ritual folklore- a term used to refer to those folklore works, the meaning of which is realized in the rite.
Genre composition O.F.: calendar ritual poetry, wedding and funeral lamentations, songs, etc.
prose system O.F. are: conspiracies, spells, sentences, riddles, monologues, dialogues, good wishes.
Ritual - "a set of rites that accompany a religious cult and make it external design"(Big explanatory dictionary of foreign words).
“The rites had a ritual and magical significance, they determined the rules of human behavior in everyday life and work...”. (T.V. Zueva and B.P. Kirdan)
“Rites were the main content of folk holidays in honor of the forces of nature and constituted a kind of “annual ring”, in which folk labor, worship of nature and its naive artistic poetization inseparably merged.” (A.M. Novikova)
A. Yudin writes about the rite as "a transitional ritual that marks the transition of a person to a new existential .... status."
The plurality of approaches to the definition does not allow us to formulate a clear dividing semantic line between the concepts of "ritual" and "rite"; and, nevertheless, a comparative analysis of various definitions leads to the thesis that a ritual is a form, a shaping of a certain content; and the rite itself acts both as a content and as a semantic structure.
The ritual appears as a primary form, a prototype of the subject's activity in relation to the world. This form, saturated, filled with the meaning of the rite and determining the specifics of the expression of the content, has supreme power impact on personality. This is no coincidence. In the content and meaning of the rites, there are inexhaustible depths of experiences accumulated by mankind over thousands of years, ways of solving problems, attempts at self-knowledge and knowledge of the world.
In its origin in this history, it is associated with a special distance on the vertical of the historical fulfillment of social evolution, the distance of structuring its foundations - sociogenesis and anthropogenesis, at which the formation of the individual as necessary conditions human existence. It was here that the structures and levels of consciousness were formed, which went into the spheres of the unconscious, but also ensured the development of consciousness, thinking, memory, etc. -structures that played a crucial role in the accumulation of the psychic energy of the collective and the development of social knowledge of individuals, the individuals themselves, bearers of the social.
The ritual forms a form of cultural action, the subject of the ritual, thus, is self-fixed, self-identifies as a “cultural person”, “social person”.
The content of the rite is determined by the situation in which it takes place;
it is constituted either by the need to move into a new existential
status (initial rites), or the need to eliminate
adverse effects/production of favorable effects (calendar and occasional rituals). The meaning of the rite, that is, its most generalized, universal meaning, is the restoration of the world order, the restoration of the “circle of life”.
However, the rite, being considered in the context of socio-psychological knowledge about a person, does not yet have a clear definition. Attempts to formulate it inevitably send the researcher into etymology. Obviously, the relationship of the word “rite” with such words as “row”, “attire”, “dress up”, “dress up”, “order”, “equip”, etc. All of them come from the common Slavic basis “row”. This basis carries the meaning of "device", "sequence".
Thus, all derivatives of this basis also carry the meaning of arranging something, building or restoring “order”. In the broadest sense, to perform a ceremony or put things in order means to create (recreate) the world (ie, to take on a creative role, the functions of a creator).
As researchers of traditional cultures, in particular, Russian folk spiritual culture, point out, time was thought and perceived by a person as unequally filled, heterogeneous in quality. There were special periods - festive time, which had a special sacredness. These periods were perceived as critical, during their duration the connections of “this world” and “other world”, “this” and “other” world became more active. Rites in the form of ritual actions were aimed at restoring the flow of time, and as a result - at restoring, "recreating" the world.
In the view of our ancestors, the world, life is filled with various forces that have magical, sacred power, capable of significantly influencing the course of events.
And in the rituals, both calendar and related to the events of human life, the “desired image of the world” is vividly represented, “ correct order"of things, forming both the "annual circle" and the "circle of life". At the same time, however, in the view of the ancestors, there were forces and influences, the action of which led to a deviation from the “normative” course of events (natural disasters, crop failure, illness, spoilage, etc.). Moreover, on critical (holiday) days, the actions of such forces were especially feared. And it was during these periods that ritual actions were performed.
By means of rituals, the “device” or reorganization of the world was carried out. In particular, one of the most critical days in the view of the ancestor was the day of the winter solstice. It was a day when there was a break in the time stream. And to restore the flow, to restore the world "order", collective magical actions were performed. The meaning of the action is to recreate the world order through a system of manipulations with symbols.
So, on this day they burned bonfires, called out to the sun: “Sunshine, show yourself! Red, gear up! Sunny, go on the road! Burning wheels were lowered from the mountains (imitative magic), imitating the movement of the sun.
Any serious event in a person's life also required « restoring order" or "establishing order". He was installed during the ceremonies.
The word "dress" is also found in ritual texts related to funeral rites. "Garment", i.e. dressing in special clothes (after washing the deceased) was a whole ritual with an abundance of prescriptions and prohibitions regarding the quality, method of making “mortal” clothing, and the way it was put on.
A rite is a concentrated reflection of customs and traditions, embodied in a specific action, that occurs at turning points that are significant for the individual and the community. The rite is a way of collective activity aimed at establishing (restoring) order, the world order. This collective activity is, on the one hand, strictly regulated, carried out according to a formula; on the other hand, it gives an opportunity (due to the specifics of the folklore formula) of self-expression to each participant in the rite.
The rite, presented in the form of a ritual, summarizes the experience, the system of human relations, creates the conditions for the emergence of collective experiences, collective ideas and, at the same time, for the perception and assimilation of these ideas and experiences.
The main motive of such activity is the motive of self-change / change of the world and, at the same time, self-restoration / restoration of the world (since any change in the ideas of ancestors about the course of life threatened the integrity of the “circle of life”).
Protective rites, protective (apotropaic) - protecting from diseases, the evil eye, evil spirits, for example, beating boys with a willow on Palm Sunday with the words: “Be healthy, like water, be rich like earth, and grow like a willow.”
Occasional rites- (lat. - random) committed on occasion, i.e. not fixed chronologically, for example, the rite of hiding the owner behind the pies, designed to ensure the harvest in the coming year, performed on Christmas Eve or Christmas, has come down to us as a calendar, and not an occasional rite, and was performed on the occasion of the end of the harvest; the rite of calling rain was performed during a drought, i.e. was occasional, but then it turned out to be fixed on the calendar and performed on Trinity during a prayer service, when it was customary to drop tears on the turf or on a bunch of flowers (“cry on flowers” - the rite is mentioned in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin and in Yesenin’s poem Trinity Morning).
Rites of a provoking (producing) property - set the goal of ensuring an abundant harvest, the offspring of livestock, an abundance of earthly goods.
FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD FOLKLORE
Maternity ceremony- a complex of various actions of a magical nature: veneration of pagan deities - Rod and Rozhanitsa (prayer, ritual food, first hair, first bath, baptism, etc.).
The role of the midwife who took birth. Protective measures. Baptism.
From folklore works were used ritual songs: wishes, incantations, prayers.
Wedding ceremony- retained traces of a number of ideological and historical periods (matriarchy, initiation, kidnapping, buying and selling, etc.).
The traditional wedding ceremony is the unity of a sacred (religious-magical), legal and everyday act and a poetic holiday.
Characters.
The sequence of ritual actions.
Rituals, food, clothes.
Wedding lyrics: wedding songs, lamentations, laudatory and reproachful songs.
Funeral rites, funeral rites - associated with the religious worldview of the people (pagan and Christian), the belief in the continued existence of the deceased after death, the need to facilitate his transition to another world and protect the living from possible harmful actions. A variety of magic was used: washing the body, dressing in new clothes, washing the hut after the removal of the deceased.
Maternity period- the most "vulnerable" for both the mother and the child, so they both tried to ensure safety from hostile magical forces in every possible way:
Neither the pregnant woman nor her relatives tried to tell anyone the exact timing of the birth. The place for childbirth was secret to others. Since it was impossible to give birth in the house, then with the onset of contractions, the woman went to the bathhouse, barn, barn - non-residential premises (which include the modern maternity hospital).
Messengers came to the midwife's house by secret paths and reported on childbirth in Aesopian language.
- opening ceremony: chests, chests, windows, stove dampers were opened, all ties were untied and buckles and buttons were unbuttoned, a woman in labor took off all jewelry and let her hair down (to make it easier for the baby to come into the world).
- rite of passage and “baking”: the midwife smoothed the born child, gave the head the correct shape, and if the child was born weak, then on the stove shovel for cooking he was placed in the oven three times, as if they were baking bread.
- rite of the first ablution: bathing was done in charmed water (from diseases and the evil eye), where a silver coin was placed (given wealth), a pinch of salt (purification), an egg (makes the child okay).
postpartum period- the period of acquiring a new status for both the mother and the baby. The child acquires the status of a person, and the young woman acquires the status of a mother, while returning to her former community after being in a “foreign”, border world.
- rite of redemption child - the midwife received remuneration from the woman in labor and from relatives.
- rite of "washing hands": the midwife, together with the mother of the newborn, watered each other's hands three times and asked for forgiveness; the performance of this rite gave a partial purification to the woman in labor and allowed the midwife to take other births.
Christening
Rites "Woman's porridge", "Father's porridge"
Rites of "separation" of the child from the mother: weaning, the first haircut, nails.
Wedding ceremonies. Wedding ceremonies are the most significant in all folk rituals both in terms of their development and duration: in the northern regions of the country they took from two to three weeks. In different localities, wedding rituals differed in particular details, but on the whole it was of a general nature and invariably included such main stages as matchmaking, conspiracy, bachelorette party, wedding day and after-wedding ceremonies.
