This publication is a kind of encyclopedia of visual psychodiagnostics. Practical recommendations, a variety of test games and specific psychological techniques are offered. The subject, tasks, content, structure and main methods of visual psychodiagnostics as a scientific and practical direction are considered. The provisions of various ancient teachings about man are presented taking into account the results of modern scientific observations.
For managers, personnel specialists, entrepreneurs, psychologists, teachers and everyone who works with people.

CONTENT
Foreword
Introduction
SCIENCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF PEOPLE ON THEIR EXTERNAL FEATURES
Visual psychodiagnostics; subject, tasks, content
Historical roots of visual psychodiagnostics
The relationship of visual psychodiagnostics with modern sciences
The structure of the visual psychodiagnostics course

Part I. HUMAN TYPOLOGY
Section 1. ASTROLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
PLANETARY AND ZODIAC TYPES
Chapter 1.1. Astrology: history and modernity
Chapter 1.2. How to read a horoscope
Chapter 1.3. Astrological foundations of temperament
List of used literature
Section 2. TYPOLOGIES OF TEMPERAMENT AND THEIR MODERN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 2.1. Temperament types
List of used literature
Chapter 2.2. Constitutional typologies
Chapter 2.3. Modern development of constitutional typologies
List of used literature
Section 3. HUMAN FUNCTIONAL TYPOLOGIES
Chapter 3.1. Thinkers and Artists
Chapter 3.2. Classification of personalities by A. Lazursky
Chapter 3.3. Psychological types of K. Jung
Chapter 3.4. Accentuated personalities of K. Leonhard
List of used literature
Section 4. GENERAL TYPOLOGY: AN ATTEMPT TO GENERALIZE
Chapter 4.1. Introduction to Personality Psychology
Chapter 4.2. Repetition of the past
Chapter 4.3. Our concept
List of used literature
Part II. BASICS OF PHYSIOGNOMY
Section 5. PHYSIOGNOMY: HISTORICAL FLASHBACK
Chapter 5.1. Physiognomy in the ancient world
Chapter 5.2. Physiognomic systems of the past
Chapter 5.3. Physiognomic language and its grammar
Chapter 5.4. Anthropological physiognomy
List of used literature
Section 6. PERSON AS AN OBJECT OF MODERN RESEARCH
Chapter 6.1. Facial features - character traits?
Chapter 6.2. The structure of the face
Chapter 6.3. "Facial language" and its study
Slides of used literature
Section 7. CHIROLOGY - THE SCIENCE OF THE HAND
Chapter 7.1. Palmistry and dermatoglyphics
Chapter 7.2. Basics of chirognomony
Chapter 7.3. The use of dermatoglyphics data in visual psychodiagnostics
Applications
List of used literature
Part III. HOW TO READ THE QUESTIONNAIRE CORRECTLY
Section 8. INTRODUCTION TO NAMENOLOGY
Chapter 8.1. Father Paul's name theory
Chapter 8.2. Etymological directory of names
Chapter 8.3. Psychological directory of names
Chapter 8.4. Names in the mirror of astrology and numerology
List of used literature
Section 9. DATE OF BIRTH AND AGE
Chapter 9.1. Psychology of age
Chapter 9.2. Age and education
List of used literature
Chapter 9.3. Date of birth, or staff-astrology
List of used literature
Section 10. PSYCHOLOGY OF GENDER AND NATIONAL DIFFERENCES
Chapter 10.1. Man and woman: comparative characteristics
Chapter 10.2. Psychological types of personality development
List of used literature
Chapter 10.3. national differences. Blood and character
List of used literature
Section 11. GRAPHOLOGY IN SCIENCE AND LIFE
Chapter 11.1. A Brief Historical Sketch of Graphology
Chapter 11.2. Definition of character in graphological systems of the past
Chapter 11.3. The study of handwriting as a method of psychodiagnostics
List of used literature
Appendix
List of used literature
Part IV. GRAMMAR OF BODY LANGUAGE
Section 12. OBSERVATION - THE BASIC METHOD OF VISUAL PSYCHODIAGNOSIS
Chapter 12.1. What can observation do?
Chapter 12.2. Expressive movements and emotions
Chapter 12.3. Techniques for observing human behavioral reactions
Chapter 12.4. Exercises for the development of observation
List of used literature
Section 13. STUDYING HABITS
Chapter 13.1. Indirect observation and its features
List of used literature
Chapter 13.2. The psychology of color
List of used literature
Chapter 13.3. Body tests and brain asymmetry
List of used literature
Chapter 13.4. Character through geometry and drawings
List of used literature
Section 14. BODY LANGUAGE AND MOVEMENTS
Chapter 14.1. Language of eyes and hands
Chapter 14.2. body language
Chapter 14.3. Laws of communication and body signals
List of used literature
Conclusion
RESULTS OF THE COURSE AND THEIR CONFIGURATION
General layout of the study of a person by means of visual psychodiagnostics
Consolidation of the passed
Personalities
Glossary
Bibliography

The publication was prepared jointly with the IPR MEDIA Publishing Center ( www.iprmedia.ru)
- a teacher-psychologist, has extensive experience in conducting psychological diagnostics, professional psychological selection, advising adults and schoolchildren on career guidance and personal growth, organizing and conducting research work on socio-psychological aspects. He has a number of published scientific and practical materials, a participant in various seminars and conferences.

