In "Romeo and Juliet" there is a tangible connection with Shakespeare's comedies. Proximity to comedy is reflected in the leading role of the theme of love, in the comic character of the nurse, in the wit of Mercutio, in the farce with the servants, in the carnival atmosphere of the ball in the Capulet house, in the bright, optimistic coloring of the whole play. However, in the development of the main theme - the love of young heroes - Shakespeare turns to the tragic. The tragic beginning appears in the play in the form of a conflict of social forces, and not as a drama of an internal, spiritual struggle.
The cause of the tragic death of Romeo and Juliet is the family feud of the Montague and Capulet families and feudal morality. The strife between families takes the lives of other young people - Tybalt and Mercutio. The latter, before his death, condemns this strife: "A plague on both your houses." Neither the duke nor the townspeople could stop the enmity. And only after the death of Romeo and Juliet comes the reconciliation of the warring Montagues and Capulets.
The high and bright feeling of lovers marks the awakening of new forces in society at the dawn of a new era. But the clash of old and new morality inevitably leads the heroes to a tragic end. The tragedy ends with a moral affirmation of the vitality of beautiful human feelings. The tragedy of "Romeo and Juliet" is lyrical, it is permeated with the poetry of youth, the exaltation of the nobility of the soul and the all-conquering power of love.
In the characters of the tragedy, the spiritual beauty of a man of the Renaissance is revealed. Young Romeo is a free person. He has already moved away from his patriarchal family and is not bound by feudal morality. Romeo finds joy in communicating with friends: his best friend is the noble and courageous Mercutio. Love for Juliet illuminated the life of Romeo, made him a courageous and strong person. In the rapid rise of feelings, in the natural outburst of young passion, the flowering of the human personality begins. In his love, full of victorious joy and foreboding of trouble, Romeo acts as an active and energetic nature. With what courage does he endure the grief caused by the news of Juliet's death! How much determination and valor in the realization that life without Juliet is impossible for him!
For Juliet, love has become a feat. She heroically fights against her father's Domostroy morality and defies the laws of blood feud. Juliet's courage and wisdom manifested itself in the fact that she rose above the age-old strife between two families. Having fallen in love with Romeo, Juliet rejects the cruel conventions of social traditions. Respect and love for a person is more important for her than all the rules consecrated by tradition.
In love, the beautiful soul of the heroine is revealed. Juliet is captivating with sincerity and tenderness, ardor and devotion. In love with Romeo her whole life. After the death of her beloved, there can be no life for her, and she courageously chooses death.
The monk Lorenzo occupies an important place in the system of images of the tragedy. Brother Lorenzo is far from religious fanaticism. This is a humanist scientist, he sympathizes with new trends and freedom-loving aspirations emerging in society. So, he helps, than he can, Romeo and Juliet, who are forced to hide their marriage. Wise Lorenzo understands the depth of feelings of young heroes, but sees that their love can lead to a tragic end.
16. "Hamlet": the construction and development of the conflict
The second period of Shakespeare's work opens with the tragedy Hamlet (Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, 1600-1601). The sources of the tragedy were the "History of the Danes" by Saxo Grammar, "The Tragic Tales" by Belforet, "The Spanish Tragedy" by Thomas Kyd, and Thomas Kyd's play about Hamlet, which has not come down to us.
In different eras, Shakespeare's "Hamlet" was perceived differently. The point of view of Goethe is known, expressed by him in the novel “The Years of the Teaching of Wilhelm Meister” (1795-1796). Goethe viewed tragedy as purely psychological. In the character of Hamlet, he emphasized the weakness of the will, which did not correspond to the great deed entrusted to him.
VG Belinsky in the article “Hamlet, Shakespeare's drama. Mochalov as Hamlet (1838) expresses a different view. Hamlet, according to V. G. Belinsky, defeats the weakness of his will, and therefore the main idea of the tragedy is not weakness of the will, but “the idea of disintegration due to doubt”, the contradiction between dreams of life and life itself, between the ideal and reality. Belinsky considers the inner world of Hamlet in the making. Weakness of will, therefore, is regarded as one of the moments of the spiritual development of Hamlet, a man who is strong by nature. Using the image of Hamlet to characterize the tragic situation of thinking people in Russia in the 30s of the 19th century, Belinsky criticized reflection, which destroyed the integrity of an active personality.
I.S. Turgenev in the 60s of the XIX century. refers to the image of Hamlet in order to give a socio-psychological and political assessment of the "Hamletism" of "superfluous people". In the article "Hamlet and Don Quixote" (1860), Turgenev presents Hamlet as an egoist, a skeptic who doubts everything, does not believe in anything, and therefore is not capable of action. Unlike Hamlet, Don Quixote in Turgenev's interpretation is an enthusiast, a servant of an idea who believes in the truth and fights for it. I.S. Turgenev writes that thought and will are in a tragic gap; Hamlet is a thinking man, but weak-willed; Don Quixote is a strong-willed enthusiast, but half-mad; if Hamlet is useless to the masses, then Don Quixote inspires the people to action. At the same time, Turgenev admits that Hamlet is close to Don Quixote in his implacability to evil, that people perceive the seeds of thought from Hamlet and spread them all over the world.
In Soviet literary criticism, a deep interpretation of the tragedy "Hamlet" was given in the works of A. A. Anikst, A. A. Smirnov, R. M. Samarin, I. E. Vertsman, L. E. Pinsky, Yu. .* * See: Anikst A.A. The work of Shakespeare. - M., 1963; his own. Shakespeare: The Dramatist's Craft. - M., 1974; Smirnov A.A. Shakespeare. - L.; M., 1963; Samarin P.M. Shakespeare realism. - M., 1964; V e r c m a n I.E. Shakespeare's Hamlet. - M., 1964; Pinsky L.E. Shakespeare: Fundamentals of Dramaturgy. - M., 1971; Shvedov Yu.F. The evolution of Shakespeare's tragedy. -M., 1975.
A student at the University of Wittenberg, Hamlet at the court of the Danish king Claudius in Elsinore feels lonely. Denmark looks like a prison to him. Already at the beginning of the tragedy, a conflict is indicated between the humanist thinker Hamlet and the immoral world of Claudius, between a freedom-loving personality and absolutist power. Hamlet perceives the world tragically. The Prince deeply understands what is happening in Elsinore. Conflicts at the court of Claudius, he comprehends as a state of peace. Hamlet's intellect, his wise aphoristic judgments reveal the essence of relations in the society of that time. In Hamlet, as a tragedy of a thinking person in an unjust society, the hero's intellect is poeticized. The mind of Hamlet is opposed to the unreasonableness and obscurantism of the despotic Claudius.