The peculiarities of the peasant worldview were vividly reflected in the wedding rituals. The peasant chose a healthy bride who knew how to work well. Therefore, during the matchmaking, matchmakers could ask the bride to show her ability to spin, sew, embroider, etc. A clear proof of women's craftsmanship were things of their own making (towels, shirts, etc.), which the bride was obliged to present to the groom and his relatives.
Some actions of the wedding ritual, as well as individual folklore works accompanying this ritual, were given magical significance. So, for example, in order to protect future spouses from the "evil eye", "damage" and all sorts of intrigues of evil spirits, the corresponding conspiracies were performed when the groom was escorted by train to the bride, when the bride and groom left for the crown and at other moments. The bride and groom who arrived from the crown were necessarily sprinkled with hops or grains so that they were rich. "For friendship" they were treated to wine from one glass. The bride was put on the knees of a strong boy so that she would give birth to healthy children, etc. But the wedding is not only a fact of ethnography, but also a remarkable phenomenon of folk poetry. It was permeated with works of various genres of folklore. It includes sayings, proverbs, sayings and riddles. However, lamentations, songs and sentences are especially fully represented in wedding ceremonies.
Bride's Lamentations. Lamentations (lamentation, crying, goloschenie) - recitatively, with crying, song improvisations performed. Wedding lamentations are the predominant genre of the bride. (If the bride did not know how to lament, then a specially invited mourner did it.) Lamentations were performed at a conspiracy, at a bachelorette party, during a ritual visit by the bride to the bathhouse, before her departure with the groom to the crown. After the wedding, the lamentations were not fulfilled.
The main content of the lamentations is the hard feelings, the girl's sorrowful reflections in connection with the upcoming marriage, farewell to her family, beloved friends, her girlhood, youth. The lamentations are based on the opposition of the girl’s life in the “native family”, on the “native side”, the alleged life in the “foreign family”, on the “foreign side”. If in the native side - "green meadows", "curly birches", "kind people", then in the "foreign side" - "bumpy birches", "hummocky" meadows and "sly" people. If in her own family a girl is treated with love, she is affectionately invited to “oak” tables, “brown” tablecloths and “sugar” dishes, then in a stranger she had to meet with the unfriendly attitude of her father-in-law, mother-in-law, and often her husband.
Of course, in the depiction of the native family, we meet with undoubted features of embellishment, idealization, but in general, wedding lamentations are distinguished by a pronounced realistic orientation. They truly depict the experiences of a girl getting married, at every step the features of a specific household situation appear, they talk about ordinary everyday activities in a peasant family.
Lamentations give a fairly complete picture of the everyday life of the peasants. However, their main significance is not in this. Lamentations are one of the brightest genres of folk lyrics. Their main and meaning is not in detailed description certain phenomena and facts of life (in this case, related to the theme of marriage), but in the expression of a certain emotional attitude towards them; their main purpose is to express certain feelings. These genre features of the content and purpose of lamentations also determine the specificity of their artistic form (composition and poetic style).
Lamentations do not have a plot, the narrative in them is weakened to the limit. The main compositional form of lamentations is a monologue, which makes it possible to directly express various thoughts and feelings. Most often, such monologues - the cries of the bride begin with appeals to parents, sisters, brothers and friends. For example: “You, my dear parents!”, My dear sister!”, “Lyuba, dear friend!” etc.
In lamentations, syntactic parallelisms and repetitions are widely used. They include all sorts of questions and exclamations in abundance. This enhances their drama and emotional expressiveness.
In lamentations, as in many other genres of folklore, epithets are widely used. However, the lyrical nature of confessions is especially pronounced in the fact that they most often use epithets that are not pictorial, but expressive, for example, such as “native side”, “desired parents”, “dear friends”, “dear neighbors”, “alien side”, “alien clan-tribe”, “alien father-mother”, “great longing”, “combustible tears!” etc.
hallmark lamentations is the unusually wide use of words with diminutive suffixes in them. Especially often they use such words as “mother”, “father”, “brothers”, “sisters”, “girlfriends”, “neighbors”, “little head”, “goryushko”, “kruchinushka”, etc.
Often, all the noted techniques and means of poetic style (syntactic parallelism, words with diminutives (suffixes, expressive epithets, appeals and questions) in lamentations are used simultaneously, and then expressiveness of extraordinary power is achieved. An example is the lamentation in which the bride girl refers to " dove, to aunt" with these words:
You, dove, aunt! With a sweet dove sister,
You tell me how, my dear, With aunts, with grandmothers,
How did you part with your girlfriends doves,
With a dear father, With the souls of red girls,
With a nurse mother, With a maiden beauty,
With a little brother falcon, With a girl's ornament?
Wedding songs. Songs, like lamentations, accompanied the wedding ceremony. However, lamentations were performed only before the wedding of the bride and groom, and songs were sung after the wedding. Especially many songs were performed during the "red table" - a wedding feast. Unlike lamentations, which were song improvisations and were performed alone, solo, wedding songs had a relatively stable text and sounded only in choral performance. In terms of their emotional content, wedding songs are much more diverse than lamentations: in them we find both motives of sadness and motives of fun. Their general emotional tone is lighter than the emotional tone of lamentations. If only the thoughts and feelings of a girl getting married were conveyed in lamentations, then in most songs the attitude of society, a certain circle of people to this fact was expressed: the girl's friends, everyone taking part in the wedding. Wedding songs tell about the wedding, including the experiences of the bride, as if from the outside, so they are always plot-driven to some extent, include narrative elements.
According to their specific content, poetics and purpose, wedding songs are very diverse. But all of them can be divided into two groups. The first group consists of songs that are most closely associated with wedding rituals, a specific moment in its development. Each of these songs, by the nature of the images, is closed by the episode of the rite that it accompanies, comments on, complements, and poetically deepens.
In wedding songs, a description is given of the rite of conspiracy; it talks about the gifts of the bride to the groom and his family, about the bachelorette party; describes the rite of unweaving a braid for a girl; the departure of the groom to the bride with the wedding train is drawn; tells about how the bride and groom leave for the crown and come back from the crown. They report the beginning of the "red table" - the wedding feast; they finally give a certain idea of the ethnographic and poetic content of the wedding fun.
However, these songs not only describe the rite, but also give a vivid poetic description of its participants, expressing a certain emotional mood with unusual clarity. A vivid example is the song “They didn’t blow the trumpet early at dawn”, which has become widespread among the people, which tells about the ceremony of unweaving a braid for a girl, which was a sign of her farewell to her youth.
This song is very sad in content. It not only tells about the sad experiences of the girl, but also creates an ideal, according to popular notions, portrait of the bride: she is beautiful (“blush”), her braids are braided with “silk lashes”, and the “lashes” are studded with “pearl pebbles”
It should be emphasized that idealization motifs permeate most of the wedding songs about the bride and groom, which are called "prince" and "princess", are drawn by people, luxuriously dressed, extraordinarily beautiful, etc. This should be seen as a certain manifestation of the magical purpose of wedding songs: the desired they are portrayed as real.
The trend of idealization was especially pronounced in such a genre variety of wedding songs as glorifications. Magnifications are, as a rule, descriptive songs of a small size, in which a portrait of the magnified person is drawn in an idealized plan, it is said about his beauty, intelligence or wealth.
Wedding glorifications were performed mainly during the wedding feast. First of all, praise songs were sung in honor of the bride and groom. So, in one of them, an ideal portrait of a bride is drawn - a rural beauty:
Poprosinya is good: Without belelets is white,
Without a set-up is high, Without mazilets blush.
Thick without underwire
In terms of beauty, the bridegroom was not inferior to the bride. Magnifications were also sung to a friend, matchmaker, matchmaker and other guests. The magnified had to give the singers small gifts, most often small change. If the singers were not presented with gifts, then they sang not laudatory, but “reproachful songs” to the “guilty” ones.
Reproachful songs are a kind of parody of greatness, they amused and amused the guests. Scorching songs often had a dance rhythm, rhyme. One such reproachful song about a matchmaker was recorded by A. S. Pushkin:
We sang all the songs, From the red girls,
The throats are dry! From white winches.
And the red-haired matchmaker Give, give the girls!
Prowling along the shore, Give winches!
Wants to hang himself, You will not give -
He wants to drown himself, We are more reproachful!
Motherfucker, guess! Take care of the car!
Money moves in the purse
Strives for red girls.
The considered wedding songs were closely connected with the specific moments of the rite, had a certain meaning only in a series and, naturally, gradually fell into disuse due to the destruction, withering away of the rite itself.
However, along with these songs, songs of a different type were also performed during the wedding ceremony. They also developed wedding themes, their main images were also the images of the bride and groom. But unlike the songs of the first group, they were not assigned to any particular episode of the wedding ceremony, but could be performed at any moment of the wedding. In them, the wedding was considered, as it were, as a whole, they talked about marriage in general. The artistic time and space of these songs went far beyond the scope of the specific ritual performed.
A distinctive feature of the songs of this group is the widespread use of symbols. So, the symbol of the young man, the groom in them is most often a dove, a falcon, an eagle, a drake and a goose; the girl's symbol is a swan, a duck, a dove, a peahen and a swallow.
Compositionally, these songs are often built on the principle of figurative parallelism. This is such a construction of the song, when in its first parallel a picture of nature is given, and in the second - a picture of human life. The first parallel has a symbolic meaning, it creates a certain emotional mood, and the second - concretizes the first, fills the song with a certain vital content.