Introduction

At present, psychology has a large arsenal of tools that make it possible to determine the stable individual psychological characteristics of a person. Traditionally, for psychodiagnostic purposes, methods such as questionnaires, conversations, tests, and personality questionnaires are used. However, there are certain limitations associated with the use of such methods. This is not a very high reliability of the results, associated with the conscious control of a person’s answers, and a long examination procedure, and a wary attitude of the subject. The test results give, in fact, an idea of ​​the "role mask" of the personality, formed under the influence of social experience and not always accurately reflecting its essence. Therefore, the question arises of using new approaches that are able to provide objective information about a person, are operational in time and are anonymous for the test person. Such opportunities are provided by visual psychodiagnostics, based on direct observation and interpretation of a person's external appearance and his non-verbal behavior.
Non-verbal behavior, according to V.A. Labunskaya, is an external form of existence and manifestation of the mental world of the individual. Non-verbal behavior is diverse both in its composition (it includes body movements, gestures, facial expressions and many other components), and in its functions. The study of the non-verbal behavior of a communication partner allows you to understand his characteristics, draw up his psychological portrait, and correctly build your interaction with him.
There are various techniques and methods of visual psychodiagnostics that allow, based on external signs, to draw a conclusion about the internal properties and qualities of a person. As the main object of visual diagnostics, we propose to consider a person's face. In the conditions of everyday communication, a person's face is the most accessible for observation and the most informative element of appearance. In addition, a person's face carries the largest number of identifying features that make it possible to form a psychological portrait of a person - morphological (facial features) and functional (facial expression).
This manual presents a methodology for identifying a person by signs of appearance (facial features). It was developed on the basis of C. Jung's system of psychological types using the Myers-Briggs typological questionnaire. The technique is a visual determination of a person's predispositions (extroversion or introversion, sensory or intuition, thinking or feeling, judgment or perception), which form the psychological type of a person, according to their morphological manifestations (facial features). The basis of the methodology is the data obtained in a psychological study - identified statistically significant associations and external signs (facial features), which are identifying, acting as "benchmarks". Visual determination of the psychological type of a person allows you to successfully solve many everyday and professional tasks.
The study of individual psychological characteristics of a person can also be carried out using other non-verbal testing methods, such as assessing constitutional features, analyzing color and geometric preferences, analyzing preferred clothing, graphological examination, interpreting drawings, etc. It is advisable to use the methods of visual psychodiagnostics comprehensively. Analysis of a person's face, interpretation of his gestures, statements and behavioral reactions complement and confirm each other, allowing you to form a holistic psychological portrait.

Section 1. Features of identification of a person by signs of appearance

1.1. Visual psychodiagnostics as a method of studying individual personality traits

1.1.1. The concept of visual psychodiagnostics

1.1.2. An excursion into the history of the study of personality on the basis of appearance

The existence of the relationship between the body and soul of a person has been known for a very long time. Hermes Trismegistus wrote about this 5,000 years ago: “What is inside, then outside, what is outside, then inside.”
Since ancient times, people have sought, on the basis of visible external signs, to draw a conclusion about the internal state of a person. According to Heraclitus, the morality of a person is his destiny, with which he is born, and the manifestation of character is expressed not only in words and deeds, but also in appearance.
Much attention in antiquity was given to the study of temperaments. Scientists tried to find external manifestations of personality traits and temperament, looking for a relationship between morphological and psychological characteristics of representatives of a particular temperament. Various theories of temperament were developed: humoral (Hippocrates, Kant), morphological (Kretschmer, Sheldon) and others.
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperaments. In his treatise On the Nature of Man, he pointed out that temperament is associated with the predominance of one of the “vital juices” in the body: blood (sanguine temperament), red-yellow bile (choleric), phlegm or phlegm (phlegmatic) and black bile (melancholic temperament). temperament). In the future, the humoral doctrine of temperament was developed by Galen.
I. Bourdon distinguished the following types of temperament depending on the appearance of their owners: multi-blooded (or sanguine), nervous (or melancholic), bilious (or choleric), lymphatic (or phlegmatic). At the same time, he believed that pure types of human constitution are rare.
AT constitutional typologies temperament properties were understood as hereditary or congenital and associated with individual differences in physique. The authors of constitutional theories E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon made a connection between the type of physique and the character of a person, his temperament, spheres of feelings, desires, thinking.
In his work “Body Structure and Character”, E. Kretschmer highlights the following body types: asthenic, picnic and athletic (see Table 1).

Table 1.Body types according to Kretschmer

In addition to the named types, E. Kretschmer singled out more dysplastic type, which is characterized by a shapeless structure and various body deformities (for example, excessive growth). Absolutely “pure” body types are rare, mixed types are more often observed (pyknic-asthenic, pyknic-athletic, asthenic-athletic). According to the distinguished body types, E. Kretschmer distinguished three types of temperament: schizothymic (asthenic build), cyclothymic (picnic build) and ixothymic (athletic build).
The author of another constitutional typology, W. Sheldon, singled out endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic body types (see Table 2).

