Meaning of barbados - e. society and culture in collier's dictionary. Morphological features of the verb

Transl. from English V.V.Lvova. In the collection: “And these are evil, mortal sins...”: Love, eroticism and sexual ethics in pre-industrial Russia (X - first half of the 19th century). M.: Ladomir, 1999.

Translation according to the editor: Levin Eve. Sex and Society in the World of the Orthodox Slavs, 900 - 1700. Ithaca; L.: Cornell University Press, 1989.

"Unnatural" sex

Definition of sodomy

In church law and penitential literature, a lot of derogatory epithets are used to denote intercourse in rear positions: “sodomy”, “unnatural”, “ugly”, “monstrous”. The same words have been applied from time to time to other types of sexual intercourse. Anal intercourse between men was also considered “unnatural,” although other forms of homosexual relations were not given such a label. As we already know, vaginas

Sex between husband and wife was condemned as “sodomy” if the man took the woman from behind or if the woman was in a dominant position “on top.” Incest between close relatives (including marriage) was similarly called “unnatural”194. There seemed to be no way to distinguish “sodomy” from “unnatural” sin. Since such names could be used to label a very wide range of behavior, in the absence of clarification it is not always clear what kind of sin is meant. With such unclear definitions, the size of penances does not help, for they range from a three-day fast to a four-year period195.

Among the Orthodox Slavs in the Middle Ages, the understanding of the essence of “unnatural behavior” seems to have nothing to do with the modern use of this term. The very concept of “sodomy” arose from the biblical story about the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 18: 20 - 19: 29). This story does not specify the nature of the sins that led to the destruction of these cities, so scientists for many centuries could only guess about them. Early Jewish and Christian interpretations of these sins stated that male homosexuality topped the list of vices. Among the learned clergy of the medieval West, the sin of Sodom was associated with something “monstrous” and “unnatural,” which was borrowed from Aristotelian philosophy. “Unnatural sex” was understood as any sexual behavior that, according to medieval science, was absent in the animal kingdom, and this included homosexual relations between men (regardless of technique), heterosexual anal intercourse and non-creative sex. However, medieval thinkers also believed that what nature offers sexually for humans is not enough: animals do not enjoy the missionary position and do not abstain from incest. Church jurists in the West, including the Venerable Saint Thomas Aquinas, developed an alternative definition of “unnatural” sex that did not rely solely on the Bible or Aristotle. The sin “against nature,” they argued, lies in the practice of sexual intercourse of a kind that precludes conception. Thus, heterosexual vaginal intercourse "in the posterior positions" would be classified as "natural" in the same way as incest; for in both cases

Conception is quite possible in teas. "Unnatural" sex would then include acts ranging from masturbation to heterosexual anal penetration and all forms of homosexuality. Since “unnatural” sex was considered inferior to any form of “natural” intercourse, masturbation, perhaps the most common type of sexual violation, became a much more serious sin than incest with one of the parents. The logical sequence of such reasoning in practice gave rise to absurdity, at least from a legal and penitential point of view. However, the definition of “unnatural” sex or “sodomy” as non-creative acts, usually involving anal or oral-genital contact, has stood the test of time and has become part of the modern vocabulary and element of civil law.

None of these current definitions of “sodomy” or “unnatural” sex corresponds to their actual understanding in medieval Slavic sources. Slavic authors perceived the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah as retribution for all sexual sins in general, and not for any specific form: “Fornication is worse than all other evil deeds. Other sins are outside the body, but fornication defiles the body. The defiled ones increased in number in Sodom and Gomorrah, and they could not bear the radiance of the Lord, and therefore were burned with fire and molten brimstone.”197 One cannot help but be tempted to see in this terminology only something derogatory, intended to contemptuously denote any disgusting sexual transgression. Moral texts opposed “sodomy,” describing it in the most frightening terms and seeking its roots in foreign, non-Christian influences198. Violations labeled as "sodomy" or "unnatural sex" tended to attract severe penances and fines. However, other serious violations such as rape, adultery and fourth marriages were never accompanied by such epithets. Moreover, according to the list of imposed penances, these sins were more vile than those of Sodom199.