These songs, distinguished by high poetry, possessed a great power of generalization, in the past they were performed not only in the wedding ceremony, but also existed outside of it. Many of them continue to live today.
Friends' sentences. The basis of wedding poetry is song genres - lamentations of the song itself. But it also includes other genres of folklore, without which there would be no complete idea of a folk wedding. Special place among these genres occupy the agility of friends.
Sentences are a kind of prose improvisations that have a certain rhythmic organization. Often sentences have rhymes - then we have a typical paradise verse:
Rich people drink beer and wine
And me, the poor one, they only beat me on the neck:
Full of half you
Stand at someone else's gate
Open your mouth!
All wedding ceremonies were closely connected, followed one after another in a strictly defined sequence, representing, as it were, a single play that stretched out for several days. The central act of this play was the wedding day, and the boyfriend was the manager of this day and the main director of the entire wedding "performance". He asked for blessings from the groom's parents and went with the "wedding train" to the bride's house. He asked for blessings from the bride's parents and took the bride and groom to the crown. After the wedding, he brought them to the groom's house, where the wedding feast began.
But during the feast, the friend monitored the observance of rituals, led the feast, and entertained the guests. The next day after the wedding, the friend woke up the young and often invited them to visit him.
At all moments of the wedding ceremony, the friend joked a lot, tried to speak fluently, only with sentences.
The “quality” of the entire wedding, so to speak, depended on the friend in many respects, so they chose a respected person, who knew the wedding ritual well, subtly felt the specifics of her poetry, quick-witted, cheerful and lively in the language.
The peculiarity of the sentences of a good friend was that they were highly poetic, in their content they fully corresponded to one or another episode in the wedding ritual, and in style and imagery they organically merged with other genres of folklore performed at one time or another of the ceremony. So, given the specifics of wedding songs, the groom's friend and the bride calls only "prince" and "princess". Before leaving with the wedding train to the bride, he says that they will go to the "clean field", in that field they will find a "green garden" and in this garden they will try to catch the "white swan" - "red girl", "newlywed princess". Arriving at the bride, the friend reports that his fiance, the “newlywed prince”, has “fox coats”, “marten collars”, “sable hats”, “velvet tops”. All this is typical wedding idealization.
Sentences, as a rule, are sprinkled with jokes and jokes. So, for example, to the question of the matchmaker, how is the health of the groom’s parents, the friend in his sentence answers: “Our matchmaker is all healthy, the bulls and cows, and the calves are smooth, tied with their tails to the beds, and the sheep are motley, like bulls are fat, two geldings are and a milking bull.
Throughout the wedding ceremony, songs are heard in which the matchmaker is reproached for deceiving a poor girl, depriving her of her youth, etc. In the spirit of “reproachful” wedding songs, the friend also speaks about the matchmaker. So, in one of the sentences, he talks about how they were traveling on a wedding train to the bride, and the matchmaker, who was lying under the willow bush, jumped up and snatched the nuts intended for the bride. Permeating the wedding ceremony, organically merging with other genres of folklore, the sentences of the bridesmaids gave the entire wedding poetry an artistic integrity, a certain emotional and stylistic unity.
However, observations show that talented, poetically gifted friends in their sentences use motifs, images and poetics not only of wedding poetry, but also of other genres of folklore. So, in one verdict of a friend in an epic manner, he asks permission from the groom’s father to “go down to the wide courtyard”, approach his “brave horse”, saddle him heroically, take “morocco reins in his left hand”, “a silk whip in his right hand” and to leave with his squad in the "clean field".
In another verdict, a fairy-tale imagery is clearly felt. Druzhka says: “Our young princess has twelve girls, sisters on the Buyan, on the sea, on the ocean, on the island in Buyan: they are all whitewashed, smeared and tied to oak ...”. During the wedding feast, the friend calls the groom with sentences drawn up in the style of carols, wishes him all the best, great wealth: “Give you, Lord, two hundred horses, one and a half hundred geldings, seventy lambs, all horses, growth in the field, ground on the threshing floor, on mill primol".
The genres of non-wedding folklore used in sentences play the same role as the genres of wedding poetry. Not only do they not weaken the functional significance of the wedding poetry itself, but, on the contrary, strengthen it, help to express even more deeply the main ideas associated with this or that ritual moment, and significantly increase the overall poetic sound of the entire wedding ceremony.
Aesthetic value of the wedding ceremony. On the basis of all the above, we can conclude that all wedding poetry, all the folklore genres included in it, are closely related to each other in terms of figurative content and purpose. Differing in their poetics, these genres at the same time have features that unite them, they represent, in a certain sense, a single artistic system.
Wedding poetry was inextricably linked with its rites, which had not only great ethnographic, but also a certain aesthetic value. Despite the fact that the very fact of marriage was largely approached from the practical side, they thought first of all that a good housewife would enter the groom's family, in general, the wedding was perceived not as a practical deal between the parents of the bride and groom, but as a big and bright holiday . The tone of festivity appeared in everything. All those participating in the wedding ceremony looked emphatically festive, dressed in their best outfits for the wedding. The bride and groom dressed especially elegantly. For the wedding train, the best horses were chosen, multi-colored ribbons were woven into their manes, they were harnessed to the best harness; ringing bells were tied to the arcs. Chest friend was decorated with an embroidered towel. There was a lot of singing and dancing at the wedding. All this was done with a clear awareness of the festivity of the wedding ceremony, with a certain attitude towards entertainment: people specially went out into the street to admire the wedding train; many came to the wedding only to enjoy the festive decoration and fun.
Funeral rites. In direct contrast to wedding rituals and accompanying poetry in their emotional tone were funeral rites with their only poetic genre - lamentations. Funeral rites, dedicated to the most sorrowful, tragic events in a person's life, from beginning to end were full of weeping, cries and sobs.
Funeral rites are very ancient in origin. In them, one can note the features of animistic ideas, which was expressed in the cult of veneration of ancestors. It was believed that the souls of the dead did not die, but moved to another world. It was believed that the deceased ancestors could have a certain influence on the fate of the living, so they were afraid of them, they tried in every possible way to appease them. This was reflected in the funeral rites. The coffin with the body of the deceased was carried out very carefully, being afraid to touch the jamb of the door with it (the magic of touch), so as not to leave death at home. Many rituals and customs reflect the veneration of the deceased. During the commemoration, one place was left unoccupied, as it was believed that the soul of the deceased was present at the commemoration. And the custom is still firmly held not to say anything bad about the deceased.
All this, to some extent, was reflected in the funeral lamentations. Whatever a person was in life, after death he was called in lamentations only with affectionate words. So, for example, a widow endowed her late husband with the epithets “red sun”, “love-family”, “breadwinner-family”, “legal restraint”, etc. Traces of the ancient animistic worldview in lamentations we find in their anthropomorphic images, methods of impersonation . In them, for example, one can find anthropomorphic images of death, unfortunate fate, grief.
The connections of funeral lamentations with early forms of thinking are undeniable. However, it must be acknowledged that main value funeral lamentations for us is not the point.
The expression of love for the deceased and the fear of the future are the main content of all funeral lamentations. In laments, with great poetic power, the tragic situation of a family left without a breadwinner is drawn. So, in one of them, a poor widow says that since the father of the family died, the whole household has fallen into complete decline.
For the poetics of funeral laments, as well as for the poetics of wedding lamentations, the widespread use of stable expressive epithets, words with diminutive suffixes, all kinds of repetitions, syntactic parallelism, appeals, exclamations and questions is indicative, which serves as a means of enhancing their emotional expressiveness and dramatic tension.
The main compositional form of funeral lamentations, as well as the lamentations of the bride, is the form lyrical monologue. However, funeral lamentations, as a rule, are much larger in size than wedding lamentations. Many of the funeral laments recorded in the North are over a hundred lines long. In these laments, under the influence of epic traditions, the epic (narrative) beginning receives a certain development. Lamentations that tell about people who died tragically are distinguished by a particularly developed narrative.
fairy tale genres. History of collecting and studying. Classifications.
There are two sections in oral prose : fabulous prose and fabulous prose.
Their distinction is based on the different attitude of the people themselves to fairy tales as fiction and events as truth.
Propp: “A fairy tale is a deliberate and poetic fiction. It never passes off as reality."
A fairy tale is a specific phenomenon that unites several genres. Russian fairy tales are divided into the following genres:
· about animals
· magical
· cumulative
· novelistic or household
The main artistic feature of fairy tales is the plot.
Propp "Russian Fairy Tale".
The folk tale is a narrative folklore genre. It is characterized by its form of existence. It is a story passed down from generation to generation only through oral transmission. In this it differs from the literary one, which is transmitted by writing and reading and does not change. A literary fairy tale can fall into the orbit of popular circulation and be passed from mouth to mouth, then it is also subject to study by a folklorist. The tale is distinguished by its specific poetics.
Fairy tale and myth.
A myth is a stage-by-stage formation earlier than a fairy tale. A fairy tale has an entertaining meaning, and a myth has a sacred one. Myth - stories of primitive peoples, which are recognized as realities of a higher order, although they are not always presented as reality. They have a sacred character. With the appearance of gods in human consciousness and culture, the myth becomes a story about deities and demigods.
ritual folklore.
Calendar - ritual songs
FOLKLORE(English folklore - folk wisdom) is a designation of the artistic activity of the people, or oral folk art, which arose even in the pre-literate period. Folklore is a collective art. The folklore of each nation is unique, just like its history, customs, culture.
Ritual- a ceremony pursuing a magical purpose.