Hamlet's moral ideal is humanism, from the positions of which social evil is condemned. The Ghost's words about the crime of Claudius served as an impetus for the beginning of Hamlet's struggle against social evil. The prince is determined to take revenge on Claudius for the murder of his father. Claudius sees Hamlet as his main antagonist, so he tells his courtiers Polonius, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on him. The perceptive Hamlet unraveled all the tricks of the king, who tried to find out about his plans and destroy him. The Soviet literary critic L.E. Pinsky calls Hamlet the tragedy of the knowledge of life: “... A hero who is active by nature does not perform the expected act because he knows his world perfectly. This is a tragedy of consciousness, awareness ... "*
The tragic outlook of Hamlet, his philosophical reflections are caused not so much by what happened in Elsinore (the murder of Hamlet's father and the marriage of his mother Queen Gertrude with Claudius), but by the consciousness of the general injustice prevailing in the world. Hamlet sees the sea of evil and reflects in his famous monologue "To be or not to be" about how a person should act when faced with rot in society. The monologue "To be or not to be" reveals the essence of Hamlet's tragedy - both in relation to the external world and in his inner world. The question arises before Hamlet: how to act at the sight of the abyss of evil - to reconcile or fight?
To be or not to be - that is the question; What is nobler - to submit in spirit to the slings and arrows of a furious fate, Or, taking up arms against the sea of troubles, to defeat them with Confrontation? (Translated by M. Lozinsky)
Hamlet cannot submit to evil; he is ready to fight against the cruelty and injustice reigning in the world, but he is aware that he will perish in this struggle. Hamlet has the idea of suicide as a way to end "anguish and a thousand natural torments", however, suicide is not an option, since evil remains in the world and on the conscience of a person ("That's the difficulty; what dreams will be dreamed in a death dream..." ). Further, Hamlet speaks of social evil, causing indignation in an honest and humane person:
Who would take down the whips and mockery of the century, The oppression of the strong, the mockery of the proud, The pain of contemptible love, the slowness of judges, The arrogance of the authorities and insults, Inflicted on meek merit ...
Reflections on the long-term disasters of mankind, on the sea of evil, make Hamlet doubt the effectiveness of those methods of struggle that were possible at that time. And doubts lead to the fact that the determination to act for a long time is not realized in the action itself.
Hamlet is a strong-willed, energetic, active nature. With all the strength of his soul, he is directed to the search for truth, to the struggle for justice. Hamlet's painful thoughts and hesitations are the search for a more correct way in the fight against evil. He hesitates in fulfilling his duty of revenge also because he must finally convince himself and convince others of Claudius' guilt. To do this, he arranges a “mousetrap” scene: he asks wandering actors to play a play that could expose Claudius. During the performance, Claudius betrays himself with his confusion. Hamlet is convinced of his guilt, but continues to delay revenge. This causes in him a feeling of dissatisfaction with himself, mental discord.
Hamlet resorts to bloodshed only in exceptional cases, when he cannot but react to obvious evil and meanness. So, he kills Polonius, sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern spying on him to death, and then kills Claudius himself. He speaks harshly and cruelly to his loving Ophelia, who turned out to be a tool in the hands of his enemies. But this evil of his is not intentional, it is from the tension of his consciousness, from confusion in his soul, torn apart by conflicting feelings.
The noble character of Hamlet, poet and philosopher, seems weak from the point of view of those who stop at nothing to achieve their goals. In fact, Hamlet is a strong man. His tragedy lies in the fact that he does not know how to change the unjust state of the world, that he is aware of the ineffectiveness of the means of struggle that he has, that an honest, thinking person can prove his case only at the cost of his death.
Hamlet's melancholy arises as a result of the understanding that "time has gone out of its joints" and is in a state of disorder and trouble. In the composition of the tragedy, the prince's lyrical and philosophical monologues occupy a large place, in which a deep awareness of the spirit of the times is expressed.
The general philosophical nature of Hamlet's reflections makes this tragedy close to other epochs as well. Hamlet realizes that he cannot overcome the evil that reigns in the world; knows that after the death of Claudius, evil will not disappear, for it is contained in the very structure of the social life of that time. Referring to those around him, Hamlet says: "Not one of the people pleases me." And at the same time, for Hamlet the humanist, the ideal is a beautiful human personality: “What a masterful creation - a man! How noble of mind! How boundless in his abilities, forms and movements! How precise and marvelous in action! How like an angel he is in deep insight! How like a god he is! The beauty of the universe! The crown of all living! Hamlet sees the embodiment of this ideal in his father and in his friend Horatio.
The development of the plot in the tragedy is largely determined by the feigned madness of the prince. What is the meaning of Hamlet's supposedly insane actions and statements? In order to act in the crazy world of Claudius, Hamlet is forced to put on a mask of madness. In this role, he does not need to be hypocritical and lie, he speaks the bitter truth. The mask of madness corresponds to the spiritual discord of the prince, the impulsiveness of his actions, the insane courage in the struggle for truth under the tyranny of Claudius.
Tragic accident plays a big role in the plot. At the end of the tragedy, a cluster of accidents is given - the heroes participating in the duel exchange rapiers, a glass with a poisoned drink falls to the wrong person, and so on. The tragic outcome approaches with inexorable inevitability. But it comes in an unexpected form and at an unforeseen time. The unreasonableness of the social structure confuses both reasonable and reckless plans and causes the tragic inevitability of "accidental punishments, unexpected murders."
Hamlet is slow in fulfilling his duty, but he is ready to act at any moment, and in the final scene for him "readiness is everything." Hamlet is a heroic personality. He is ready to fight against evil and affirm the truth even at the cost of his own death. It is no coincidence that after all the tragic events of the deceased Hamlet, at the behest of Fortinbras, they are buried with military honors. Before his death, Hamlet expresses his wish that people know about his life and struggle. He asks Horatio to reveal to the world the causes of the tragic events, to tell the story of the Prince of Denmark.
Hamlet is a realistic tragedy that reflected the complexity of the time when Renaissance humanism entered a time of crisis. The tragedy itself expresses the idea of the need for an objective depiction of life. In a conversation with the actors, Hamlet expresses views on art that are fully consistent with the aesthetic positions of Shakespeare. First of all, the flashy effects of those who are ready to "regenerate Herod" are rejected; it is proposed to conform "action with speech, speech with action" and "not overstep the simplicity of nature"; the essence of art is formulated; “to hold, as it were, a mirror in front of nature, to show the virtues of her own features, arrogance - her own appearance, and to every age and estate - its likeness and imprint.”
The main historical collision of the end of the XVI century. - the conflict between the world of knightly heroism and the criminality of absolutist power - is respectively embodied in the images of two brothers, Hamlet's father and Claudius. Hamlet admires his father-hero and hates the hypocritical, treacherous Claudius and everything that stands behind him, i.e. a world of vile intrigues and general corruption.