Upon careful analysis, a certain pattern emerges, according to which certain sexual acts fall under the heading of “unnatural.” “Unnatural” intercourse challenges the established order of the universe and society. Men should not be sexually submissive to each other; an adult man has no right to take

assumes a passive sexual role and cannot strive to give another man a similar role. In the same way, a man cannot satisfy his lust with an animal: interaction must be limited to a circle of people. It is destructive to the divinely sanctioned social order to have sex with a member of one's own family, and therefore incest is "unnatural." It is wrong for a woman to dominate the man whom God has ordained to be her master, so intercourse with the woman on top falls under the category of “sodomy.” It is wrong to sexually exploit a woman as a man (“masculinely”) through postvaginal or anal penetration; women should perform exclusively female sexual roles. In general, “unnatural” sex changed established social relations and for this reason constituted a serious offense.

Homosexuality

The norms of medieval Slavic church law in relation to homosexuality were rooted in the teachings of the Church Fathers. Those, in turn, experienced strong influences from the already established interpretations of biblical texts regarding sexual expression, as well as the life and customs of pre-Christian Greece. The attitude of ancient Semitic society towards male homosexuality was reflected in the Law of Moses and in interpretations of the parable of Sodom and Gomorrah. According to the Mosaic Law, homosexuality was considered one of the most serious crimes, punishable by stoning. The apostolic preference for celibacy included the denial of any sexual activity, whether heterosexual or homosexual, but homosexuality was specifically condemned. The philosophy of the Neoplatonists preached the limitation of sensual immersion in sex, especially if it was not associated with procreative goals.

But Hellenistic culture had obvious anti-ascetic tendencies, and male homosexuality was not only tolerated, but also promoted. However, not all types of homosexual contacts were favored. Anal intercourse was considered humiliating, at least for the passive partner, since he placed himself in a subordinate, “female”

"sky" position201. The Athenians of the Golden Age idealized other forms of homosexual relationships that developed between older and younger men belonging to the same social environment. The relationship was supposed to be primarily spiritual and based on mutual respect: the youth revered the social status and merits of his adult lover, while the more mature man admired the physical beauty and potential of the youth. And when such a union reached the stage of physical implementation, lovers used mutual masturbation and engaged in intrafemoral intercourse, refusing anal penetration. Thus, the early Christian milieu distinguished between two forms of male homosexuality: the despised variety, which involved anal penetration, and the much more respectable version of homosexuality, which involved mutual stimulation with the hands and thighs. Although Christian writers could not condone any form of extramarital sexual expression, they nevertheless accepted one of the prevailing moral principles of the society in which they lived, which asserted that one kind of homosexuality was more disgusting than another.

Thus, Slavic Orthodox church leaders inherited the system of Byzantine church law, which distinguished between homosexual men who engaged in anal intercourse and those who indulged in mutual masturbation, and between active and passive partners. Homosexual intercourse that involved anal penetration (referred to as "fornication" or "sodomy") was considered as serious an offense as heterosexual adultery. According to Saint Basil, for such violations a fifteen-year penance was imposed, as for adultery. Slavic church jurists preferred to apply the shortened periods of penance established by Saint John the Faster, reduced to two to three years of fasting and prayer202. Deviation from this norm in the direction of either greater tolerance or greater severity was rare. Some statutes required the imposition of penances lasting one year, five or even seven years, but all within the limits of penances for heterosexual sins203. Only extremely rarely was a particularly severe penance offered.

mya, and only in texts where softer recommendations were also given204.