Custom- any established, traditional order of actions, rite - ritual.
rite- “a set of actions established by custom, in which some religious ideas or everyday traditions are embodied” (Ozhegov's Dictionary). A rite is a way of communicating with a deified phenomenon of nature. Certain words associated with certain actions help a person establish relationships with the world around him. Therefore, the word and action are endowed with a magical, "incantatory" power. Every ritual is performed at a turning point in the life of a person and society.
The rite was aimed at achieving certain goals: fertility, curing a disease, giving birth to a child, protection from dangers, and so on. The vast majority of rituals are accompanied by texts of different genres. Calendar rituals are characterized by the use of calendar songs (carols, Shrovetide, Kupala), during the wedding ceremony, along with songs, laments or lamentations are performed, somewhat reminiscent of funeral lamentations.
The most common genre of ritual folklore is incantations - magical texts that accompany the ritual.
Folklore:
1. conspiracies and spells
2. mythological stories
3. children's folklore
4. historical songs
5. folk songs
6. folk tales
7. spiritual verses
9. small genres of folklore (mystery, proverb, saying)
The most ancient are calendar-ritual songs. Their content is connected with ideas about the cycle of nature, with the agricultural calendar. The most ancient are calendar-ritual songs. Their content is connected with ideas about the cycle of nature, with the agricultural calendar. The most ancient are calendar-ritual songs. Their content is connected with ideas about the cycle of nature, with the agricultural calendar.
Winter cycle of calendar folklore.
The winter cycle mainly consists of songs. Initially, the songs included the simplest spells and ritual magic. The year begins with the performance of carol songs or carols. carol- this is a laudatory song, a song-spell of well-being in the coming year.
The main winter pagan holiday, later combined with Christmas time. The word “carol” is related to the word “calare” (lat.) - to call out. Priest in ancient rome called out the beginning of each month. Hence the word "calendar". Christmas time, lasting twelve days - from the Nativity of Christ to the Epiphany, combines Christian and pagan features. Kolyada is associated with the idea of the "dying" of the sun: it has described its annual path around the world tree. The night before the rebirth of the sun is the night of chaos, opposing itself to the cosmos - the world order. It's like a "beginning of the world" situation. it dangerous time When the other world, as it were, approaches a person, the boundaries between one's own and another's world are erased. That is why “dressing up” is so common in Svyatki - hiding the face under a guise - a “demonic” occupation, the sin of which had to be washed off into the hole during the consecration of water on Epiphany (Svyatki ended with this holiday). The meaning of any carol is in a kind of “calling” of happiness and wealth to a generous host. The more he gives to carolers, the more he will gain in the coming year. Treats are a sign of the fullness of the house. Carol - a spell song, a conspiracy song, a conditional magical game of the owner and carolers.
The custom of divination is also associated with the holiday of Kolyada. Fortune-telling is not scary (on things, on chickens, at the gate, with a shoe, eavesdropping, and so on) and terrible, when a person tried to find out the future, going into “direct contact” with the “other” world - such, for example, fortune-telling at a crossroads or divination with a mirror. A very common type of fearless Christmas fortune-telling is fortune-telling on things, accompanied by sing-along songs. The fortunetellers (and these, as a rule, were girls) collected decorations in one bowl (dish), covered the bowl with a scarf and, while singing spy songs, took out the decoration at random from the bowl. Whose decoration was - the one in the song and fate was predicted.
Pancake week. This is a holiday of economic abundance and farewell to winter. The rites of Shrovetide week were intended to help the sun move in a circle, to hasten the end of winter. Therefore, on Maslenitsa, they rode horses around the village, carried burning wheels (a symbol of the sun) on poles, pancakes (the image of the solar disk) played the main role on the festive table. On the Maslenitsa bonfire they burned Maslenitsa - a straw effigy. The farewell-funeral was accompanied by singing, ritual laughter, and buffoonery. Laughter was supposed to affirm life, spring, warmth. “During the holiday week, we tried to eat and drink as much as possible. According to the proverb, one should “eat until hiccups, drink until dandruff”, sing until you are tired, dance until you drop”. comical in popular imagination and the image of Maslenitsa: “broad-skinned”, “snub-nosed”, “torticollis”, “holoneck”, “kurguz” woman, dirty, glutton (“pancake-eater”, “polyuha”), bully (“beater”), thief (“obirukha” ), a liar (“deceit”), “which is expected” (I. Zemtsovsky).
Spring cycle of calendar folklore.
Vesnyanka - associated with the rite of "calling" spring. Vesnyanki were sung in March, these were the choral roll calls of the girls - original songs-plots, "closing" the winter, accelerating the arrival of spring. They baked special muffins - in the form of figurines of birds (larks), released the birds from their cages into the wild, as if urging them to bring spring as soon as possible.
Round dances were originally associated with the holiday of the spring renewal of nature. Started driving from Easter week.
On the rainbow (-Radunitsky, on the day of April 23 - St. George, May 9 - Nikolsky). Spring round dances turned into summer round dances: Trinity, All Saints, Ivanovo, Petrovsky. All songs are classified as round dances. They could sing any, if its character corresponded to the theme of round dance songs. Ancient round dance songs are strongly associated with festive incantation rites. It was believed that young girls should learn from women.
Round dances-games and round dances-processions were common. Initially, round dance songs were included in agricultural rituals, but over the centuries they became independent, although images of the labor of a tiller were preserved in many of them. Dance songs that have survived to this day accompanied male and female dances. Men's personified strength and dexterity, women's - tenderness, plasticity, stateliness. For many centuries, the dance tunes “Oh, you, canopy, my canopy”, “Kamarinskaya”, “Lady”, “Is it in my garden” and others have retained their popularity.
The songs were divided into type-setting (they started with them), passing and collapsible (they ended with them). The poetics of round dance and play songs expressed their essence as play works. In the song, the plot situation is replaced by one another. The song is divided into equal parts. This is collective poetry and therefore it has a tone of joyful perception of life, faith.
Semik. Semitsko-Trinity song - associated with the celebration of the Trinity, with the curling and development of birch. Birch, wreaths were thrown into the water so that they could transfer their plant power to the earth and to find out the future: if the wreath sinks, the person will die (an archaic belief) or marry (later).
Summer cycle of calendar folklore.
Ivan Kupala Day. Ivan Kupala Day - the culmination of the annual circle of land - the night of July 25. Ivan Kupala Day - the culmination of the annual circle of the earth - the night of July 25.
Autumn cycle of calendar folklore. The main content of the autumn rituals was the desire to return the expended strength to those working in the field and to preserve the fruitful energy of the earth. Be sure to perform the rite of "zazhinki" with the first sheaf. It was carried with songs to the threshing floor, threshing began with it, and its grains were stored until a new sowing. Special honors were paid to the last sheaf. Work in the field was accompanied by "stubble" and "dozhinochny" songs - under one sting, and under the other they harvested the last crop. who has care for livestock."
The most common autumn holiday among the people is the Intercession. It is believed that the Veil brings a white blanket of snow to the earth. There are sayings about this: “Autumn on Pokrov before lunch, winter in the afternoon”, “If a leaf from an oak and a birch falls cleanly on Pokrov - by an easy year, and not cleanly - by a severe winter”, “The cover covers the earth with a leaf, then snow”, “Cranes fly away to Pokrov - for an early cold winter”, “On Pokrov the earth is covered with snow, it is dressed with frost”, “It takes six weeks from the first snow to the sledge journey” .. The agricultural year is over, and again it is time for fun games, festivities , weddings with their rites and ritual.
Ritual songs are a type of folklore that accompanied calendar and family holidays, as well as the work of a farmer during the economic year.
Calendar ritual songs are a kind of ritual songs that are associated with holidays, with natural phenomena and the work of peasants at different times of the year. All calendar rituals are also associated with the solar cycle - solstices and equinoxes.
Folklore is oral folk art; a set of beliefs, customs, rituals, songs, fairy tales, and other phenomena of the life of peoples. The most important feature of folklore is the orientation towards the oral way of transmitting information. The carriers were usually the villagers.
A rite is a ceremony, a series of actions strictly defined by custom, accompanying and formalizing the commission of acts of a predominantly cult nature.
There are 4 cycles of calendar-ritual poetry: winter, spring, summer, autumn.
carols
Among the winter calendar and ritual songs, carols occupied a large place. Carols were called festive detours of the huts with the singing of songs - carols. The mummers went from house to house and wished for a rich harvest, livestock offspring, happiness in seed life and health. In conclusion, they asked for a reward for their work.
Carol, carol!
And sometimes carols
On Christmas Eve
Kolyada has come
Brought Christmas.
You will give us
We will praise
And you won't give
We will reproach!
Carol, carol!
Give me the pie!
Shrovetide calendar - ritual songs
Maslenitsa symbolizes the onset of spring and the departure of winter. This is a fun holiday with pancakes, treats and a round dance. It is celebrated for seven days. It ends with the burning of an effigy of Maslenitsa. The ritual burning of the doll had a deep meaning: it is necessary to destroy the symbol of winter in order to resurrect its power in the spring.
Maslenitsa closes the winter,
Spring invites Krasna!
Oh, Zimushka-Winter!
Go to sleep, rest!
Spring Red!
Come to us again!
Stand in a circle, all the people!
Harmonist, ring dance!
FROM good news came to you
Fun, joy brought!
Winter is ending
Carnival begins!
Have fun people
Maslenka is visiting
With pies and pancakes, -
Leading spring by the hand!
Let's sing, walk, -
Meet Mother Spring!
ride on a sleigh,
indulge in pancakes!
