buckwheat, rose hip, and sea buckthorn seeds on them.

For those who suffer from arterial hypertension and cardiovascular diseases, effects on the points of the endocrine glands should not be carried out, as blood pressure may increase and heart disease may develop. attack.