When assigning penances for homosexual relations, priests were instructed to determine the age of the offender, the number of times he participated in such intercourse, his marital status, the voluntariness of participation and the role he played in this case205. The usual leniency towards young people under thirty also extended to homosexual relations. One of the statutes recommended a two-year penance for young people and a three-year penance for more mature people206. Byzantine civil law in the Slavic translation and Slavic national laws did not consider boys under twelve years of age responsible for a deliberate offense. According to one of the penitential questionnaires, if a boy under five years of age was sexually abused, then the burden of sin was borne by the one who chose this child to satisfy his own lust; if the boy was more than five years old, but according to the law he was not yet considered an adult, his parents were responsible for what happened, since they did not teach their offspring to avoid sin207. Two or three youthful homosexual experiments were considered a minor violation208. In relation to homosexual relations, as in the case of heterosexual fornication, bachelors seemed to be given greater freedom of action; a married man was supposedly obliged to satisfy his sexual desires with his legal wife, and not turn to another person of any gender209. A young man forced or coerced into playing a passive role in homosexual anal intercourse was considered less culpable than a willing participant. At least one of the authors completely absolved the responsibility of young victims of homosexual violence210.

Some hierarchs perceived the passive role in homosexual relationships as less sinful than the active role. This point of view was the opposite of that prevailing in Ancient Greece: there, a passive participant in anal sex turned into a déclassé, while an active person retained his status. However, from the point of view of Orthodox church leaders, the initiator of sin deserved more serious condemnation than the one who only passively participated in it. In this sense, the worst situation was for homosexual partners to change active and passive roles, so that both parties were equally guilty211. Other Slavic authors disagreed with this, believing

that both active and passive roles are equally deserving of condemnation212.

In accordance with the ancient Greek distinction between anal and interfemoral homosexual intercourse, Slavic clergy usually regarded the latter as just a minor sin. While anal intercourse was considered to be in the same category of serious sins as adultery and bestiality, intercourse between the thighs was equated with masturbation (“malacia” or “handjob”). The usual penance was an eighty-day fast with fifty prostrations per day, that is, only twice as much as for ordinary masturbation. True, from time to time there was a recommendation to impose penance in the form of a two-year ban on communion without any fasting213. If a three-year penance was prescribed, then it became clear that there was an analogy with the norms relating to masturbation, and not with those relating to anal homosexual intercourse214. Slavic clergy considered the use of hands for mutual masturbation more sinful than the use of thighs, “although both are evil and vile”215. Intercourse between the thighs was not perceived as a “complete fall from grace” in the sense in which anal intercourse was considered - those who engaged in this were not prohibited from taking the priestly rank216.

Other types of homosexual activity were even less serious. A lustful kiss from a man to a man entailed a forty-day penance with one hundred prostrations to the ground, that is, little more than for the same kiss with a woman. Trying to attract the attention of a man in order to start a homosexual relationship was treated no more seriously than trying to interest a woman in forbidden sex217.

It was much more serious for a man if he “tried to make himself like a woman” and shaved his beard; for such a violation he could be anathematized. Archpriest Avvakum, the leader of the Old Believers, refused to bless the clean-shaven sons of one of his supporters on the pretext that they must be heretics. Orthodox believers believed that they, like men, were created in the image and likeness of God and therefore should not strive to change their appearance and thereby resemble women218.

Although Slavic Orthodox norms regarding male homosexuality were apparently based on Hellenistic and early Christian ideas, they were irrevocably

The immediate recognition of the Slavic Churches of the Middle Ages indicates that they corresponded to the needs of society and the national perception of the issue. The rejection of homosexuality was not based on the fact that it was supposedly “unnatural” for a man to be sexually attracted to other men, but rather the Slavic clergy felt the importance of preserving prescribed gender roles for men and women. These roles excluded the submission of one man through anal penetration by another man. To condition the "feminization" of any man by putting him in a situation in which he had to fulfill a feminine role was even worse. However, when men engaged in mutual masturbation, neither of them was in the woman's place, so that the maintenance of prescribed gender roles was guaranteed. And therefore, Slavic clergy could afford greater leniency towards this particular type of homosexual activity. In any case, the Slavic hierarchs - and especially the Russians - showed less hostility towards homosexual practice than their Western European counterparts, and at worst perceived it as some kind of equivalent to heterosexual adultery. Neither the Charter of Yaroslav nor the Charter of Stefan Dušan mentioned homosexuality. It is possible that much of the homosexual practice of that time took place in monasteries; and in the monastery rules there were norms regarding homosexuality. However, by the end of the fifteenth century, homosexuality was becoming more visible in secular communities, although it did not yet attract streams of derogatory abuse. Samuel Collins, an Englishman who visited Rus' in the seventeenth century, noted that homosexual activity in Rus' was more open and tolerated than in his homeland. The division of Muscovite society into clearly defined male and female spheres expanded the possibilities of homosexual contacts by limiting heterosexual opportunities.