Spring calendar and ritual songs
To bring closer the arrival of spring, the performance of ritual songs of the Vesnyanok was called upon. They were called, climbing onto the roofs or hillocks, calling for spring. The arrival of birds meant the arrival of spring, so an integral part of the spring rituals were appeals to birds, larks:
Larks, larks!
Fly to us
Bring us a warm summer
Take the cold winter away from us.
We are tired of the cold winter
Hands, feet frostbitten.
Spring! Spring is red!
Warm sun!
Come quickly
Warm up the kids!
Come join us with joy!
With great mercy!
With high flax!
Deep rooted!
With rich bread!
One of the biggest spring holidays of the Slavs - Egory Veshny(St. George's Day), they performed the ceremony of the first pasture of cattle to pasture. Cattle were decorated with ribbons, flowers, they sang about the coming of summer. Since ancient times, St. George's Day was perceived by the people as one of the borders between winter and summer, an important date in the agricultural calendar, and therefore a lot of work was timed to coincide with it, accompanied by various rituals.
We walked around the field
Yegorya called,
Macarius was called:
“Egoriy, you are our brave,
Reverend Macarius!
You save our cattle
In the field and beyond the field
In the forest and beyond the forest
Under the bright moon
Under the red sun
From the ravenous wolf
From a fierce bear
From the evil beast!
Yuri, good evening!
Yuri, give me the keys,
Yuri, unlock the earth,
Yuri, let the grass!
- Yuri, what is grass for?
- Grass for horses!
- Yuriy, why dew?
- Dew for wolves!
Summer ritual songs
The most famous summer rituals are associated with the Trinity and Ivan Kupala holidays. On Trinity, houses were decorated with birch trees. It marked the end of spring and the beginning of summer. The customs of ancient times are based on the renewal of life - this is the time when the first leaves appear on the trees, flowers bloom.
Until now, there is a rite of curling birch. During the process, the girls wished good health to their mother and other relatives. Or, during the curling of the birches, they thought about the young man they fell in love with - thus tying his thoughts and thoughts to themselves.
Early dew was collected on Trinity - it was considered a strong medicine against ailments and ailments. Such rituals existed among our ancestors. Some of them can be found even today.
birch, birch,
Curly, curly!
The girls came to you
Red came to you
Pie brought
With scrambled eggs!
The ritual song conjured dense shoots, rain, growth and a rich harvest of rye.
Where did the girls go
There's a lot of rye here!
Where did the women go
Wet there!
Where did the men go?
She grew up there!
Where did the boys go?
Got up there!
Where did the godfather go
There the oats sprouted
Where did the godfather go
The rye has risen!
Ivan Kupala (Midsummer Day, Kupala Night) is a folk holiday of the Eastern Slavs, dedicated to the summer solstice and the highest flowering of nature.
The song announced the coming of the holiday of Ivan Kupala.
Today, girls, Kupala,
Today, girls, Kupala!
And who did what - gone
And who did what - gone!
The song conjured a rich harvest.
Maria Ivana,
Maria Ivana
Called to life
Called to life:
- Let's go, Ivan,
Let's go Ivan
Zhito look,
Live to look!
Whose life
Whose life
Best of all
Best of all?
Our life
Our life
Best of all
Best of all!
Kolistosto,
Kolistosto,
vigorously,
vigorously,
Core in a bucket
Core in a bucket.
Ear in a log,
Ear in a log!
While mowing they say:
Kosi scythe,
While the dew
Down with dew -
Kosa home.
Kosa loves a spatula
Shovel - sand,
Kosets - pie,
Another pot of porridge
Oatmeal sack for him
More trousers on Filippovka,
Another radish tail
To a great post!
Autumn ritual songs
These are calendar-ritual songs associated with the harvest. Ritual harvest songs accompanied the beginning of harvesting, were performed during work and expressed the joy of finishing autumn work in the field.
We're sorry, we're sorry
Sorry, reaped:
Reap the young
Golden sickles...
Oh and whose field is this
Turned yellow while standing?
Ivanovo field
Yellowed, standing:
The reapers are young
Golden sickles!
The song tells about the performance of the rite of "curling the beard" - especially for ears that are not compressed for this purpose.
Already we weave-weave a beard
Vasily on the field,
Curling a beard
At our Ivanovich,
On the great field
On the wide strip!
When rye is harvested in the field, the children say:
The sun is red
Sit down quickly
Have pity on us orphans!
After the rye reaper, they roll on the reaping and say:
harvest, harvest,
Give me power
More spring stubble!
Ritual folklore consisted of verbal-musical, dramatic, game, choreographic genres, which were part of traditional folk rituals.
Rituals played an important role in the life of the people. They evolved from century to century, gradually accumulating the diverse experience of many generations. The rituals had a ritual and magical significance, they contained the rules of human behavior in everyday life and work. They are usually divided into labor (agricultural) and family. Russian rituals are genetically related to the rituals of other Slavic peoples and have a typological similarity with the rituals of many peoples of the world.
Ritual poetry interacted with folk rituals and contained elements of a dramatic game. It had a ritual and magical significance, and also performed psychological and poetic functions.
Ritual folklore is syncretic in its essence, so it is advisable to consider it as part of the corresponding rituals. At the same time, we note the possibility of a different, strictly philological approach. Yu. G. Kruglov distinguishes three types of works in ritual poetry: sentences, songs and lamentations. Each type is a group of genres1.
Songs are especially important - the oldest layer of musical and poetic folklore. In many ceremonies, they occupied
the best place, combining magical, utilitarian-practical and artistic functions. The songs were sung in chorus. Ritual songs reflected the rite itself, contributed to its formation and implementation. Incantation songs were a magical appeal to the forces of nature in order to gain well-being in the household and family. In the songs of praise, the participants of the ritual were poetically idealized, glorified: real people or mythological images (Kolyada, Maslenitsa, etc.). Opposite to the laudatory were reproachful songs that ridiculed the participants in the ritual, often in a grotesque form; their content was humorous or satirical. Game songs were performed during various youth games; they described and accompanied by imitation of field work, played out family scenes (for example, matchmaking). Lyrical songs are the latest occurrence in the rite. Their main purpose is to express thoughts, feelings and moods. Thanks to lyrical songs, a certain emotional flavor was created, and traditional ethics were established.
CALENDAR RITES AND THEIR POETRY
Russians, like other Slavic peoples, were farmers. Already in ancient times, the Slavs celebrated the solstice and the changes in nature associated with it. These observations have developed into a system of mythological beliefs and practical labor skills, enshrined in rituals, omens, and proverbs. Gradually, the rites formed an annual (calendar) cycle. The most important holidays were timed to coincide with the winter and summer solstices.
winter rites
The time from the Nativity of Christ (December 25) to Epiphany (January 6) was called Christmas time. Winter Christmas time was divided into holy evenings(December 25 to January 1) and scary evenings (with January 1 to January 6), they were separated by Vasiliev Day (January 1, to church calendar- Basil of Caesarea). AT holy evenings they praised Christ, caroled, calling for the well-being of every yard. The second half of Christmas time was filled with games, dressing up, gatherings.
Christ was praised throughout the Christmas week. Christopher boys carried on a pole made of multi-colored paper Bethlehem star, singing religious festive
songs (poetry). The birth of Christ was depicted in a folk puppet theater - a nativity scene. The nativity scene was a box without a front wall, inside which pictures were played.
The ancient meaning of the New Year festivities was to celebrate the resurgent sun. In many places, the pagan custom has been preserved on the night before Christmas in the middle of the village street in front of each house to light bonfires - a symbol of the sun. There was also a show about supernatural properties of water, later absorbed by the church rite of blessing water. On Epiphany, a "Jordan" was made on the river: a kind of altar was arranged at the ice hole, people came here with a procession, blessed the water, and some even swam in the hole.
The revival of the sun meant the beginning of a new year, and people had a desire to predict the future, to influence fate. To this end, various actions were taken to ensure good harvest, successful hunting, offspring of livestock, an increase in the genus.
A lot was being prepared tasty food. Baked from dough goats: cows, bulls, sheep, birds, roosters - it was customary to give them. An indispensable Christmas treat was Caesarean piglet.
In New Year's magic, bread, grain, and straw played an important role: straw was laid on the floor in the hut, and sheaves were brought into the hut. grains sowed (sowed, sowed) huts - throwing a handful, they said: "To health- cow, sheep, human "; or: "On the floor of the calves, under the bench of the lambs, on the bench - the children!"
On the night before Christmas and on New Year's Eve, they performed the ceremony caroling. Teenagers and young people gathered, dressed someone in a twisted sheepskin coat, gave a stick and a bag into their hands, where food was later added. The carolers approached each hut and shouted out greatness to the owners under the windows, and for this they were served refreshments.
Bypass songs (performed during a ritual tour of courtyards) during caroling had a different name: carols(on South), oats(in the central regions), grapes(in the northern regions). The names come from the choruses "Kolyada, carol!", "Bye, avsen, bai, avsen!"\>1 "Grapes, grapes, red-green!" Otherwise, these songs were close. Compositionally, they consisted of good wishes and demands for alms. Especially frequent was the wish for abundance, which was depicted in incantatory songs with the help of hyperbole:
And God forbid that
Who is in this house!
The rye is thick for him.
Dinner rye!
Him with an ear of octopus,
From the grain of his carpet,
From half-grain - a pie.