Table 2.Body types according to Sheldon

It can be seen that the body types of W. Sheldon correspond to the constitutional types of E. Kretschmer: endomorphic - picnic, mesomorphic - athletics and ectomorphic - asthenics. According to W. Sheldon, the types of physiques identified by him correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: visicetronia (lat. viscera - “insides”), somatonia (Greek soma - “body”) and cerebrotonia (lat. cerebrum - "brain").
The most famous and widespread theory of temperament is a theory based on the teachings of I.P. Pavlova about typological properties of the nervous system. The scientist argued that such properties of nervous processes as the strength of excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility form the so-called type of nervous system, or type of higher nervous activity . I.P. Pavlov singled out four types of nervous system which according to their main characteristics correspond to the four classical types of temperament. A strong, balanced, mobile type of the nervous system corresponds to a sanguine temperament, a strong, balanced, inert type to a phlegmatic temperament; a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation - choleric temperament, a weak type of nervous system is characteristic of a melancholic temperament.
According to I.P. Pavlova, temperament is a manifestation of the type of the human nervous system and is detected by a number of external signs: general activity of mental activity and behavior, motor, or motor, general activity, emotional activity (sensitivity, lability). People with pronounced features of a certain temperament are not so common, usually a mixed temperament is found.
I.P. Pavlov also singled out specific human types - artistic, mental, average. Each type is characterized by distinctive external signs and its psychological characteristics. Artistic type - emotional, impressionable, leading in his behavior are feelings, not reason. Thinking type - rational, less emotional, more prone to abstraction and mathematical reasoning.
Since ancient times, differences in the types of body structure have also been noticed. Over time, various psychological characteristics began to be attributed to a certain type of physique. So quite a lot of typologies based on the characteristics of the human physique were created.
The typology of Eugene Ledot is based on the assertion that the structure of the human body corresponds to five geometric shapes: a quadrangle, a circle, an oval, a triangle and a cone. Each type is characterized by its hidden abilities, instincts and passions, which are activated or remain inactive depending on the development of the individual, her life path. Disagreement between type and temperament leads to internal conflicts, contradictions in feelings, desires, actions, oddities of character. In his work, E. Ledo described the five main body types and presented their psychological characteristics.
In the twenties of the last century, the French physician Claude Sigot created a typology based on the idea that the human body and its disorders depend on the environment and innate predispositions. According to K. Seago, in accordance with the general shape of the body, people are divided into four categories: muscular types (with a predominance of the muscular system), cerebral types (with a predominance of the nervous system), digital types (with a predominance of the digestive system), respiratory types (with a predominance of the respiratory systems). The ideas of C. Seago formed the basis of psychomorphology and had a great influence on the formation of modern constitutional theories.
Many researchers later turned to the search for new links between the morphological and individual psychological characteristics of a person.

1.1.3. Modern approaches to personality diagnostics based on appearance

In modern psychology, the consideration of the problem of the relationship between the external and the internal proceeds simultaneously from different sides.
Most of the work of scientists is devoted to the phenomenon of social perception .
O.G. Kukosyan identifies three areas of research in this area:
- the formation of the first impression about a person;
- perception of his appearance and behavior;
- the formation of the concept of another person as a person.
In the course of research on social perception, factors that influence the process of perceiving a person by a person and the formation of a concept of another person as a person are considered, typical mistakes that a person makes when evaluating the people around him are revealed. In the works of V.N. Kunitsyna, V.M. Senchenko, G.G. Finikova, V.F. Bagrunova, O.G. Kukosyan, A.M. Zimichev and other domestic scientists provide data on the influence of age, gender, and professional characteristics of a perceiving person. Many works of foreign researchers (Bruner, Allport, Secord, Permuter, Wyer, etc.) are devoted to the consideration of mechanisms for attributing certain qualities to a cognizable personality.
Features of the perception of the physical appearance are considered in detail in the studies of A.A. Bodaleva, G.G. Guseva, A.M. Kolesova, V.N. Panferova, E.E. Smirnova, A.M. Zinina, I.F. Vinichenko, V.F. Shendrik and others. In the physical appearance, scientists especially distinguish the face and some of its elements.
The problem of the first impression of another person in Russian psychology was dealt with by such scientists as A.A. Bodalev, A.A. Leontiev, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.N. Panferov, G.M. Biryukova, I.A. Urklin, G.V. Dyakonov and others. Features of the first impression of another person were traced depending on a wide range of factors such as gender, age, education, occupation and marital status of adults. Similar studies in foreign psychology were carried out by S. Ash, G. Kelly, D. Bruner, R. Tagiuri, G. Allport, T. Newcomb and others.
In recent years, much attention has been paid to non-verbal communication research , because it became clear that this component of human social behavior plays a more important role in the life of society than previously thought.
Such scientists as V. Reich, D. Efron, R. Birdwistell, G. Allport, E. Hall, P. Ekman and others dealt with non-verbal behavior issues. The names of G.M. Andreeva, L.I. Antsyferova, A.G. Asmolova, E.A. Ermolaeva, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.A. Labunskaya, A.A. Leontiev, B.D. Parygin, V.N. Panferova, E.V. Rudensky, V.P. Trusov and many other scientists. General problems of non-verbal communication, ethno-psychological and ethno-pedagogical aspects of non-verbal means of communication, issues of decoding received non-verbal information and other aspects of non-verbal communication are investigated. Specific methods of "reading" non-verbal behavior are described in the works of A. Pisa, D. Nirenberg, G. Calero and others. Research in the field of applied psychology is devoted to such components of non-verbal communication as postures, facial expressions, gestures, gaze, breathing, etc.
Another group of psychological studies is devoted to clarification of existing constitutional typologies.
Soviet scientists B.G. Ananiev and N.N. The convoys were supplemented by the previously developed constitutional typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon. Researchers have found that performance, mobility or rigidity of behavior largely depend on the type of addition. N.N. Obozov also suggested three-component typology of behavior, according to which such types of behavior as a thinker, interlocutor, practitioner are distinguished. Each type is characterized by peculiar external manifestations (features of walking, posture, gestures, facial expressions), as well as certain preferences in choosing the sphere of professional activity.
A.G. Safronov, along with an analysis of the constitutional type, also proposes to consider type of human energy distribution. He proceeds from the fact that a person is an energy being, and his physical structure is a reflection of his energy alignment. According to the method of energy distribution, he distinguishes such pronounced types as schizoid, hysterical, rigid, "collapsed", oral. These are pure types, but in a real type these pure types are mixed in certain proportions.
A great contribution to the study of temperament was made by the works of B.M. Teplova, V.S. Merlina, I.M. Paley, L.B. Ermolaeva-Tomina and many others.
IN AND. Kulikov developed modern morphology of traditional types of temperament , which can be used in visual psychodiagnostics. For each type of temperament, certain external signs correspond (characteristics of individual elements of the face and head as a whole). In his work, V. I. Kulikov describes the morphological and psychological features of the asthenoid and pycnic types of the human constitution. Psychological types of I.P. Pavlova in the studies of V.I. Kulikov are represented by limb and body types of the human constitution (opposite), each of which has its own distinctive morphological features and psychological characteristics.
E.V. Rudensky suggested considering such behavioral signs for express diagnostics of personality psychotype (epileptoid, hyperthyma, psychasthenic, etc.) as appearance, demeanor, features of communication with other people.
Thus, modern visual diagnostics includes various scientific directions and methods. Techniques of psychological observation are being developed that take into account the psychological patterns of people's perception and understanding of each other and are used to study and evaluate the characteristics of people.