Lesbian behavior was not considered a serious violation. Sexual intercourse between adult women was usually classified as masturbatory (“malakia”). Penance was recommended in the form of a one-year ban from communion220. This kind of penance, longer than for mutually masturbating men, suggested the perception of this violation as more sinful, although not on the same scale as male homosexual anal intercourse. "For-

the law of the people” in Article 59 required the use of corporal punishment for women involved in this form of homosexual relations, when one of the women sits astride the other221. It was considered inappropriate for a woman to take on a male role in a sexual relationship, even in relation to another woman. At the same time, if a woman stepped outside her rightful place among other women, this represented less of a threat to the social order than the usurpation of power in a male community.

In relation to lesbianism, the concern of church leaders also had a different background: there was a connection between female homosexuality and pagan rituals. Women who participated in lesbian intercourse were called “godless women” - this derogatory expression was often used to refer to pagan priestesses. They were also accused of “praying to pitchforks” (female spirits) during homosexual activities222. In female homosexuality there was an allegedly dangerous anti-Christian component, which was obviously not present in mutual male masturbation.

Bishop Niphon ruled that sex between two teenage girls deserved a lighter penance than premarital heterosexual fornication, especially if the hymen remained intact. Lesbian play among unmarried girls in seventeenth-century Rus' was apparently the order of the day. There is a secular tale about Frol Skobeev, who wanted to marry the rich heiress Annushka, despite her father's objections. To achieve his goal, he bribed her nanny and, disguised as a girl, ended up with Annushka at a friendly party. At Frol’s instigation, the nanny he had bribed suggested a game of “wedding,” where Annushka was chosen to play the role of the “bride,” and the newly disguised Frol was chosen to play the role of the “groom.” As the game progressed, the young people imitated a wedding ceremony and marriage feast, after which the “married couple” was put to bed. Frol took the opportunity to rape Annushka and thereby make her his ally224. The anonymous author of the story did not at all invent the “wedding” game for the sake of developing the plot; the penitential questions asked of young girls testified to her real existence225. These games, practiced quite openly, were treated very tolerantly, and if they were condemned, it was only for show, since in this way reclusive girls prepared for married life without risking harm.

take virginity and become pregnant before marriage. Lesbian relationships between young girls reinforced appropriate behavior patterns.

Bestiality

In the agricultural world of the medieval Slavs, animals represented an opportunity for sexual gratification. Most Slavic church leaders considered bestiality a serious sin. Church norms included descriptions of the sexual use of a range of animals, most often cows, but also pigs, dogs, birds and reptiles. Some statutes addressed the sexual consumption of both male and female animals. Violators could be of any gender, although the rules affecting men were the most numerous. The same penances were imposed on women for such sins as on men228. The usually imposed fifteen-year penance (according to St. Basil) or a two- to three-year fast accompanied by prostrations to the ground (according to John the Faster) indicated that the sin of bestiality was in the same category as adultery or male homosexual anal intercourse. Some penitential statutes drew a line between intercourse with mammals and sexual contact with chickens or other birds. The latter, no doubt, resulted in a lighter penance, because poultry was cheaper and easier to replace than other farm animals229. The harsh condemnation of bestiality by the Council of Ancyra, which established a twenty-year penance for a young man and a fifty-five-year penance for a mature married man, was not reflected in the Slavic norms of church law or in penitential questionnaires230. True, the distinction between young bachelors and more mature married men was fully consistent with the main thrust of the norms of Slavic church law. For a young man, penance could be limited to one single year of fasting231. As with other sexual sins, the frequency of violations was taken into account, and in some Slavic statutes the Old Testament rule was reproduced: whether the offender later ate the meat of the animal he used. In the latter case, clergymen most often recommended longer penances according to the recommendations of St. Basil232. From the point of view