In addition to the spell on the harvest, the wish was expressed for longevity, happiness, and numerous offspring. They could sing praises to individual family members. Desirable, ideal was drawn as real. A rich, fantastically beautiful courtyard and house were described, the owner was compared with the moon, the hostess with the sun, and their children with frequent asterisks:
Young bright month - then our master,
The red sun is the hostess,
Grapes, grapes, red-green.
Asterisks are frequent - children are small.
The stingy owners sang a song:
Don't give me a pie -
We are the cow by the horns.
Not give intestine<колбасу> -
We are a pig by the temple.
Do not give a pancake -
We are the host in Pinka.
It was customary to tell fortunes before the New Year, as well as from the New Year to Epiphany. Once fortune-telling had an agrarian character (about the future harvest), but since the 18th century. mostly girls guessed about their fate. Were distributed subservient divination with songs. Forms and methods of divination are known to several hundred.
At Christmas time, there was always dressing up. In ancient times, zoomorphic masks had magical significance. (bull, horse, goat) as well as archaic anthropomorphic ones: an old man with an old woman, a dead man. Travestism had deep roots: dressing women in men's suits, men - in women's. Later they began to dress up in soldier, gentleman, gypsy and so on. Dressing turned into a masquerade, a folklore theater was born: buffoons and dramatic scenes were played. Their cheerful, unbridled, and sometimes obscene nature was associated with obligatory laughter. Ritu-
laughter (for example, over deceased) had a productive value. V. Ya. Propp wrote: "Laughter is a magical means of creating life"1.
Celebrated at the end of winter - beginning of spring Pancake week. At its core, it was a pagan holiday dedicated to seeing off the outgoing winter and the arrival of the warmth of the sun, the awakening of the mother-bearing power of the earth. Christianity only influenced the timing of the carnival, which fluctuated depending on Easter: it was preceded by a seven-week great post Shrove Tuesday was celebrated on the eighth week before Easter.
I.P. Sakharov wrote: "All the days of the butter week have their own special names: meeting - Monday, for and gry -sh and - Tuesday, gourmet - Wednesday, revelry, turning point, wide Thursday - Thursday, mother-in-law evenings - Friday , sister-in-law gatherings - Saturday, seeing off, farewell, forgiveness day - Sunday "2. The week itself was called cheese, cheesecake, which speaks of it as a holiday of "white" food: milk, butter, sour cream, cheese. Pancakes as an obligatory treat, which quite late turned into an attribute of Shrovetide, were primarily a memorial meal (depicting the sun, pancakes symbolized the afterlife, which, according to the ancient ideas of the Slavs, had a solar nature). Maslenitsa was distinguished by particularly wide hospitality, ritual overeating, drinking strong drinks and even revelry. The abundance of fatty ("oily") food gave the name to the holiday.
Started Thursday (or Friday) wide carnival. They rode from the icy mountains, and later on horseback. Festive train in honor of Shrovetide (a string of sledges with horses harnessed to them) in some places reached several hundred sledges. In ancient times, skating had a special meaning: it was supposed to help the movement of the sun.
Maslenitsa is a celebration of young married couples. According to r, they were welcome everywhere: they went to visit their father-in-law and mother-in-law, showed themselves to the people in their best clothes (for this they stood in rows on both sides of the village street). They were forced to do business in front of everyone. The young had to communicate their generative power to the earth, to “wake up” its maternal principle. That's why
in many places, newlyweds, and sometimes marriageable girls, were buried with ritual laughter in the snow, in straw, or rolled in the snow.
Maslenitsa was famous for fisticuffs. Among the Cossacks, the game "capture of the snow fortress", which was held on the river, was popular.
Mummers walked through the streets at Shrovetide bear, goat, men dressed as "women" and vice versa; even horses were dressed in ports or skirts. Maslenitsa itself was represented by a straw effigy, usually in women's clothing. At the beginning of the week, he was "greeted", that is, put on a sledge, they drove around the village with songs. These songs had the appearance of greatness: they sang wide honest Maslenitsa, carnival meals and entertainment. True, the magnification was ironic. Maslenitsa was called dear guest-coy and portrayed as a young elegant woman (Avdotyushka Izotevna, Akulina Savvishna).
The holiday everywhere ended with "seeing off" - the burning of Maslenitsa. The scarecrow was taken outside the village and burned (sometimes thrown into the river or torn apart and scattered across the field). At the same time, they sang reproachful songs (and later ditties), in which Maslenitsa was reproached for the fact that Great Lent was coming. She was given offensive nicknames: wettail, wryneck, polyzuha, pancake food. They could perform parodic funeral lamentations.
In some places there was no scarecrow, instead they burned bonfires, but at the same time they still said that burn Shrovetide. The custom of burning Maslenitsa shows that it personified darkness, winter, death, and cold. With the onset of spring, it was necessary to get rid of it so that it would not harm the reviving nature. The arrival of solar heat was supposed to be helped by bonfires, which were laid out on a high place, and in the middle of them a wheel was fixed on a pole - when it lit up, it seemed to be an image of the sun.
Day of seeing off Shrovetide - Forgiveness Sunday. On the evening of that day, the fun stopped and that was it. said goodbye that is, they asked for forgiveness from relatives and friends for their sins in the past year. The godchildren visited the godfather and mother. People seemed to be cleansed of resentment and filth. And on Pure Monday (the first day of Great Lent), they washed dishes from fast food, washed themselves in baths in order to prepare cleanly for fasting.
Spring Rites
In March took place rite of welcome of spring. On Evdokia the dropper (March 1) and on Gerasim the rooker (March 4) they baked rooks-
rooks. On the magpies(Forty Martyrs Day, March 9 - the vernal equinox) baked everywhere larks. The children ran out into the street with them, threw them up and shouted out short songs - stoneflies. Stoneflies retained the echoes of ancient spell songs in which people called for Spring. migratory birds, or ardent bee,"closed" the winter and "opened" the summer.
In the western regions, an archaic form has been preserved: gurgling, gurgling. Vesnyanki were performed by girls and young women - on a hill, above spilled water. It was designed for a natural natural response - an echo. A ritual exclamation was woven into the song fabric "Goo-hoo-hoo, which, when repeated many times, caused a resonance effect. It seemed to those who sang that Spring itself responded to them.
The middle of Great Lent was called middle cross(Wednesday of the fourth Holy Week) and fell on one of the days of March. On this day, pastries in the form of crosses were served for breakfast. There was a custom to "shout crosses". Children and teenagers, bypassing the yards, shouted out songs in which it was reported that half of the fast had passed. (shit):
Half shit breaks
Bread and radish are being transferred.
For this, the singers received baked crosses and other rewards.
On April 23, on the day of St. George the Victorious, the first pasture. St. George was popularly called Egory vernal, green Yuri, and April 23 - Egoriev (Yuriev) in the afternoon. Egory merged with the ancient Russian Yarila. In his power was the earth, wild animals (especially wolves), he could protect the herd from the beast and from other misfortunes. In songs, Yegoriy was called unlock the earth and release heat.
Cattle were driven out with a willow consecrated on Palm Sunday, early in the morning (on this day, dew was considered healing). The herd went around three times with the icon of St. George the Victorious.
In the Kostroma region, young men went around the yards and before each hut they sang special incantatory songs, in which father brave Egory and Reverend Macarius(St. Macarius of Unzhensky) should have save the cattle in the field and beyond the field, in the forest and beyond the forest, beyond the steep mountains.
Egoriev's day was the day of the shepherds, they were treated and presented with gifts. They uttered conspiracies, performed various magical actions in order to save the herd during the summer. For example, the shepherd went around the herd in a circle, carrying a key and a lock in his hands, then he locked the lock, and threw the key into the river.
The main holiday of Orthodox Christianity is Easter. It is preceded by Palm Sunday- original Russian holiday.
There were ideas among the people about the fruit-bearing, healing and protective-magical properties of willow branches with fluffy buds. On Palm Sunday, these branches were consecrated in the church, and then it was customary to lightly whip children and pets with them - for health and growth, saying: "Willow whip, beat to tears!"
Palm week changed Passionate filled with preparations for Easter.
On Easter day, people broke their fast with ceremonial bread (Easter cake) and colored eggs. This food is associated with pagan ideas and customs. Bread is consecrated by many rituals as the most sacred food, a symbol of prosperity and wealth. The egg, the obligatory food of the spring rites, symbolized fertility, new life, the awakening of nature, earth and sun. There were games associated with rolling eggs from a hill or from specially made wooden trays ("egg paddock"); beat an egg on an egg - whose will be broken.
On the first day of Easter, rounds of courtyards were made in the western regions drawers - groups of men performing drawing songs. The main meaning was in song refrains (for example: "Christ is risen to the whole world!"). Preserving the ancient incantation and announcement function, these songs announced the resurrection of Jesus Christ, which corresponded to the onset of the warm season and the awakening of nature. Singers were presented with festive supplies, treated.
On Saturday or Sunday of the first post-Easter week, in many places another detour was made - congratulations to the newlyweds on the first spring of their marriage. So called hailed sang windy songs. They called young spouses (vyun-ia and vyunyiu), the symbol of their family happiness was the image of a nest. For the performance, the singers demanded gifts (for example, painted eggs).
The cult of ancestors organically entered the spring rituals, since, according to pagan ideas, the souls of the dead awakened along with the plant nature. Cemetery by
visited at Easter; on the rainbow(Tuesday, and in some places Monday of the first post-Easter week); Thursday, Saturday and Sunday of Trinity week. They brought food to the cemetery (kutya, pancakes, pies, colored eggs), as well as beer, mash. They spread canvases on the graves, ate, drank, commemorating the dead. The women wailed. Food was crumbled on the graves and drinks were poured on them. Part of the provisions were distributed to the poor. At the end, sadness was replaced by joy ( "They plow on Radunitsa in the morning, cry in the afternoon, and jump in the evening").