1.1.4. Appearance features that act as identification signs

Information about the individual psychological characteristics of a person can be obtained on the basis of various external signs.
According to I.M. Sechenov, facial contours and general body silhouette are the most important identifying features of a person for those who perceive him. As some modern studies show, the role of supporting features for most people is played by height, eyes (color), hair (color), facial expressions, nose, and body features. According to other sources, the eyes, lips, hands, legs (feet) are among the most informative parts of the body. At the same time, most people in their appearance quickly notice features that are a deviation from the samples taken by these people as the norm (characteristic features). These are the so-called special signs.
In the literature on social perception accepted to distinguish (see Table 3):
- static features - anatomical features that make up the physical appearance of a person;
- dynamic features - functional features that characterize expressive behavior;
- medium-resistant signs (complementing, clarifying).

Table 3External parameters of personality research

All these external signs are used to identify a person and draw up a psychological portrait.

1.2. Formation of a psychological portrait of a person on the basis of appearance

1.2.1. Peculiarities of perception and understanding by people of each other

The perception of man by man- this is a direct, visual-figurative reflection by one person of another, as a result of which the concept of a particular person is formed. The process of perception of a person by a person is an important step in building interpersonal communication.
The process of reflecting the external appearance includes two levels of knowledge:
- concrete-sensory (perception);
– abstract-logical (interpretation).
The reflection of the appearance as a whole or its individual elements from an aesthetic point of view causes a not always conscious attitude (positive or negative) from the perceiver to the communication partner. And if the appearance itself acts as an objective source of information about another person, then the attitude towards appearance plays the role of a subjective background against which the process of cognition takes place. The resulting attitude determines the general direction of the socio-psychological interpretation of personality.

Ttheme №1-2 Visual psychodiagnostics as a component

psychodiagnostics.

Subject, tasks and methods of visual psychodiagnostics.

Structure and state of modern visual psychodiagnostics.

The emergence and stages of development of visual psychodiagnostics.

The relationship of visual psychodiagnostics with modern sciences.

Wherever you find yourself, everywhere any person makes an initial judgment about another person according to external signs, according to his face. Hardly anyone will deny this. When you first meet a person, you make an intuitive judgment instantly. Subsequently, you can correct or change this judgment. However, it is essential that on the basis of the appearance of a person you are able to judge his character.

In the modern world of globalization, the space between people is rapidly shrinking, we often have to communicate with a variety of people, both in character and in value orientations. (How to determine who is in front of us? What are his intentions? Which style of relationship to choose?)

Since ancient times, people have sought by the appearance and actions of a person to determine the character, feelings and abilities.

However, many still underestimate the importance of the ability to "read" and understand human psychology, not only in business, but also in personal life. But such a skill is one of the main indicators of the general culture of a person.

Confucius said: "Don't worry about people not know you, and worry that you don't know people."