17. Shakespeare's tragedies "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth"
Othello also shows the conflict between the individual and the surrounding society, but in a more disguised form. In Act I, the theme of "Romeo and Juliet" passes, as if from an angle: love, struggling with the opposition of others, who are in the grip of old, medieval concepts. But here love immediately turns out to be victorious, and its victory is all the more brilliant because it is won over one of the most tenacious prejudices - racial. Brabanzio does not believe that his daughter could love the “black -fashioned” without the help of witchcraft. In the court scene, Othello explains how this love came about. It originated from Othello's stories about his exploits and trials to which he was subjected while serving in the troops of the Venetian Republic: "She fell in love with me for the dangers that I endured, and I loved her for compassion for them." They were connected not by calculation, not by the will of their parents, not even by a spontaneous impulse towards each other (like Romeo and Juliet), but by deep mutual understanding, inner rapprochement, that is, the highest form of human love. This love perishes from a collision with the world of ambition and self-interest, embodied in Iago. Othello and Desdemona do not find support in others who are morally unequal to them: such are the impeccably honest, but weak Cassio, the insignificant Rodrigo, Iago's wife, Emilia, obsequious and frivolous before the onset of the disaster.
The catastrophe that occurs is due equally to the actions of Iago and the character of Othello. By his own admission (at the end of the play, before he kills himself), Othello "was not inclined to jealousy, but, having flared up, he went to the limit." He rejected Iago's suggestions for a long time, maintaining his composure and all clarity of mind, until he was forced to surrender to the seemingly irrefutable arguments that he presented.
The nature of Othello's "jealousy" is consistent with the nature of his love. This is not a wounded noble sense of honor, and also not a bourgeois feeling of a husband-owner, whose right is being encroached upon; this is the feeling of the greatest insult inflicted on the absolute truthfulness and mutual trust that united Othello and Desdemona. Othello is unable to endure what he considers Desdemona's "deceitfulness", which he considers not only as an insult to himself, but also as an objective evil: therefore he kills her as a judge, as an avenger for human truth.
Othello's greatest suffering is not the pangs of jealousy, but his loss of faith in the honesty of Desdemona and in the possibility of honesty on earth in general. But after the deception of Iago was revealed, this faith returns to Othello, and he leaves life, which has lost all value for him after the death of Desdemona, enlightened and reassured.
The image of Iago is very significant in the tragedy. This is a typical representative of primitive capitalist accumulation, predatory and cynical. His "worldview" boils down to two rules. The first is "pour money into the purse" (a phrase repeated by Rodrigo many times). The second is that everything can be given any appearance and that the value of things depends on the point of view. This is the ultimate expression of moral relativism and nihilism - what philosophically (and Iago is also a kind of "philosopher") in England of that time was called "Machiavellianism". The diametrical opposite of Iago is Othello, who believes in goodness and truth, is full of spiritual generosity and gullibility. Although Othello falls victim to his gullibility, morally he nevertheless turns out to be a winner in the play.
In King Lear, the problems of family relations are closely intertwined with the problems of social and political. In these three plans, the same theme of the collision of pure humanity with callousness, self-interest and ambition runs through. Lear at the beginning of the tragedy is a king of the medieval type, like Richard II, intoxicated with the illusion of his omnipotence, blind to the needs of his people, managing the country as his personal estate, which he can divide and give away as he pleases. From all those around him, even from his daughters, he demands only blind obedience instead of sincerity. His dogmatic and scholastic mind wants not a truthful and direct expression of feelings, but external, conventional signs of humility. This is used by the two eldest daughters, hypocritically assuring him of their love.
They are opposed by Cordelia, who knows only one law - the law of truth and naturalness. But Lear is deaf to the voice of truth, and for this he suffers a cruel punishment. His illusions of king, father and man dissipate.
However, in his cruel downfall, Lear is renewed. Having experienced the need and deprivation himself, he began to understand much of what had previously been inaccessible to him, began to look differently at his power, life, and humanity. He thought about the "poor, naked poor", "homeless, with a hungry belly, in a holey rags" who are forced, like him, to fight the storm on this terrible night (act III, scene 4). The monstrous injustice of the system he supported became clear to him. In this rebirth of Lear is the whole meaning of his fall and suffering.
Next to the story of Lear and his daughters, the second storyline of the tragedy unfolds - the story of Gloucester and his two sons. Like Goneril and Regan, Edmund also rejected all kinship and family ties, committing even worse atrocities out of ambition and self-interest. With this parallelism, Shakespeare wants to show that the case in the Lear family is not an isolated one, but a general one, typical of the "spirit of the times." This is the time when, according to Gloucester, "love grows cold, friendship perishes, brothers rise against each other, discord in cities and villages, treason in palaces, and bonds are terminated between children and parents." This is the disintegration of feudal ties, characteristic of the era of primitive accumulation. The dying world of feudalism and the emerging world of capitalism are equally opposed in this tragedy to truth and humanity,
In "Macbeth", as in "Richard III", the usurpation of the throne is depicted, and the usurper, by his bloody actions, himself opens the way to the forces that should destroy him. This is the meaning of Macbeth's words when, still full of hesitation, he weighs the consequences of his planned assassination of the king:
But the judgment awaits us here too: as soon as it is given
Lesson bloody, immediately back
It falls on the head
Who did it. And justice
With an impassive hand a cup of our poison
Brings to our same lips.
This is not about a “future” life and “heavenly” justice, but about earthly, real retribution. The eternal fear of rebellion makes Macbeth commit more and more new crimes - for he has “went into the blood” so far that he is no longer able to stop - until, finally, the whole country and even nature itself takes up arms against him (“Birnam Forest” , moving, according to the prediction, towards Macbeth).
The center of gravity of the tragedy is in the analysis of Macbeth's emotional experiences, whose image for this reason completely overshadows all other figures in the play, with the exception of the image of his fatal assistant - his wife. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth is a brave and noble warrior, faithfully serving the king.
But in the depths of his soul lies the germ of ambition. Gradually, under the influence of circumstances, exciting impressions and exhortations from his wife, this ambition grows in him and, after a difficult internal struggle, leads him to crime. But, having made a decision, he no longer retreats from anything. His titanic character is manifested in the fact that he does not feel any remorse and, realizing all the horror of both what he has done and what is yet to come, he fights with desperate courage to the end.
In Macbeth, Shakespeare reflected not only the seething passions and violent political upheavals of that time, in which heroism often went hand in hand with crime, but also the reassessment of all values, the crisis of moral consciousness, characteristic of the era of primitive accumulation. This feeling is conveyed in the exclamation of the witches (“prophetic sisters”) of the opening scene of the tragedy, which serves as a prelude to it, creating a mood:
Evil is good, good is evil.
Let's fly in an unclean haze.
- New!
I, Juliet Capulet, was born in the Italian city of Verona in a noble and respected noble family. My upbringing was done by a nurse. Although, in essence, there was no education. I ran where I wanted, climbed trees and fought with Susanna -...