Funeral rites were an independent annual cycle of rituals. Annual general memorial days: Saturday before Shrovetide week (meat-fare), "parental" Saturdays - in Great Lent (weeks 2, 3 and 4), Radunitsa, Trinity Saturday and - in the fall - Dmitrievskaya Saturday (before October 26). The dead were mourned at the graves also on temple holidays. The commemoration of the dead corresponded to the religious ideas of the people about the soul and afterlife. It corresponded to folk ethics, preserved the spiritual connection of generations.
The first Sunday after Easter, and sometimes the entire post-Easter week, was called Red hill. From that time on, youth entertainment began: swings, games, round dances, which continued intermittently until Intercession (October 1).
Swings - one of the favorite folk entertainments - were once part of agrarian magic. As V. K. Sokolova wrote, “lifting up, throwing something up, bouncing, etc. are the most ancient magical actions found among different peoples. Their purpose was to stimulate the growth of vegetation, primarily crops, to help them rise”1. During the spring holidays, Russians repeated such rites more than once. So, in order to get a good harvest of rye and flax, ritual meals were arranged on the green fields, and at the end it was considered useful to throw up spoons or eggs painted yellow. Especially such actions were timed to coincide with the day of the Ascension of the Lord (on the 40th day after Easter).
A round dance is an ancient syncretic action that connects a song, a dance, a game. Round dances included various combinations of moving figures, but most often the movement took place in a solar circle. This is due to the fact that once round dances were dedicated to the cult of mountains and hills, the cult of the sun. Initial-
but these were spring rites in honor of the sun (Khors) and were accompanied by the lighting of fires.
Round dances are associated with many calendar holidays. V. I. Dal listed the following round dances (according to the calendar): Radunitsky, Trinity, All Saints, Petrovsky, Pyatnitsky, Nikolsky, Ivanovo, Ilyinsky, Uspensky, Semeninsky, Kapustinsky, Pokrovskaya.
Round dance songs according to their role in the round dance are divided into typesetting(started with them) tunneling and collapsible(they finished). Each song was an independent game, a complete work of art. The connection with the ancient incantation rites determined the thematic orientation of the round dance songs: they contain motifs of an agrarian (or commercial) nature and love-marriage. Often they teamed up "You sowed millet, sowed ...", "My hop, hoppy ...", "Hare, walk along the hay, walk ...").
Gradually, round dances lost their magical character, their poetry expanded at the expense of lyrical songs, they began to be perceived only as entertainment.
In late spring - early summer, on the seventh post-Easter week, they celebrated green Christmas time (Trinity-Semitsk rites). They are called "green" because it was a holiday of plant nature, "Trinity" - because they coincided with a church holiday in the name of the Trinity, and "Semitsky" - because an important day of ritual actions was semik - Thursday, and the whole week was sometimes called Semitskaya.
Yards and huts outside and inside were decorated with birch branches, the floor was sprinkled with grass, young felled trees were placed near the huts. The cult of blooming, growing vegetation was combined with pronounced female rituals (men were not allowed to participate in them). These rites date back to the most important initiation pagan Slavs- acceptance of matured girls into the family as his new mothers.
In Semik curled birch. Girls with songs went to the forest (sometimes accompanied by an elderly woman - the manager of the ceremony). They chose two young birch trees and tied their tops, bending them to the ground. Birch trees were decorated with ribbons, wreaths were braided from branches, branches were woven into the grass. In other places, one birch was decorated (sometimes a straw doll was planted under a birch - Maren). They sang songs, danced round dances, ate the food they brought with them (fried eggs were obligatory).
At curling birch girls kumilis - Kissed Through the birch branches - and exchanged rings or handkerchiefs. Friend
they called a friend godmother. This rite, not related to Christian ideas about nepotism, was explained by A. N. Veselovsky as a custom of sisterhood (in ancient times, all girls of the same kind were indeed sisters)1. They also, as it were, accepted the birch into their kindred circle, sang ritual and glorious songs about it:
Let's have fun, godfather, let's have fun
We will try the Semitskaya birch.
Oh Did Lado! Honest Semik.
Oh Did Lado! My birch.
On Trinity Day we went to the forest develop a birch and raskumlya-fox. Having put on the wreaths, the girls walked in them, and then they threw them into the river and guessed their fate: if the wreath floats along the river, the girl will get married; if he is washed ashore, he will remain for another year in his parents' house; a sunken wreath foreshadowed death. A ritual song was sung about this:
Red girls
The wreaths curled
Luli-luli,
The wreaths curled. ...
Thrown into the river
Fate is foretold...
fast river
Guessed fate...
Which girls
Marry to go ...,
Which girls
Century to age ...,
And to whom the unfortunate
Lie in the damp earth.
There was also such a kind of ritual: they decorated (and sometimes dressed up in women's clothes) a cut down birch. Until Trinity Day, she was carried around the village with songs, called, "treated" her in the huts. On Sunday they were carried to the river, unloaded and thrown into the water under lamentations. This rite retained the echoes of very archaic human sacrifices, the birch tree became a substitute sacrifice. Later, throwing it into the river was considered as a rite of making rain.
A ritual synonym for birch could be cuckoo. In some southern provinces, "cuckoo's tears" were not made from grass: they dressed in a small shirt, a sundress and a scarf (sometimes - in a bride's costume) - and went into the forest. Here the girls cumulative with each other and with cuckoo, then they put it in a coffin and buried it. On Trinity Day cuckoo dug up and planted on branches. This version of the rite clearly conveys the idea of dying and subsequent resurrection, i.e., initiation. Once upon a time, according to the ideas of the ancients, initiated girls "died" - women were "born".
Trinity week was sometimes called Rusal, since at this time, according to folk beliefs, in the water and on the trees appeared mermaids - usually girls who died before marriage. Rusal week could not coincide with Trinity.
Belonging to the world of the dead, mermaids were perceived as dangerous spirits that haunt people and can even kill them. Mermaids allegedly asked women and girls for clothes, so shirts were left for them on the trees. The stay of mermaids in a rye or hemp field contributed to flowering and harvest. On the last day of the Mermaid Week, the mermaids left the earth and returned to that world therefore, in the southern Russian regions, a ceremony was performed mermaid wires. Mermaid a living girl could portray, but more often it was a straw effigy, which they carried into the field with songs and dances, burned there, danced around the fire and jumped over the fire.
This type of ritual has also been preserved: two people dressed up as a horse, which was also called mermaid. The mermaid-horse was led by the bridle into the field, and after her the youth led round dances with farewell songs. It was called spend spring.
Summer Rites
After the Trinity, both girls and boys, as well as all the inhabitants of a village or village, took part in the rites. The summer period is a time of hard agricultural labor, so the holidays were short.
Nativity of John the Baptist, or The day of Ivan(24 \\ June, the period of the summer solstice) was widely observed among most European peoples. Slavs Ivan Kupala was associated with the summer fertility of nature. The word "kupala" has no distinct etymology. According to N. N. Veletskaya, it "could be very capacious and combine several meanings:
fire, cauldron; water; ritual public meeting at a ritual place.
On the Kupala night, people were cleansed by fire and water: they jumped over fires, swam in the river. They danced and sang Kupala songs, which are characterized by love motives: the riot and beauty of summer nature artistically correlated with the world of feelings and experiences of young people. They arranged games between villages with vestiges of sexual freedom, which was associated with ancient exogamy - the prohibition of marriage within the same clan (from the Greek echo - "outside, outside" + gamos - "marriage").
There were widespread beliefs about healing power flowers and herbs, about their magical properties. Healers, sorcerers, soothsayers, and even ordinary people went to collect herbs, so Ivan Kupalu was also called Ivan the herbalist. They believed that on the night before Ivan Kupala, flowers talk to each other, and also that each flower burns in its own way. At midnight, a fiery fern flower bloomed for one minute - whoever finds it can become invisible or, according to another version, dig up a treasure in this place. The girls put a bunch of Kupala herbs under the pillow and made a dream about their narrowed-disguised. As on the Trinity, on the Kupala night they divined on wreaths, throwing them into the river (sometimes burning candles were inserted into the wreaths).
It was believed that on this night the evil spirits were especially dangerous, so the symbolic destruction of witches was carried out in the Kupala fire: ritual objects symbolizing them (a stuffed animal, a horse skull, etc.) were burned. There were various methods of recognizing "witches" among fellow villagers.
Among the Russians, the Kupala rites were less developed than among the Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the central Russian provinces, numerous information about Yarilin day. Yarilo is the god of the sun, sensual love, the giver of life and fertility (words with the root "jar" mean "bright, sultry, passionate").
Voronezh in the second half of the 18th century. folk games were known, called Yarilo: a disguised man, hung with flowers, ribbons and bells, danced in the square and pestered women with obscene jokes, and they, in turn, did not lag behind the mummers, making fun of him. In the first half of the XIX century. in Kostroma, a effigy of Yarila with pronounced male attributes was buried. At the end of the XIX century. in the Zaraisky district of the Ryazan province converged on a night walk on
hill Yarilina is bald. There were elements of the Kupala game: fires, "unbridled" nature of the game behavior. To the question of the collector, who was Yarilo, they answered: "He very much approved of love."