Visual psychodiagnostics - is a branch of psychology

studying the relationship of external physiological signs and the internal content of the personality.

At the core contains systems of knowledge adapted for a modern person in physiognomy, palmistry, graphology, analysis of body features, the shape of hands, fingers, facial expressions, gestures, etc.

Visual psychodiagnostics is based on the study of external characteristics and appearance of a person for penetration into the inner

psychological content of personality.

Thanks to these methods are studied: temperament, character, orientations, inclinations and physique, injuries and deviations, painful predispositions, sexual inclinations, psychological defenses, susceptibility to influences, obsessions, features, etc.

visual psychodiagnostics in addition to general cultural significance, it also has a purely recursive character, as a branch of psychology personnel management, which develops methods of studying personnel for the purpose of its rational selection, placement and efficient use.

Acting as an introductory part of the psychology of working with people, visual psychodiagnostics introduces specialists to various, including non-traditional methods of studying people.

How in the most general form is employment and selection personnel?

First, the manager or HR worker familiarizes himself with the applicant's personal materials (personal record sheet, autobiography, education documents, photographs, etc.)

Then, with a positive impression of the submitted documents a conversation is being held with a job candidate.

In organizing this conversation, an important place is given to observing the behavior and appearance of the interlocutor.

What underlies the general scheme of perception by one person another? What is the first thing that attracts attention when meeting with another person?

Obviously three the main features of its external appearance (except for

clothes of course) gender, age and body type.

Then smaller details come into view - the configuration of the head, posture, gait, gestures, the shape of the hands, fingers and etc.thus, the schema of human perception, is based on principle knowledge from general to particular, from larger to smaller, from the whole to its components.

The daily application of this knowledge can be extremely fruitful. In many cases, this is a two-way, receiving - transmitting channel. The seller can evaluate a potential buyer, and the buyer, in turn, the seller. The employer can analyze the qualities of the future employee and the employee can do the same in relation to the employer. Lovers can mutually study each other. Cautious people will be able to protect themselves by identifying individuals with deviant behavior or an adventurous - fraudulent warehouse. In other situations, this knowledge works like a one-sided lens. Well, in an election year, voters will be able to better judge the character of candidates by examining their faces on TV screens. Parents will be able to better understand the intricacies of the character and characteristics of their children, and therefore build the educational process in a more correct way.

In order to master the methods of visual psychodiagnostics it is necessary to develop such qualities as: observation, objectivity, criticality in assessments, moral purity, caution in using the results obtained, competence.

It is especially important to remember that the knowledge of a person through the methods of visual psychodiagnostics allows only to compile the most general of his psychological characteristics.

visual psychodiagnostics - new and relatively independent industry psychology of personnel management, task which consists of studying"external" characteristics of behavior and human form (such as gender, age, body type, facial expressions, gestures, etc.) in order to penetrate into"internal" psychological content of personality and optimization use of the possibilities of each person.

What does the term "psychology" mean?

In its most general form, psychodiagnostics is the science and practice of making a psychological diagnosis.

This term, which was widely used in psychiatry after the publication of G. Rorschach's book "Psychodiagnostics", soon went beyond medicine and spread to the field of psychology.

Psychodiagnostic tasks are solved in various ways, the main of which are special psychodiagnostic techniques used not only in the field of counseling and psychotherapy, but also in all cases when it is necessary to assess one or another psychological characteristic of a particular individual or group.

Principles for the development of psychodiagnostic tools and their specific implementation in diagnostic methods, including their methodological and theoretical justification, are included in the general

psychodiagnostics.

The subject of visual psychodiagnostics is the development

basic principles for the construction of psychodiagnostic methods based on the use of various visual means

(direct observation, video recording, study of documents, study of handwriting, etc.).

Taskvisual psychodiagnostics - consists in the development of specific methods for recognizing individually - psychological characteristics of a person through direct visual perception.

This problem can be solved in different ways. Chief among them - observation - provides very valuable information about the subject. There are other methods of visual psychodiagnostics that allow you to collect psychological information in a relatively short time, give qualitative comparisons of one individual with others, predict communication, the effectiveness of a particular human activity.

Psychological diagnostics is one of the most difficult areas of practical psychology. Correct diagnosis based on scientific interpretation of the survey data, the results of a comprehensive study of a person within the framework of personal approach, a deep analysis of the content of the information obtained in the diagnostic examination - can only be provided by high-quality specialists who require deep knowledge in the field of theoretical psychodiagnostics, psychometry, the theory of psychological measurements, and variational statistics.

The practical orientation and relative accessibility of visual psychodiagnostics, provides for the possibility

the patterns identified by these scientists were established back in 1865 by the Czech scientist G. Mendel. The name "genetics" was proposed in 1906 by I. Betson). To date, more than 1000 human genes have been studied in some detail. In fact, human genetics is the basis of human biology. Advances in genetics are of practical importance for visual psychodiagnostics, since the role of genetic factors is very significant in shaping the appearance of a person, his intellectual abilities and in general in human behavior, which must be taken into account when diagnosing by visual methods.

Anthropology can serve as a source of essential data for visual psychodiagnostics, through which the answers to many of its questions can be brought to a degree of accuracy and scientific certainty (as you know, the oldest people appeared at the beginning of the Quaternary period, several million years ago). Then, in the process of anthropogenesis, a qualitative leap, unprecedented in the history of the organic world, was made from the biological sphere of development to the social one.