Romeo Montecchi is one of the main characters of the tragedy. At the beginning of the play, this is a young man who is completely absorbed by a far-fetched passion for Rosalind, an absurd and impregnable beauty. R. speaks of his love for her with the bitterness and cynicism of a youth: “What is love? ...
Romeo and Juliet is a tragic story of two lovers who died because of the ancient enmity of their families. The inert and gloomy world of feudal prejudices is opposed by people of a new, life-affirming, humanistic warehouse: Juliet, defending her feelings;...
More than one century has passed since the creation of Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", but the audience is still worried, following the fate of the lovers from Verona, and the actors who got the role in the tragedy perceive this as the brightest event in their creative work. ..
Brother Lorenzo is one of the characters in the tragedy, a monk, the confessor of Romeo and Juliet, who secretly married them from everyone. L. is a true Christian. He is a hermit who has not retired from the world, indulging in solitary prayers and ecstatic contemplations of the Divine, on the contrary, ...
Before meeting Juliet, Romeo was an ordinary womanizer, hitting on every "passing skirt." His last passion was the lovely Rosamund. But Romeo found out that there is an even more beautiful girl - Juliet, from the Capulet family. And I decided...
It happens that during a math lesson,
when even the air freezes with boredom,
a butterfly flies into the classroom from the yard ...
A.P. Chekhov
Slide number 1.
Organizational moment.
There are names of heroes in literature that are familiar to everyone, even if a person has not read the work itself. These names have become symbols of eternal values. Today we will talk about such a work.
Slide number 2.
Lesson topic: W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet". The main conflict of the tragedy.
Epigraph: Who said to you that is not in the world real , faithful, eternal love ? Yes cut off liar his vile tongue! Follow me, my reader, and only me, and I will show you such love !
(M. Bulgakov)
Lesson Objectives:
To help understand the main conflict of the tragedy.
Improve the ability to compare works of different types of art
Improve the skill of analyzing a dramatic work
To form interest in the work of authors of foreign literature
To develop the aesthetic susceptibility of students.
So, in Verona, so many years ago,
How many midnight stars are above you, Verona,
The garden happened to hate the garden
And brother brother. Two old families
Forgot what is the reason for their enmity,
Do not forget to enmity forever.
But if you entered this vault,
You know all this without a doubt...
And if you know everything, we will now check. Test for knowledge of the text, put the score in your sheet.
Slide #3-4
III. Test for knowledge of the test.
And we will be transported to the beautiful Verona, southern, fragrant, it seems, only created for love, joy and happiness of people.
Video for reading a poem.
Where the old gardens rustled,
The girl was standing on the balcony.
There were two stars in the sky.
Hands clasped in impeccable prayer,
Promised in the echoing silence
That she is ready to love forever,
Who appeared in a mask before her.
The sun is a ray on thin clothes
Draw an intricate flower.
What a beautiful young girl
And the hair is a graceful curl!
In the old, old town of Verona
Settled her eccentric Shakespeare.
The girl does not leave the balcony.
The whole world admires her.
What hinders the love of young hearts?
The feud of their families.
Slide number 6.
The collision, the development of these feelings is the plot of the play. Those. conflict of love and enmity.
Slide number 7
Let's get back to the plot.
exposition
climax
Interchange.
It is on this principle that we were divided into groups.
1 group 1-2 act
Slide number 8. The video is a musical.
Read aloud the prologue to the slide of the musical.
What do we learn about the relationship between the two families at the very beginning of the play?
First meeting with Romeo. What does he say about his love for Rosaline?
First meeting with Juliet?
Where does the plot line begin?
Reading by roles of an excerpt Act 1, scene 5 (end).
Pay attention to the words of Capulet - the father of Romeo. What do they mean?
Slide number 11.
Reflection. Close your eyes for a moment and imagine the scene of the declaration of love of Romeo and Juliet to the music.
And now this wonderful scene in the interpretation of the famous director Zeffirelli.
And the same scene from Prokofiev's ballet, where Galina Ulanova dances the main role. "Ordinary goddess" - called the ballerina A. Tolstoy.
Questions for the group:
Do you think Romeo and Juliet's feelings are sincere? Prove it with text.
How did Romeo and Juliet change after they met?
How do the young heroes feel about the enmity of their families? Expressive reading p.54
What decision do they make? Who helps them in this? Wedding.
Expressive reading of Juliet's monologue before the wedding.
Group 3 performance.
What event played a fatal role in the fate of the heroes?
Did Romeo want to kill Tybalt? Why?
Video "Quarrel with Tybalt".
How does Shakespeare convey the transition of Juliet's mood from despair to hope?
What word for a girl is worse than murder?
What advice does the Nurse give Juliet after Romeo's expulsion?
Shakespeare says in the original:
And the usual translation:
"There is no sadder story in the world than the story of Romeo and Juliet."
What is the difference between these two options? How do you explain that Shakespeare put Juliet's name first? (Juliet is alone, even the Nurse betrays the girl, and Romeo is waiting for support from Lorenzo ...)
Climax and denouement.
Questions for the group:
How do the heroes try to fight for their happiness?
Who was their ally and who was their enemy?
Characteristics of Lorenzo.
Do you think that the heroes rushed to unite their destinies without waiting for the reconciliation of their parents?
The tragedy has, as it were, 2 endings. The death of Romeo and Juliet, the reconciliation of the Montagues and the Capulets over the bodies of the dead. Does the second ending soften the tragic poignancy of the first?
Shakespeare's tragedy is called optimistic. Why?
An expressive reading of the epilogue.
Sincwine.
Ride number 20. Letters to Juliet.
External conflict in the most profound works of Shakespeare is the basis for a different kind of dramatic conflict that takes place in the spiritual world of his characters. However, before saying this, we must resolutely reject the underestimation of the external conflict. It is not true, and indeed it is impossible to reduce the essence of Shakespeare's drama to pure psychologism. If we draw an analogy between art and life, then the external action in Shakespeare's plays is an objective reality, life circumstances, while the mental states of his characters are a subjective, deeply personal reaction of a person to the world. For a person, the life process consists in the interaction of these principles. People exist in the real world, and everything that happens in their souls, in their minds, is inseparable from reality, makes sense only in connection with it. In the same way, it is impossible to separate from each other the external dramatic circumstances and the spiritual dramas of Shakespeare's heroes. Shakespeare pays no less attention to the artistic reproduction of the conditions in which his characters live than to the expression of spiritual movements. From the point of view of plausibility, external circumstances in Shakespeare's dramas are not always accurate, but they are adapted to create exactly the environment that is necessary to add drama to the fate of the characters.
This is evident in a play such as Romeo and Juliet. The discord between the families of the Montagues and the Capulets gives a special drama to the passion of young heroes. Had their parents lived in peace, the children's love would have been idyllic. By themselves, the feelings of Romeo and Juliet are harmonious. But the hero and heroine are fully aware that external circumstances put their love in conflict with the conditions in which they live. This is emphasized in the words of the Chorus between the first and second acts:
Romeo loves and loves the beautiful
In both, beauty breeds passion.