According to the medieval Slavs, sexual contact with animals was no more destructive to society than other unauthorized sexual alternatives, and they did not deserve more severe punishments. Indeed, a number of Russian clergy considered bestiality as something much less serious than many other sexual sins, and reduced the penance to only forty days. Yaroslav's charter provided for a fine of twelve hryvnia, which equated bestiality with incest with one's sister-in-law or with extra-church divorce233.

NOTES

194 Missal and Breviary ser. XTV century // BAN. D. 48. Title page; Sinai 17 (17). L. 171.

195 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 145 (3 days), 148 (3 years), 276 (3 years); Vat.-Boron. 15

(4 years). L. 478; BNB 251 (200). L. 127 (2 weeks); SANI 124 (29). L. 95 (1 year); Decani 69. L. 108 (12 weeks).

196 On the development of definitions of sodomy and “unnatural” sex in the Western tradition, see: Goodich. V. IX. R. 29 - 34; Bullough V. L. The Sin against Nature and Homosexuality // Bullough, Brundage, eds. P. 55 - 71; Brundage. Law, Sex, and Christian Society. P. 212 - 214. In the Roman Catholic Church of the West, the hierarchy of sins of a sexual nature differs significantly from that accepted among the Orthodox Slavs in the East. Tentler (P. 141 - 142) lists in ascending order the sexual sins taken from the manuals for confessors of the period before the Reformation: (1) unchaste kissing, (2) unchaste touching, (3) fornication, (4) promiscuity (which was equivalent to the seduction of a virgin), (5) simple adultery (that is, one partner is married, one is free), (6) double adultery (both partners are married), (7) voluntary sacrilege (that is, one of the partners is bound by a religious Vow), (8) rape or abduction of a virgin, (9) rape or abduction of another's wife, (10) rape or abduction of a mona-yavni, (11) incest, (12) masturbation, (13) inappropriate position during intercourse (even between spouses), (14) penetration into an inappropriate orifice (especially unacceptable between spouses), (15) sodomy (which was equivalent to homosexuality), (16) bestiality. See also: Bullough. Sexual Variation in Society and History. P. 380 - 382.

197 Smirnov. Materials. P. 64 (“The rule is even a bigamist”); confirmed in: Almazov. T. 3. P. 18.

198 Stoglav. P. 109 (ch. 33).

199 See excerpt from the Russian Izmaragd manuscript in: Monuments of Old Russian Church Teaching Literature. Vol. 3. St. Petersburg, 1897. pp. 38-39.

200 Severe bans on sodomy in Venice during the Renaissance were also based on concerns about the threat to established relationships in society, see: Ruggiero. P. 109.

201 Buffer. Eros adolescent P. 19 - 22, 195 - 198. Exactly the same point of view was held in Ancient Rome, see: Veyne. Homosexuality in Ancient Rome. P. 30-31.

202 Eg: SANI 123 (28). L. 25 (15 years or three-year fasting with 200 prostrations); RGIM Sin. 227. L. 195; Vat.-Boron. 15. L. 476 (15 years or 2 years and 200 prostrations); Hill. 378. L. 167 (3 years, 500 bows); Trinity. pp. 69 - 70.

203 Eg.: Smirnov. Materials. P. 134 (1 year), 143 (5 years); Almazov. T. 3. P. 286 (7 years, 100 prostrations); Hill. 301. L. 126 (5 years, 300 prostrations).

204 NBS 688, l. 25, 93,110 gives a wide range of penances for homosexual anal intercourse: 2 years with 200 prostrations, 15 years, 18 years (attributed to Gregory of Nyssa) and a phenomenal period of 80 years. R*la 1/20 (48), l. 94, 102, 185 - 186, 188 gives a list of penances of 2 years, 3 years, 5 years, 15 years and 30 years; see also: RGIM Sin. 227. L. 181 - 182.