Yarilin day coincided with the holiday of Ivan Kupala and was celebrated where Kupala was not celebrated. V. K. Sokolova wrote: “It is almost certain to put an equal sign between Kupala and Yarila. Kupala is a later name that appeared among the Eastern Slavs, when the holiday, like other Christian peoples, was timed to coincide with the day of John the Baptist. There but where this holiday did not take root (probably because it fell on fasting), the ancient name Yarilin Day was preserved in places. He coped before fasting. It was a holiday of the summer sun and the ripening of fruits ... ".
After Ivan Kupala, before Peter's Day, funeral of Kostroma. Kostroma - most often a stuffed animal made of straw and matting, dressed in a woman's dress (one of the participants in the ceremony could also play this role). They decorated Kostroma, put it in a trough and, imitating a funeral, carried it to the river. Some of the mourners wept and wailed, while others continued their work with rude witticisms. At the river, the scarecrow was undressed and thrown into the water. At the same time, they sang songs dedicated to Kostroma. Then they drank and had fun.
The word "Kostroma" comes from "bonfire, campfire" - a shaggy top of herbs and ears, ripening seeds. Apparently, the rite was supposed to help the ripening of the crop.
Summer festivities, youth festivities and fun ended on Petrov day(June 29). His rituals and beliefs were connected with the sun. They believed in the unusual burning of the sun. They said that the sun "plays", i.e. is divided into numerous multi-colored circles (such beliefs were also timed to coincide with Easter). On Peter's night, no one slept: guarded the sun. A crowd of dressed-up youth made noise, shouted, banged with scythes, dampers, sticks, bells, danced and sang to the harmonica and carried away from the owners everything that lies badly(ploughs, harrows, sledges). It was piled up somewhere outside the village. The sun was waiting for the dawn.
Petrov day opened mowing (C Peter's day red summer, green mowing).
Researchers suggest that summer holidays (Ivan Kupala, Yarilin Day, the funeral of Kostroma and Petrov Day) go back to a common source - the great pagan holiday apogee of summer and preparation for harvesting. Perhaps among the ancient Slavs it was one holiday in honor of Yarila and lasted from Ivanov to Peter's day.
Autumn rites
The circle of agricultural holidays was closed harvest rites and songs. Their content was not connected with love-marriage relations, they were of an economic nature. It was important to preserve the crop-bearing power of the grain field and restore the spent health of the reapers.
Honors were given to the first and last sheaf. The first sheaf was called birthday, with songs they carried it to the threshing floor (threshing was started from it, and the grains were kept until a new sowing). At the end of the harvest, the last sheaf was also solemnly brought to the hut, where it stood until the Intercession or Christmas. Then it was fed to cattle: it was believed that it had healing properties.
Women have always been praised in harvest songs, since the harvest was harvested with sickles and this work was female. The images of the reapers were idealized. They were portrayed in conjunction with surrounding nature: month, sun, wind, dawn and, of course, cornfield. The motif of the harvest spell sounded:
Cops in the field<копнами>,
Haystacks on the threshing floor!..
In the cage bins!..
In the oven with pies!
Almost everywhere they left the last bunch of ears uncompressed - on the beard mythical image (goat, field worker, owner, Volos, Yegoriy, God, Christ, Elijah the Prophet, Nicholas and etc.). The ears were curled in various ways. For example, they tied a bunch from above and below, bent the ears, straightened the bent stems in a circle. Then beard decorated with ribbons and flowers, and in the middle they put a piece of bread with salt, poured honey. This rite was based on ideas about the spirit of the field - a goat-like the owner of the field hiding in the last uncompressed ears. Like other nations, goat - the personification of fertility, they tried to appease him so that the strength of the earth would not be impoverished. At the same time, they sang a song in which they ironically called goat (""The goat walked along the boundary ...").
In many places, women, after finishing the harvest, rolled through the stubble, saying: "Nyvka, Nyvka, give me my snare, I sting you, I lost my strength." The magical touch to the ground was supposed to "give away the strength." The end of the harvest was celebrated with a hearty dinner with fattening pie. In the villages, clubbing, brotherhoods were arranged, beer was brewed.
There were funny customs in autumn exile insects. For example, in the Moscow province they arranged fly funeral - they made coffins from carrots, beets, turnips, put flies in them and buried them. In the Kostroma province, flies were driven out of the hut with the last sheaf, and then they put it to the icons.
From Pokrov, weddings began in the villages and the girls said: "Pokrov, Pokrov, cover the earth with a snowball, and me with a fiance!"
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Folklore has always been an important part of folk life. He accompanied the first plowing and harvesting of the last sheaf in the field, youth festivities and Christmas rites.
Ritual songs are songs that were performed during a variety of ceremonies and were a necessary part of them. It was believed that if all ritual actions were not performed and the songs accompanying them were not performed, then the desired result would not be achieved.
Ritual calendar songs belong to the oldest type of folk art, and they got their name because of the connection with the folk agricultural calendar - the work schedule for the seasons.
Calendar and ritual songs
carols
The Christmas and New Year holidays began with caroling 1 . This was the name of the festive detours of houses with the singing of carols - songs in which the owners of the house were famous and contained wishes for a rich harvest, abundance, etc. Special significance was attached to the beginning of the year: as you celebrate the New Year, such will it be. Cheerful, short carols were the song form of such wishes.
Carol, carol!
Give me the pie
Damn and cake
In the back window!
New Year has come
The old one stole
Showed himself!
Go people
meet the sun,
Frost drive away!
The rite of caroling - bypassing the yards with holiday wishes to the owners and receiving gifts for that - existed among all Slavic peoples. The songs that were sung at the same time were called differently in Russia: “carols” (in the south of the country), “ovsen” (in the central regions), “grapes” (in the north). Traditionally, such songs began with congratulations on the holiday, then came the wishes of good and health to the owners, and at the end - the demand for gifts.
Shrovetide songs
Maslenitsa was celebrated the last week before Lent. She was distinguished by fun, hospitality and a plentiful feast. The main theme of Maslenitsa songs is the meeting and farewell to Maslenitsa. In songs, she is a cheerful deceiver: the promised holiday passes too quickly, and Great Lent is ahead with its restrictions and prohibitions.
For the farewell to Maslenitsa, they built a terrible scarecrow, carried it around the village with songs, and then buried it, singing songs, or burned it.
Like Shrovetide Week
Pancakes flew from the table
And cheese and cottage cheese -
Everything flew under the threshold!
Like Shrovetide Week
Pancakes flew out of the oven.
We had fun
We had fun!
Passed Maslena,
The party is over
Let's go now
On vacation!
The attitude towards Maslenitsa (depicted as a straw effigy in traditional peasant clothes) varied in the songs. In the songs about the meeting of Maslenitsa, she was magnified, glorified, seemed elegant and beautiful. When it came to seeing off Maslenitsa, the attitude towards her changed dramatically - she is a liar, clumsy, untidy, "undercoat"; the main fault of Maslenitsa was that with her departure a strict fast would come, when it would be impossible to have fun, dress up, and arrange feasts.
Spring songs
The rituals associated with the meeting of spring were accompanied by the singing of the so-called stoneflies. They were not sung, but called (called out, shouted out), climbing the hillocks and roofs. They called for spring and parted with winter.
Clicks were usually accompanied by rituals with birds baked from dough (larks, waders). Birds were thrown up from a high place or attached to a pole, a roof on a thread so that they “fly” in the wind. All this was associated with the arrival of spring, the spring revival of the earth.
Spring, red spring
Come, spring, with joy,
With great mercy
With tall flax,
With a deep root
With abundant bread.
Summer songs
It was widely noted summer holiday like Trinity. This holiday was associated with a flourishing, coming into force nature.
On Trinity, houses were decorated with birch trees, they walked around the village with birch trees. Wreaths were woven from birch branches with leaves, on which fortune telling was made. Divination and round dances were accompanied by various songs.
There was a birch tree in the field,
Curly stood in the field,
Oh, lyuli, lyuli, stood,
Oh, lyuli, lyuli, stood.
Bloomed with scarlet flowers,
Oh, lyuli, lyuli, blossomed.
Autumn songs
The last calendar-ritual cycle was associated with the harvest. These rituals were performed on the day when they finished harvesting the bread.
After finishing the harvest, they usually “curled their beard”, that is, they tied the last handful of stems with a wreath so that the strength of the earth would not fail. After that, they rode through the harvest to restore the strength lost during the days of suffering. Then, with the last sheaf, singing songs, they solemnly walked home.
We're sorry, we're sorry
Sorry, reaped, -
Zhnei young,
golden sickles,
Niva debt 2,
Post 3 wide;
Sorry for a month
The sickles are broken
Have not been to the edge
People weren't removed
Questions and tasks
- What folklore is called ritual? What calendar ritual songs do you know? Why are they called that? Prepare to perform one of them.
- Have you heard similar songs before? Where and under what circumstances?
- What are carols? When and where were they performed? How are they different from other ritual songs?
- What song symbol was the birch tree? When were they performed?
- What calendar and ritual songs can be called the most cheerful? Why?
- Explain the meaning of the words: “zhito”, “oatmeal”, “bast shoes”, “sickle”, “reap”.
- Prepare an expressive reading of one of the songs. Pay attention to her melodiousness, repetitions, appeals, epithets.
- Prepare a holiday of calendar and ritual songs (from winter Christmas carols to autumn ones associated with the harvest). Think over the design of the stage and the hall, select the songs, learn them, try to introduce elements of theatrical action into the performance of the songs.
1 This name comes from the Latin word calendae, meaning the first day of the month. There are other explanations, for example, from the word kolo - circle.
2 Debt - long.
3 Post - processed field.