He prays to the enemy; from a dangerous fishing rod
She must steal the lure of love.
As a sworn enemy of the family, he does not dare
To whisper tender words and vows of love to her.
No more opportunity
She see him somewhere.
But passion will give strength, time will give a date
And with sweetness alleviate all their suffering.(II, Ex., 5. TSC)
We are talking here not just about external obstacles that prevent the connection of Romeo and Juliet, but about a fundamentally new attitude to love that arose in the Renaissance.
Medieval knightly love was extramarital love - the knight worshiped the wife of his feudal lord, and they had to keep the secret of their relationship. The Renaissance strives for the unity of love and marriage. In The Comedy of Errors, Adriana ensures that her relationship with her husband is not a formal union, but based on mutual love. In all Shakespeare's comedies, the Renaissance understanding of love, which is crowned with marriage, is affirmed. Romeo and Juliet do the same. The first proof of love that Juliet demands is Romeo's consent to get married immediately, and he gladly goes for it. But, as we know, they are not given the simplest happiness in the eyes of a Renaissance person - an open recognition of their love and its legal registration in marriage. This gives a special sharpness to their feelings, which is always the result of obstacles that make it impossible for lovers to communicate openly. The enmity of families invades the spiritual world of the heroes.
When Romeo, after a secret wedding with Juliet, encounters Tybalt, he tries to establish a new relationship with him:
I, Tybalt, have a reason
To love you; she forgives you
All the fury of angry words.(III, 1, 65. TSC)
But the murder of Mercutio puts an end to the conciliatory attitude of Romeo, he fights with Tybalt and, avenging his friend, kills him. The tangle of relationships turns out to be very complicated:
My best friend - and well, mortally wounded
Because of me! Tybalt my honor
Scolded! Tybalt - the one with whom
I got married an hour ago!(III, 1, 115. TSC)
What a spiritual storm Romeo is going through: love for a friend clashes with love for Juliet. For Juliet's sake, he would not have to take revenge on her kinsman, but friendship and duty of honor require otherwise, and Romeo follows their dictates. Without thinking about the consequences, he acts under the impression of the death of a friend. This act, as we know, turns out to be fatal: Romeo, who wanted to take the first step towards reconciliation of the birth and extended his hand to Tybalt by killing him, incites hostility even more, and exposes himself to ducal punishment. True, it turns out to be relatively soft - Romeo is not executed, but only expelled, but for him separation from Juliet is tantamount to death.
Juliet also does not stay away from family strife. Like Romeo, she, too, at first thought that the barrier separating their families was easy to cross. It seemed to her that Montecchi was only a name and that the human essence was more important than tribal strife. But, having learned that Romeo killed Tybalt, Juliet ignites with anger like a real Capulet; she curses the killer (by the way, in magnificent oxymorons):
O bush of flowers with a lurking snake!
Dragon in a charming guise!
A fiend with an angelic face!
Fake pigeon! Wolf in sheep's clothing!
A nonentity with the features of a god!
Empty view! Controversy!
Saint and villain in one flesh!
What is nature doing in the underworld.
When she infuses satan
In such an endearing appearance?(III, 2, 73. BP)
But love quickly conquers family affections in Juliet. The individual turns out to be stronger than the generic feeling, and Juliet begins to say the exact opposite:
Should I blame my wife? Poor husband
Where is a good word for you to hear,
When his wife does not say
At the third hour of marriage? Ah, robber
Killed my cousin!
But would it be better if in a fight
Did this robber kill you, brother?(III, 2, 97. BP)
The mental struggle was short-lived for Romeo and Juliet - they are generally quick in feelings. Not duration, but strength serves as a measure of their experiences, and their passion is great.
However, it must be admitted that although Romeo and Juliet feel the contradictions of their position, there is no internal conflict in their very love. This does not deprive the work of tragedy. Beautiful a, ideal passion turned out to be in conflict with the enmity of loving families, Hegel himself recognized such a collision as quite tragic.
In "Julius Caesar" we already meet with an internal conflict, which is closely connected with the state conflict. Brutus admits:
I've been sleep deprived ever since Cassius
He told me about Caesar.
Between the fulfillment of terrible plans
And the first impulse between
Looks like a ghost or a terrible dream:
Our mind and all members of the body are arguing...(II, 1, 61. MZ)
Macbeth says almost the same thing (cf. I, 7, 1, see p. 130). It is alien to the open nature of Brutus to enter into a secret conspiracy, the very idea of \u200b\u200ba conspiracy is deeply unpleasant to him. Resorting to the figure of personification, Brutus says:
Oh conspiracy.
Are you ashamed to show yourself at night,
When it's free to evil. So where is the day
Such a dark cave you will find
To hide your terrible face? Such is not.
You better cover it with a smile:
'Cause if you don't embellish it,
That Erebus itself and all the underground darkness
They won't stop you from being identified.(II, 1, 77. MZ)
Brutus expresses here an objective, authorial attitude to the conspiracy, but it coincides with what he, as an honest Roman, should feel. This can be seen from his further behavior in the collusion scene. When Cassius demands that everyone swear, Brutus declares: "There is no need for oaths" (II, 1, 115). With a Roman, a word is enough, honor is a reliable guarantee of loyalty to the cause. Cassius offers to crack down on Caesar's supporters. Brutus is against turning the plot to restore the republic into a bloodbath:
We rebelled against the spirit of Caesar,
But in the human spirit there is no blood.
Oh, if without killing we could
Break the spirit of Caesar!(II, 1, 167. MZ)
Brutus regrets that a bloodless coup is impossible. He would like to do without the shedding of blood, not only on the principle of humanity in general, but also because of the feelings that he has for Caesar. Cassius convinces Brutus that the conspiracy has noble goals in mind. Brutus hoped that it would be possible to confine himself to the removal of Caesar. An idealist in politics, he makes a fatal mistake for himself and for the whole cause, insisting that Antony should not be killed. When, after all the vicissitudes, Brutus commits suicide, he utters significant words:
Oh, Caesar, do not grieve,
I'd rather kill myself than you!(V, 5, 50. MZ)
The fact that Brutus remembers Caesar before his death is reflected in his constant checking whether he did the right thing by raising his hand to the dictator. After initial hesitation, Brutus seemed to be convinced of the need to kill Caesar, but then everything did not go as he expected. A just cause was defeated, and this, in his eyes, casts doubt on the expediency of a conspiracy against Caesar. Brutus retains his mental fortitude to the end in the face of danger and death, but the thought of Caesar that does not leave him is the best evidence that he was never able to justify in his own eyes the murder he committed.