206 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 186.

207 NBS 688. L. 25; Almazov. T. 3. P. 149.

208 Print. 77. L. 23 - 24.

209 Kyiv 191. L. 154.

210 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 21; Hill. 301. L. 126.

212 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 149. In Venice, an active homosexual partner was considered more guilty and abnormal than a passive partner, see: Ruggiero. P. 121.

213 Eg: Decani 70. L. 227; Hill. 627. L. 15; Kyiv 191. L. 686; Trinity. P. 67. In two manuscripts, in one place there is a twelve-year penance, but in another - the usual eighty-day one: Pech. 77 L. 236, 261; SANI 124 (29). L. 54.

214 Eg: Almazov. T. 3. P. 276; SANI 124 (29). L. 72, 77; NBS 1-14. L. 259, 264. In Venice during the Renaissance, interthigh homosexual intercourse was considered as disgusting as anal sex between men, and the initiator was sentenced to death, see: Ruggiero. R. 110 - 111, 115 - 116.

215 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 127. Oral sex among homosexuals was almost unknown among the medieval Slavs; and only one questionnaire out of the nine studied included a question on this topic, see: Almazov. T. 3. P. 152.

217 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 275, 280.

218 Message from the Rostov Archbishop // RIB. T. 6. P. 880; Gujii. P. 493. From the court case of 1687 it is clear how the rules prohibiting shaving were enforced by force, although there is no indication of the accused’s homosexual tendencies. He made the excuse of ignorance and threw himself at the mercy of the court, see: RIB. T. 12. No. 182. P. 864 - 866.

219 For the critical modern reader, Collins's remarks, the seventh letter of the Russian alphabet, introduced in 1797 by N.M. Karamzin. Usually two dots above the letter are written in special texts...

Society is a stable and self-developing association of people connected by the need to satisfy common needs and interacting with each other on the basis of social norms.

Society is a complex self-developing system of connections between people and social relations. That is, society presupposes interaction between people, which is expressed in the fact that people enter into social relations. Society does not exist outside of interaction and social relations.

Considerationsociety as a system of social relations, the basis of which is economic (material), political and spiritual (cultural) relations, allows:

first of all, approach it specifically historically, highlight various socio-economic formations (slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist society);

secondly, identify the specifics of the main spheres of public life (economic, political, spiritual);

thirdly, clearly define the subjects of social communication (personality, seven nation, etc.).

In society, it is not biological, but social laws that operate primarily.

Signs of society :

1. is a union of people interacting with each other to satisfy common needs that are significant to them. These are needs, for example, for communication, food, safety, etc. These needs can be most effectively satisfied only through coordinated activities. This does not mean that there are no social contradictions in society caused by the discrepancy between private, individual interests. Individual interests of people will vary, since all people are not the same from a psychological, physical point of view, as well as their abilities and moral principles.

2. this is the interaction of people endowed with will and consciousness. In society there must be meaningful, conscious, volitional relationships and relationships with each other. People realize the “benefit” and the need to exist in precisely this form of organization as a society.

3. characterized by special stability. It is conditioned objectively, since the needs that underlie the unification of people into society, its formation, exist constantly and require daily satisfaction.

4. self-sufficiency. Those. society is capable of creating and recreating through its own activity everything necessary for itself: both material and spiritual benefits. Thus, society is not part of a larger social system.

5. the presence of power and special norms for regulating social relations. Any interaction of elements requires certain rules and laws. People, uniting in a society, must also follow certain norms, rules of behavior and interaction developed by society itself, which make it possible to realize individual and public interests and ensure a certain orderliness of social relations. But it is necessary to take into account that the created norms may not suit one or another group of people, which leads to their violation. Therefore, in order to ensure compliance with the developed norms, social power is organized in society, capable of subordinating a person to the established rules.

6. presence of culture, which gives spiritual meaning to human life, unifies human desires and aspirations.

Spheres of public life that determine the necessary types of mutual activity: 1). material 2). spiritual 3). organizational (communicative).