Anthropological data allow us to characterize not only morphological transformations of a person ( changes in the structure of our immediate ancestors, but also the deepest qualitative changes in behavior and the establishment of fundamentally new relationships to the world around us.

For a more complete understanding of the conditions for the emergence and formation of modern man, his racial, gender and national characteristics, which are always manifested in appearance and behavior, it is necessary to widely use the data of historical and geographical sciences, as well as sociolinguistics - which studies the patterns of formation and development of verbal and non-verbal interactions of people.

conducting individual examinations by persons without special psychological training: teachers, doctors, managers of various levels, specialists in working with personnel.

Perception of the external appearance of a person, his expression emotions excites reciprocal emotional experiences and reactions at people and plays an important role in human communication.

Recognize individually - psychological characteristics can be facial expressions- expressive movements of the muscles of the face; on pantomime- expressive body movements; according to physiognomic reactions accompanying emotions - vascular, respiratory, secretory; according to the structural features of the body, facial features, drawings of the hands, fingers and other natural and biological features.

The study and systematization of data on the characteristic differences in the appearance of people and the features of their expressive movements, are content visual psychodiagnostics as a scientific - practical direction of the psychology of working with people.

Thus, visual psychodiagnosticsstudies all appearance Che loveka, i.e. face, figure, position and pattern of hands, movement and the position of the eyes, the color of the face, the activity of various glands, facial expressions and pantomime.

Well-known Russian psychologist XX century AND. Sikorsky, who considered physiognomy as "a voluntary and involuntary reflection of a person's internal state on his appearance (face, torso, eyes, hands, etc.)".

Scientific psychology is unthinkable without physiognomy. According to its methods, rich content and fruitful conclusions, physiognomy deserves to be singled out as a special science or branch of science related to psychology.

The main methods of visual psychodiagnostics are:

observation;

biographical and psychographic methods;

physiognomic and graphological analyses;

psychogeometric and color tests;

morphological and chronological analyses;

serological tests;

"bodily" and other visual tests.

Thus, visual psychodiagnostics is- independent scientific and practical direction of the psychology of work with people, having a subject, tasks, content, structure and methods. Historical roots of visual psychodiagnostics.

Physiognomy, phrenology, palmistry, astrology, graphology are ancient sciences that, by external signs of various parts of the body, expressive movements and other features of human behavior, tried to reveal its inner psychological entity. Physiognomy developed a system of correspondence between the features of a person's face and the main properties of his character, abilities and talents. The first physiognomic treatise that has survived to this day was attributed to Aristotle (although according to historians, Pythagoras, who is considered its founder, was engaged in physiognomy even earlier).

A lot of empirical material on physiognomy is contained in Quintilian's Instructions to the Orator (1st century), and the Roman physician Galen (2nd century) regarded physiognomic knowledge as "possible and useful." The Swiss I. Lavater - the author of the book "Physiognomic Moments" (1775 - 1778) - remained in the history of this science as an observant and subtle psychologist.

His follower was the Austrian doctor F. Gal, the creator phrenology

teachings about the connection between the mental characteristics of a person and the external

the shape of his skull. Physiognomy and the results of studying various expressive movements are reflected in the works of P. Camper about front corner, C. Bell "Anatomy and philosophy of expression" (1806),

Ch. Darwin "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872); N. Belova "physiology of types" (1924); V. Bekhterev "Objective psychology" (1910).

V. Bekhterev argued: “that psychology should not be limited to the study of the phenomena of consciousness, but should also study unconscious mental phenomena, and at the same time it should also study external manifestations in the activity of the organism, since they are

expression of his mental life.

In the depths of millennia, the origins of palmistry of the doctrine of the connection between the structure of the hand, the shape of the fingers, bulges and depressions, lines and grooves in the palm of the hand with the inner essence of man, his past and future are lost. Palmistry was known in ancient China and India long before our era, as well as in ancient Greece and Rome. Historians of that time testify that Pythagoras and Galen, Sulla and Caesar believed in it. Has an ancient history astrology,developed the planetary and zodiac typology of man, and graphology - which was looking for regular connections between handwriting and the character of the individual.

In the history of European linguistics, interest in gesture has been known since ancient times. AT the present time learning sign language intensified through research in semiotics, sociolinguistics and communication theory. Gesture and facial expressions are closely related to the word. The famous director K. Stanislavsky constantly reminded the actors: “In verbal communication, speak not so much to the ear as to the eye,” paying attention not to the role of gesture in communication.

"Every movement of the soul has its natural expression in voice, gesture, facial expressions." Movements must correspond to the dialogue and the meaning of the words, wrote Cicero.

The relationship of visual psychodiagnostics with modern sciences.

The study of man from dialectical positions comes from the fact that man is a unity of biological and social,

organism and personality, which develops in a certain natural

geographic environment.

On the formation and development of the individual simultaneously affect hereditary, climatic, social and other factors that

determine, on the one hand, the uniqueness of each individual, and on the other hand, the presence of common features among representatives of the respective groups (gender, age, national-racial, constitutional, etc.). all this makes it necessary to study a person in line with an interdisciplinary approach, where philosophy and psychology, geography and history, medicine and genetics, anthropology and linguistics occupy an important place.