If we ignore many philosophical and psychological conjectures about the hero of Shakespeare's most famous tragedy, then for Shakespeare and his contemporaries the central moral problem of Hamlet was close to that outlined in Brutus' internal conflict. Without in any way rejecting the philosophical meaning of the tragedy, one should still not neglect its plot and the real dramatic situation in which the hero is placed.
Recall: the ghost imposes on Hamlet the debt of revenge for two crimes of Claudius - the murder of the king and the incestuous marriage with his brother's widow (I, 5, 25 and 80). Critics wondering why Hamlet, after a meeting with a ghost, does not immediately rush at Claudius and pierce him with a dagger, forget about many of the circumstances that Shakespeare introduced into the traditional genre of revenge tragedy in order to take it beyond these narrow limits and give it universal interest. .
Unlike previous images of the avengers in the English Renaissance drama, Hamlet is not a character who embodies only one retribution. If so, the question of why he hesitates would be valid. But Hamlet is not a one-sided character, having only one goal in life - revenge, but a multifaceted human personality. The content of the tragedy goes far beyond the theme of revenge. Love, friendship, marriage, relations between children and parents, external war and rebellion within the country - such is the range of topics directly touched upon in the play. And next to them are the philosophical and psychological problems over which Hamlet's thought struggles: the meaning of life and the purpose of man, death and immortality, spiritual strength and weakness, vice and crime, the right to revenge and murder. But no matter how extensive) the content of the tragedy, it has a dramatic core.
Hamlet's revenge is not decided by a simple blow of a dagger. Even its practical implementation encounters serious obstacles. Claudius is heavily guarded and cannot be approached. But the external obstacle is less significant than the moral and political task facing the hero. To carry out revenge, he must commit murder, that is, the same crime that lies on the soul of Claudius. Hamlet's revenge cannot be a secret murder, it must become a public punishment for the criminal. To do this, it is necessary to make it obvious to everyone that Claudius is a vile murderer.
Hamlet has a second task - to convince the mother that she committed a serious moral violation by entering into an incestuous marriage. Hamlet's revenge must be not only a personal, but also a state act, and he is aware of this. Such is the outer side of the dramatic conflict.
It is complicated by a deep spiritual breakdown - Hamlet has lost faith in the value of life, in love, everything seems vile to him. To accomplish the task entrusted to him, one must have an inner conviction that it makes sense to fight. We are witnesses of the spiritual struggle experienced by the hero. For our time, it is this side of the tragedy that is of the greatest interest, because it reveals the birth of the psychology of a person of modern times. But, unfortunately, too often the drama of this process is overlooked due to neglect of the unity of action, character and thought in the play. Contradictions in the behavior and speeches of the hero are the consequences of a special artistic method applied by Shakespeare. If we believe in one of the axioms of Shakespearean criticism - that the character of Hamlet develops - then it remains only to recognize that development does not necessarily go in a straight line. Shakespeare shows the development of the personality in a dramatic way, so it is natural that it occurs in jumps and transitions from one extreme to another.
Above, we have repeatedly cited individual passages of the tragedy "Hamlet", in which the problems facing the hero are unequivocally expressed, therefore it is enough here to confine ourselves to a brief indication of how external and internal conflicts are defined in the tragedy itself. The crime of Claudius is a moral ulcer that has infected the whole country. This is realized not only by Hamlet, but also by other characters, in part even by Claudius himself. General corruption puts before the hero the question of human nature, and he loses faith in the optimistic ideal of humanism, that a person is inherently good. The difficulty of the task requires Hamlet to comprehend the ways and goals of revenge. On this basis, a discord arises between thought and will, desire and action. In an effort to be guided by reason, Hamlet, however, acts impulsively, and his rash actions create an opportunity for Claudius to find an ally in the fight against the prince, which becomes the direct cause of the death of the hero.
Hamlet is aware of the inferiority of his personality, understands the danger of his inner discord. He understands that not only vice, but even a small flaw, weakness stains a person. Using the technique of dramatic irony, Shakespeare sometimes puts general thoughts into the characters' speeches, and at first it seems that they have a purely external meaning, while in fact they relate to the essence of the action. When Hamlet goes with the guards at the beginning of the tragedy to see if a ghost appears, a feast takes place in the palace. Hamlet argues that under Claudius in Denmark, general drunkenness developed, disgracing the whole country. Although the love of wine is not the most terrible of vices, but the trouble from it is great for the reputation of the people. In this regard, Hamlet remarks:
Happens with individual
What, for example, a birthmark,
In which he is innocent, for, true,
I did not choose my parents
Or a strange warehouse of the soul, in front of which
Mind surrenders, or defect
In manners, insulting habits, -
It happens, in a word, that an empty flaw,
Whether in the family, whether his own, destroys a person
In the opinion of all, be his valor,
As the grace of God, pure and innumerable.
And everything from this stupid drop of evil,
And immediately all the good goes down the drain.(I, 4, 23. BP)
All surrounding life is decomposing from a drop of evil penetrating into human souls. But that's not all. The heroes of Shakespeare are endowed with a special sense of personal dignity; they have little inner consciousness of their virtue. Humanistic morality borrowed from chivalry the idea that moral virtues should be displayed publicly and receive public recognition. Therefore, for Hamlet the question of his reputation is important. In order to fight, he pretended to be insane, behaved strangely, but when the last moment of parting with life comes, he does not want to leave it stained. His last desire is for Horatio to tell the truth about him to the "uninitiated" (V, 2, 352). He is afraid to leave behind a "wounded name" (V, 2, 355). When Horatio wants to drink poison in order to die with a friend, Hamlet stops him:
Be my friend and give bliss,
Breathe the heavy air of the earth.
Stay in this world and tell
About my life(V, 2, 357. BP)
Needless to say, the circumstances of Hamlet's life and death are complex, but the thought of his nobility as a person and how difficult it is to remain unspotted in a world poisoned by evil runs through the whole tragedy.
In Othello, the hero falls into error, and the true meaning of what he has done is revealed to him too late. In Macbeth, the hero knows from the very beginning what the essence of his tragedy is; Shakespeare puts into Macbeth's mouth words expressing the essence of the hero's inner conflict:
A little life you set a bloody example,
She will teach you a lesson.
You pour poison into the goblet, and justice
Brings this poison to your lips.(I, 7, 8. BP)
Having committed the murder, Macbeth deprived himself of rest - he stabbed the dream, -
Innocent dream, that dream
Which quietly winds the threads
From a tangle of worries, buries the days in peace,
Gives tired workers a rest,
Healing balm of the soul
Sleep is a miracle of mother nature
The most delicious of dishes in the earthly feast.(II, 2, 37. BP)
By his crimes, Macbeth placed himself outside of humanity. Instead of the expected benefits, the crown brought him constant anxiety, he rejected everyone from himself and was left in terrible loneliness:
I lived
Until autumn, until the yellow leaf.