Together with society there arises social power is an organized force that ensures the interaction of various social groups with the ability to subordinate to its will.

Society cannot do without social institutions.

Social institutions- these are stable social associations, communities and groups that perform necessary functions and interact with each other on the basis of various social norms.

Social connections in them are determined by the organization of management, that is, it is precisely the need to satisfy certain interests, i.e. performing functions in the field of management underlies the formation and activities of a social institution. These connections are institutional, i.e. Social institutions are created precisely as associations of people.

Social community is a collection of people characterized by the conditions of their life that are common to a given group of interacting individuals. Social communities can be divided into types, the most common of which are classes, layers and groups. Concept social group is one-order.

Their emergence is due to the objective need of society for special regulation in the spheres of social relations and social activities. Each more or less formalized institution has its own goal, i.e. the range of group or public interests and needs to which the activities of the institute are directed. The diversity of social institutions is determined by the differentiation of social activities into various types: economic, political, ideological, cultural, etc.

Social institutions include community, clan, family, nations, classes, castes, social and professional groups, city population, religious concessions, labor collectives, education system, family media, etc. The first largest political institution was the state.

Based on the nature of the organization, formal and informal institutions are distinguished. The activities of formal institutions are based on strictly established regulations (law, charter, job descriptions).

For example: Social strata are large groups of people that differ from each other in their position in the social structure of society (in terms of income, property, social rights and privileges). Caste is a social group whose membership is determined solely by birth. Estate is a social group that has rights and responsibilities fixed by custom or legal law and inherited.

Externally, a social institution looks like a collection of persons and institutions, equipped with certain material means, performing a specific social function. Social institutions perform the function of social management and social control in society. Each social institution appears in connection with the emergence of a certain need in society, in order to satisfy certain needs of members of society. The functional purpose of a social institution is connected with this.

Each social institution can be analyzed with:

functional side (to implement what functions it was created, i.e. to satisfy what needs of what part of society)

external (structural) side (who is included in a given social institution, by what criteria certain individuals or institutions are included in a social institution)

internal (substantive) side (this is a system of certain rules of behavior, social norms on the basis of which the activities of a social institution are built)

For example, Family: is created for the purpose of procreation, people are united on the principle of consanguinity, interaction is built on the basis of family norms. Judicial system: created for the administration of justice, consists of courts, acts on the basis of the law. State: created for the purpose of managing and ensuring law and order, integrating society, the political organization of society represented by the state. bodies and officials, acts on the basis of the law.

Social institutions are thus characterized by objectivity (they arise in response to the objective needs of society) and historicity (they arise in the process of historical development).

The conditions for the emergence of social institutions are:

emergence of social need

availability of resources (material, organizational)

the presence of a sociocultural environment (people with relevant interests)

existence of a procedure for formation and activities

Historically, any person becomes automatically. Moreover, this does not require any additional connections, knowledge or capabilities. The definition of this concept is quite multifaceted. This is a whole system of human communication, interaction, division into various groups according to interests and type of activity.

Story

Modern society did not happen by itself. Its predecessor is the primitive community, uniting people according to their relationships and way of life. The community helped the ancestors act in a more organized manner in order to survive in difficult natural conditions.

According to historical data, communities of some species of the ancestors of modern man opposed other sociological organizations of this kind - this is where the first conflicts arose. The reason for such opposition could be: interracial hatred, non-acceptance of one species by another (interspecies crossing, etc.), division of food and territory of residence.

in dictionaries

Groups of people united by one goal, as well as the population of a separate state and even the entire planet - this is all society. This concept stands for organized human interactions, be it a group of interests or a political party. Social, human society unites a large number of people, although they have different worldviews, but have one common desire - to live and coexist.

The word "society" has the same root as the word "communicate". This explains the point that without communication itself, no society can be formed, since both concepts are closely interrelated. Hostel, community, commune, public - these words have the same root as “society” and, in fact, represent certain groups of people who are in constant interaction.