For the knowledge of the interaction of social and biological in man defining the historical method matters. Science has established that I decide cabbage soup mi factors in biological evolution of organisms are heredity, variability and natural selection; proved the indissoluble genetic link between man and the animal world. Socialization human biology permeates his entire life, since a person lives in a world of social needs that form his mental life, which is qualitatively different from the psyche of animals. In this regard, the study of man at the intersection of biological and social sciences is one of the important tasks modern scientific knowledge. A special role in solving this problem belongs to psychology, genetics and anthropology.

Genetics as a science of heredity and variability of organisms originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Her official date of birth

1900 is considered when three scientists from different countries (German K. Korrens, E. Cermak from Australia and X. Friz from Holland) independently discovered in their studies that there are certain patterns in the transmission of individual traits from parents to offspring (however, the study of literary sources showed that Thus, modern visual psychodia Gnostics based on practical foundation of ancient teachings about man and being an industry applied psychology, finds further development in relationship.with various areas of modern knowledge, considering Chel sheep like multifaceted object of interdisciplinary study.

Subject: Methods for studying the external manifestations of a person.

Plan.

Observation as the main method of studying the external manifestations of personality.

Physiognomic method, graphological method.

Observation referstoone of the mainempirical methodspsychological research.

Composed observation in p intentional and purposeful perception mental phenomena in order to find the meaning of these phenomena, which not given directly.

There are various methods and techniques for observing the behavioral reactions of a person, allowing an experienced observer to penetrate into the inner meaning of certain external manifestations.

At the same time, the art of fully understanding the "wordless" messages of the interlocutor is acquired in the process of learning and * constant training. (Therefore, it is recommended that every HR manager devote at least 10 minutes daily to the cognitive "reading" of other people's gestures). To do this, you can use social and business meetings, as well as television: try to understand what is happening on the screen, watching only the image, turning on the sound every 5 minutes to compare speech messages and gestures you “read”.

In visual psychodiagnostics method of observation (also called planned perception), useatstudying the personality of employees, the nature of relationships in the production team, its social psychological climate and solving other problems.

The results of observation can be presented in the form of diary entries or according to a specially developed scheme, as well as recorded in a special protocol. Even more reliable will be the data recorded on a video recorder, and then collectively analyzed by the participants in the study.

The main advantage of the method of observation is that it provides data on the real, natural behavior and activities of the individual, and not their opinion about it.

indirect observation- differs from the usual one in that the observer observes not the behavioral reactions of a person, but only individual objects of the design of his external appearance or his usual environment.

The subjects of such observation can be: a personal car, preferred colors, pets, and other “indirect features” of the psychological portrait of the observed. (For example, some of the psychological characteristics of their owners can give out their pet dogs).

Food Industry

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS

Teaching aid

For students studying in the specialty

100101 "Service", all forms of education

Kemerovo 2008

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

GOU VPO Kemerovo Technological Institute

Food Industry

Department of Philosophy and Political Science

Compiled by:

Porkhacheva L.V., candidate of historical sciences, associate professor

Dzhus K.Ya., lecturer

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS

Teaching aid

Kemerovo 2008

Reviewers:

Associate Professor of the Department of Psychology of the KemSU, PhD in Psychology Mikhailova V.M.

Head of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology of Vocational Education of the State Educational Institution "KRIRPO", Ph.D., Associate Professor Sakharova V.I.

Psychodiagnostics: Teaching aid for students studying in the specialty 100101 "Service", all forms of education. – K.Ya. Juice, L.V. Porkhachev. – Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry. - Kemerovo, 2008. - 120p.

The manual discusses the basic concepts, as well as the most important topics for psychodiagnostics: express diagnostics of one's own emotional states, the technology of compiling a psychological portrait based on the attributes of a partner's appearance, analyzing the psychological characteristics of a person based on clothing preferences, studying the non-verbal behavior of clients belonging to different national cultures, identification of professionally important personality traits of a service worker, complex projective drawing tests to determine personality traits. The psychological foundations of consumer and production motivation are presented.

The manual is addressed to students studying in the specialty "Service", graduate students, teachers, as well as anyone who is interested in psychology.

I. Psychodiagnostics as a branch of psychology…………………………….......4

1. Basic concepts of psychodiagnostics……………………….……………..4

II. Visual psychodiagnostics……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..eight

2.1. Social perception: principles of a person's perception of himself

and others in the process of communication………………………………………………....8

2.2. Observation and discernment………..………………………………………………………………………………. fourteen

2.3. Perception of the psychological qualities of a person by his appearance

and behavior: personal image……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2.4. What is the first impression of a person……………………..19

2.4.1. The influence of clothing style on human perception……………….……..24

2.5. The human constitution and its psychological features.

Somatotype and psychotype…………....…........................................... .......................28