To what brightens up our old age, -
On devotion, love and a circle of friends, -
I have no right to count. curses
Covered with cowardly flattery, -
That's what's left for me, yes the breath of life,
Which I wouldn't mind stopping
Whenever he could part with her.(V, 3, 22. BP)
The terrible mental struggle he experienced, the horrors with which he filled the life of the country - everything turned out to be in vain. Macbeth comes to the conclusion that life is generally barren, he equates it to an ephemeral theatrical performance, and a person to an actor who does not grimace for long on stage. These thoughts are expressed in such impressive poetic form that they can be mistaken for the opinion of Shakespeare himself. But this magnificent monologue is inseparable from Macbeth's personal fate: "noise and fury" turned out to be useless in his life, and not in general, because this is opposed by the "official" morality of the play, expressed in Malcolm's victory. But this undoubtedly positive character looks pale next to the "negative" Macbeth and does not evoke any emotions, while there is a certain magical appeal in the personality of the villain. Unconditionally condemning the criminality of Macbeth, Shakespeare revealed his human tragedy, without any mitigation of his guilt.
In King Lear, it is hardly necessary to speak of the hero's guilt at all. Shakespeare very accurately determined the degree of guilt of the old king, putting the words into his mouth:
I'm not so
Sinful before others, like others -
In front of me.(III, 2, 60. BP)
The old king admits that he made a mistake, and the jester never ceases to remind that even Cordelia, who was expelled by him, Lear did not deprive him of the way his elder daughters deprive him. The tragedy of Lear is not connected with the crime, although he violated the order of life by dividing the kingdom and cursing his youngest daughter. But the misfortune that happened to Lear is the external side of the tragedy. Its essence, as you know, consists in a spiritual upheaval, through which he comes to a completely new understanding of life. His ideal becomes pure humanity, freedom from those social obligations and ties that prevent people from being people in the true sense of the word. This ideal, after all the trials, he finds in Cordelia. It is a real happiness for him that she, having forgotten the offense, driven by pure love, returned with the sole purpose of helping him. The return of Cordelia, as it were, crowns the truth about life that Lear found in his suffering. It lies in love and mercy. Cordelia is their living embodiment. To lose Cordelia, now that the whole meaning of life is focused on her, means for Lear to lose everything. Having taken his daughter out of the noose, Lear thinks that she will come to life, and then hope awakens in him:
this moment
Redeem everything that I have suffered in life.(V, 3, 265. BP)
But he was wrong, and his grief knows no bounds:
The poor thing was strangled! No, not breathing!
A horse, a dog, a rat can live,
But not to you. You are gone forever
Forever, forever, forever, forever, forever!(V, 3, 305. BP)
The most beautiful of living beings perishes, but the lower species of the animal world (the reader, of course, remembers the great chain of being) survive. This is how the victory of evil over good is metaphorically expressed. In his old age, Lear has experienced too much, more than a man can bear, and he dies. When Edgar tries to revive Lear, Kent stops him:
Don't torment. Leave
At rest is his spirit. Let him go.
Who do you have to be to pull up again
Him on the rack of life for torment?(V, 3, 313. BP)
Mark Antony is twice depicted by Shakespeare. The first time we see him is in Julius Caesar, and here he appears as a cunning politician, a clever demagogue and, most importantly, a man who is in complete control of himself. In "Antony and Cleopatra" he is no longer like that. True, he retained the ability to be cunning in politics, but everything that he decides with reason is then overturned by passion.
The tragedy of Anthony is already defined in the first speech, which opens the dramatic story of the Roman triumvir and the Egyptian queen:
Our commander is completely mad!
That proud look that before the army
Sparkled like Mars, clad in armor,
Now forward with prayerful rapture
In a pretty gypsy face
And a powerful heart, from whose blows
The shell fasteners were torn in battles,
Now humbly serves as a fan,
The love ardor of the harlot of the studio.(I, 1, 1. MD)
In essence, this is nothing more than a prologue, a speech that sets out the content of the play, its main dramatic situation. When Antony experienced all the bitterness of Cleopatra's betrayal and the hopelessness of defeat, he repeats the same thing:
O deceitful Egyptian creature!
O sorcery! She should have looked
And I threw troops into battle.
To think that her embrace was
The crown of my desires, the purpose of life!
And here she is, like a true gypsy,
I was scammed
And I became a beggar.(IV, 10, 38. MD)
Anthony lost dominion over the world, but he did not lose his human prowess. The passion for Cleopatra turned out to be fatal, but his life was by no means shameful. Having been defeated, he commits suicide, but without the spiritual breakdown of Macbeth. Anthony's life was not free from mistakes and compromises, but he always remained himself, although his soul was split in two when he had to choose between his political interests and passion for Cleopatra. And yet he has the right, summing up his life, to say about himself to Cleopatra:
Don't think about the sad turn
And my death, but come back with a thought
To past, happier days,
When, wielding the greatest power,
I made good use of it.
And now I end not ingloriously
And I do not ask for mercy, taking off the helmet
Before a countryman, but a Roman I perish
From Roman hands.(IV, 13, 51. BP)
This self-characterization of Antony is supported by the opinion of opponents who learned about his death. One of them, Agrippa, says:
Rulers with such a soul are rare,
But the gods, so that people do not ask,
We have been given weaknesses.(V, 1, 31. AA)
Antony is not a criminal, like Macbeth. If his behavior caused harm, then first of all to himself. He is a man with weaknesses, making mistakes, but not vicious. This needs to be emphasized; Agrippa's maxim had to be translated again because all available translations say that people are endowed with vices, while in the original it is only about mistakes, shortcomings, weaknesses - some faults. The detail is essential for the moral characterization of the hero.
Among Shakespeare's plays, "Antony and Cleopatra" more than others has the right to be called a heroic tragedy. It dramatizes the fate of a man of a rare spirit, whose greatness and nobility is emphasized by everyone - both adherents and opponents.
In Coriolanus, Shakespeare did not use his usual method of expressing the central ideas of the play through the lips of the characters. This is natural, for it is not in the nature of Coriolanus to be concerned with ideas. He is a man of action, not thought, and also extremely impulsive. He is guided by feelings, and he does not know how to manage them. But in the play there is another character who is given the function of an intermediary in all the dramatic situations of the play - Menenius Agrippa. He is, one might say, a reasoner, although his personal attitude to what is happening is by no means impartial. He is an interested participant in events, occupying a well-defined position.
Menenius gives such a characterization of Coriolanus, which explains the inevitability of the hero's irreconcilable conflict with the Roman plebs. According to Menenius, Coriolanus is "too noble for this world", proud and adamant, -
Neptune with a trident and Jupiter with thunder
And they will not force him to flatter them.
His thought is inseparable from the word:
What the heart says, the tongue repeats.