A society can be interpreted as a company or firm (OJSC, LLC, CJSC and others), as well as various organizations that include a limited circle of people united by interests.

The dictionary of N. E. Yatsenko indicates a brief meaning of the word “society”. In a broad sense, the term is interpreted as a separate part of the world, which is a combination of all existing ways of interaction and influence of people on each other, as well as the forms of their organizations.

Definition and meaning of the word “society” according to V. I. Dahl

The concept itself as such is not in the dictionary of the great Russian lexicographer, but it contains the same root expression “to communicate”, which, according to the author’s interpretation, means “society”. The meaning of the word in Dahl's dictionary literally represents the union, accession, mixing of something (someone). For example, “look at things separately, do not communicate one with the other.”

“Communicate” is not only a society, an association, etc., this word also has another explanation. To communicate means to communicate, talk, enter into dialogue with an interlocutor, convey information, tell, share news.

Structure

Society, social connections, constant interaction - all this helps to understand in detail what society is. The definition of this concept is not possible without structuring society as an integral organism.

Development is subject to external influences. The functioning of society occurs according to a certain pattern, where each individual can radically change his views on the lives of other people, their moral principles, as well as history.

The structure of the company includes the following categories:

1. Social groups.
2. Layers of society.
3. Commonalities.
4. Institutes.

These components of society are united by social relations. Their role in the development of any community is quite high. Social relationships are divided into connections and interactions.

Social connections are formed by mutual consent of members of society in accordance with the set goal that needs to be achieved. That is, the formation of connections of this kind takes place only in certain social conditions of residence of each individual.

They represent a series of processes that influence people and contribute to changing established concepts and principles. The various influences of individuals on each other provoke the development of new relationships. They are deep-rooted and strong bonds between individuals and groups of people.

Signs

What is society? The definition of the word would not be possible without the social structure of the organization of people:

• In each specific group of people there is an abundance of a wide variety of social subsystems and structures. This is not just a certain number of individuals united by something - it is a whole complex system in which various social groups endlessly develop and are created: families, tribes.
• Society is self-sufficient. That is, it itself is able to create certain conditions for normal functioning. None of the parts of society can exist in isolation, without touching and interacting with the other.
• The main difference between society is its dynamism and nonlinearity, being in constant motion and growth. The main character here is man, since without his participation further development of society is impossible.

Relationships and connections

What is society? The definition and meaning of the word lies in the interaction of people with each other, namely in the social structure. This concept represents a historically established, stable system of connections and relationships between each individual and social elements (groups and others).

After being born and acquiring basic knowledge, the period of growing up, a person, consciously or unconsciously, finds himself in a society whose members are close to him in some interests, character, or purpose. Modern society is far from ideal, since there is no clear, defined division of people into subgroups, and individuals can often find themselves out of place.

Communication and constant interaction in groups occurs in accordance with their established traditions and moral principles. Despite equality before the law, there is constant inequality in groups; without it, society itself simply would not have formed. The meaning and interpretation of general inequality lies both in the social differences between segments of the population and in the distinctive characteristics of individuals. For example, each person has a gift for some kind of activity, but lacks for another. Another example: wealthy, wealthy individuals have a fairly higher standard of living than people with lower incomes.

Main types

Society, like any other coherent social system, is divided into several main types:

• Traditional.
• Industrial.
• Post-industrial.

Traditional society

It has a distinctive feature in the form of particularly developed agriculture. In this type, relations between elements of society are based on traditions that have developed throughout its history. According to sociology, traditional society is weak due to the fact that it is practically unable to develop, since it uses outdated concepts about the world and life.

Industrial society

The main characteristics of the type: high production growth, consumer attitude towards natural resources, solving problems of any kind with the help of scientific knowledge and technology. Members of society mainly pursue only one goal - to satisfy their own social needs, regardless of environmental problems.

Post-industrial society

The modern world essentially represents this type of society. The prerogative here is the problems of the environment, industrial development, obtaining information and knowledge, and technological progress. In post-industrial society, there is a more noticeable growth in the service sector than in the industrial sector.