He will forget in moments of anger,
What does the word "death" mean?(III, 1, 255. UK)
Although, under pressure from his mother and the patricians, Coriolanus made attempts to compromise with the crowd and pretend to be submissive, the tribunes Brutus and Sicinius, knowing his nature well, easily provoked a conflict. Before meeting with Coriolanus, Brutus taught Sicinius:
You try to piss him off right away.
He is used to everything, including in disputes,
To be first. If you piss him off,
He will completely forget caution
And lay out to us everything that is in the heart
heavy. And there it is enough
To break Marcia's spine.(III, 3, 25. UK)
And so it happened. The only thing the tribunes made a mistake about was that they could not break Coriolanus, but succeeded in quarreling him forever with the people. The proud commander is ready for anything, but not for humility:
I won't buy mercy with a meek word
I will not humble myself for all the good things in the world ...(III, 3, 90. UK)
He is sure that without him, without his military prowess, Rome is nothing and can perish, and in response to the sentence of exile he answers: “I myself expel you” (III, 3, 123). He leaves Rome convinced that the most important thing is to remain himself. Saying goodbye to relatives and friends, he says: “Never / Will they tell you that Marcius has become different / Than he was before” (IV, 1, 51. YuK).
However, Coriolanus is soon forced to admit that he has by no means remained the same as before. Changing the world, changing people, changing relationships: friends turn into enemies, and enemies into friends:
Isn't it the same with me? I hate
The place where I was born and fell in love
This is the enemy city.(IV, 4, 22. UK)
Coriolanus, who once risked his life for Rome, is now ready to give it up in order to avenge the offense inflicted on him by Rome. However, as we know, Coriolanus refused revenge when his mother, wife and son came to him. There was discord in his soul. Aufidius noticed this: “Your honor and compassion / Entered into a quarrel” (V, 4, 200. YuK). In the name of his honor, desecrated by Rome, Coriolanus would have to take revenge, as he intended, but the pleas of his loved ones, compassion for them broke his will. He is aware that such a change may be fatal for him, and says to his mother:
happy victory
You won for Rome, but know
That the son of a formidable, perhaps deadly
Exposed to danger.(V, 3, 186. UK)
Premonition did not deceive Coriolanus. Aufidius took advantage of the fact that the Roman commander showed mercy that was not characteristic of him before. This is what ruined him. The paradox of the fate of Coriolanus is that both good and bad were equally disastrous for him. He did not show gentleness where it could not only save, but also exalt him; instead, he manifested it when it made his death at the hands of the Volscians inevitable.
Of great interest is one of the speeches of the opponent of Coriolanus - Aufidius. Reflecting on what quarreled the Roman hero with the people, he names several possible reasons. Quoting, I break the speech into separate passages:
1. Is it pride that accompanies success,
Confused him;
2. either inability
Use wisely what was
In his hands;3. and at the same time, as you can see,
He could not change his nature,
And, taking off his helmet, sitting on a bench in the senate,
During peace he behaved menacingly
And commandingly, as in war.(IV, 7, 37. AA)
According to Aufidius, one of these reasons is enough to arouse the hatred of the people and be expelled from Rome. He himself does not know which of them led to the break of the hero with his native city. The audience can see: Coriolanus was overly proud; failed to take advantage of the fruits of his victory in order to occupy a dominant position in Rome; he did not know how to change his nature and pretend.
"Timon of Athens" is a work whose external conflict is closely intertwined with the internal one. Timon was ruined by generosity. His butler clearly defines the tragedy of the hero:
My poor lord, you have fallen forever
Destroyed by your kindness!(IV, 3, 37. PM)
He emphasizes that this is strange - kindness becomes a source of misfortune for the one who is kind. Convinced of human ingratitude, Timon is imbued with hatred for people. However, as mentioned above, his hatred is the stronger, the more he loved people. This is the difference between Timon and Apemantus, who always had a low opinion of people. Cynic Apemantus laughs at people, Timon suffers from the fact that they change true humanity.
The content of the tragedies is wider than those that are touched upon in the statements of the characters. The problems of life posed by Shakespeare have been the subject of many thoughtful studies, and what is said here does not pretend to illuminate Shakespeare's masterpieces in their entirety. The task was much more modest - to show that the main motives of the tragedies were revealed by Shakespeare himself. Criticism that deviates from what the playwright said may be interesting in itself, revealing new aspects in the modern understanding of the problem of the tragic, but if it is not based on Shakespeare's text, then its significance for understanding the works of the great playwright will be very relative.
At the same time, although it is customary to say that Shakespeare is unlimited, there are limits to his thought. Shakespeare gave so much in his work that there is no need to raise his significance for our time, attributing to him something that could not be in his thoughts in any form. We sometimes confuse the stimuli received for thought with what is contained in the work that evoked them.
Although the general opinion considers Shakespeare's tragedies the pinnacle of his work, for him they were not the last word about life that he, as an artist, could say. His creative thought was not satisfied with what had been achieved. Having created such majestic and beautiful works, Shakespeare began to look for new ways.
Notes
N. Berkovsky. "Romeo and Juliet", in his book: Literature and theater. M., Art, 1969, pp. 11-47; V. Bakhmutsky. On Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet, in: Shakespeare on Stage and Screen. M., ed. VGIK. 1970, pp. 55-76.
See Hegel. Aesthetics, vol. 1. M., Art, 1968, p. 224.
Y. Shvedov. "Julius Caesar" Shakespeare. M., "Art", 1971.
From the latest literature on Hamlet, see: I. Vertsman. Shakespeare's Hamlet. M., "Fiction", 1964; Shakespeare Collection 1961. Ed. WTO, articles by A. Anikst, I. Vertsman, G. Kozintsev, M. Astangov, D. Urnov, V. Klyuev, N. Zubova; A. Anikst. "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark", in the book. Shakespeare, Collected works in eight volumes, vol. 6. M, Art, 1960, pp. 571-627; M.V. Urnov, D. AD. Urns. Shakespeare, his hero and his time. M., "Nauka", 1964, pp. 125-146; G. Kozintsev. Our contemporary William Shakespeare. Ed. 2nd. M.-L., Art, 1966. In: William Shakespeare. 1564-1964. M., "Science", 1964, articles: A. Kettle. Hamlet, pp. 149-159, C. Muir. Hamlet, pp. 160-170.
N. Berkovsky. Articles about the literature. M.-L., GIHL, 1962, pp. 64-106. Y. Shvedov. Othello, Shakespeare's tragedy. M., "Higher School", 1969; J.M. Matthews. Othello and human dignity. In: Shakespeare in a Changing World. M., "Progress", 1966, pp. 208-240; Shakespeare Miscellany 1947. Ed. WTO, articles by G. Boyadzhiev (pp. 41-56) and G. Kozintsev (pp. 147-174).
V. Komarova. "Coriolanus" and social contradictions in England at the beginning of the 17th century. In the book: Shakespeare collection 1967. M., ed. WTO pp. 211-226.