2.6. The facial features of a person and his character……..……………………………..32

2.7. Eyes and language of gaze………..…………………………………………....36

III. Psychodiagnostics of expressive consumer behavior and

communication partner……………………………………………..……………..40

3.1. About the consumer and his needs……..………………………………..40

3.2. General principles for the analysis of non-verbal behavior…………………..43

3.3. Emotional assessments and their bodily manifestations…………………....46

3.4. Identification and prevention of manipulation and psychological

pressure during business negotiations……………………………………………..51

3.4.1. Tricks of an organizational and procedural nature……………….52

3.4.2. Techniques of psychological pressure………….................................................53

3.4.3. Logical and psychological methods of manipulation………………...56

IV. Psychodiagnostics of professionally important qualities of a service worker ................................................. ...................60

4.1. Psychodiagnostics in personnel assessment. Concept of professional

important qualities of a service worker……………………………….………60

4.2. Types of personality and behavior and their significance for the profession

service worker……………………………………………………………..64

4.2.1 Typology of personality and choice of profession……………………………...64

4.2.2 General type of behavior………………..……………………………………69

V. Psychodiagnostics of personal characteristics...............................................................83

5.1. Temperament as an indicator of a stable complex of personality traits…………………………………………………………………………...84

5.1.1. “Formula of temperament”…………………………………………........ 85

5.1.2. Temperament as a system of personality traits………………………….88

5.2. Measurement of intelligence……………………………………………………....96

Block of materials for self-control……………………………………………………………101

Block of seminars…………………………………………………...105

Terminological dictionary…….…………………………………………...110

References…………………………………………………………...116

I. PSYCHODIAGNOSIS AS A SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Basic concepts of psychodiagnostics

For those who want to learn to understand themselves and other people, of particular practical value is psychodiagnostics - a field of psychological science and practice devoted to the development and use of the psychological characteristics of a person (primarily personality traits and emotional states).

It should be noted that psychodiagnostics, unlike medical diagnostics, studies the manifestations of the properties of the psyche of healthy people.

The theoretical basis of psychodiagnostics is the psychology of individual differences, or differential psychology. In this section of psychology, the most significant characteristics that determine the psychological makeup of a person are identified, and the range in which they can vary is also explored.

One of the variants of the scientific approach to any complex phenomenon (in this case, to the human person) is analysis. Personality is considered not only as an integral and indivisible entity, but also from the point of view of certain properties. In differential psychology, a significant place is occupied by the description of possible quantitative variations of various psychological properties in individual individuals. These data are used in psychodiagnostics to measure certain individual characteristics of a person, which makes it possible to compare the severity of certain properties in different people and find correlations between them.

One of the most common ways to identify any property of a given personality is to observe a person in a certain test situations. It is believed that a person who ideally possesses a property - reference personality- in such a situation, he will react in a certain way, and absolutely not possessing it - in another and also in a certain way. How close the reaction of a given person is to one or another of these “reference” options shows whether this property of personality is present in him (the “reference personality” itself is a speculative phenomenon, it usually does not exist in nature, just like, for example, ideal liquids or gases).

This kind of research is called psychological test . The word "test" means "test", "test". The test procedure is called testing . Test results are usually expressed quantitatively and require further interpretation.

The creation and testing of psychodiagnostic methods is a very complex and lengthy task. Each method, the results of which can be seriously trusted, must meet the requirements of validity, standardization and reliability. Validity - this is the information content of the test, its adequacy to the task and suitability for measuring what it is intended to measure. standard The test assumes that there are precise, strictly verified procedures for its implementation, as well as rules for interpreting the results, taking into account the norms of behavior inherent in a given culture for people of a given age and gender. Reliability test is constancy, stability of its results during repeated testing, freedom from random errors.

Out-of-test psychodiagnostics is associated only with the qualitative identification of a particular property based on observation of a person's appearance and his behavior in a variety of non-standardized situations.

Summary

Psychodiagnostics is a vast area of ​​psychology, which includes both a wide range of theoretical and experimental studies and many practical applications.

The development of psychodiagnostic methods for analyzing personality is one of the main tasks of psychodiagnostics as a science, feasible only for professional psychologists specializing in this field of psychology. This manual is devoted to the practical application of psychodiagnostics in the field of service, outside the framework of professional psychological work.

WORKSHOP

Fill in the blanks:

1. Psychodiagnostics studies the manifestations of the properties of the psyche of …….. people.

2. The theoretical basis of psychodiagnostics is ………….. psychology.

3. Personality is considered as an integral and indivisible entity, in terms of the degree of expression ………...

4. Differential psychology describes ………….. variations in psychological properties in individual individuals.

5. Test results are expressed ………… and require further interpretation.

6. Out-of-test psychodiagnostics is associated with …………….. identification of a certain property based on observation of a person’s appearance and his behavior in various, non-standard situations.

Choose the correct answer:

1. Psychodiagnostics is an area of ​​psychological science and practice dedicated to:

a) development of methods for cognition of the personality (personality traits, emotional states);

b) the use of methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics of a person;

c) the study of the patterns of mental development of the individual.

2. The test situation in psychodiagnostics is:

a) purposeful identification of any personality trait;

b) control over the quality of the assignment;

c) specially organized observation of a person.

3. Psychodiagnostic methods must meet the following requirements:

a) validity and reliability;

b) validity and standardization;

c) standardization and consistency;

d) consistency and reliability.

4. The validity of the test is characterized by:

a) informative;

b) adequacy;

c) clarity of wording.

5. Test reliability implies:

a) constancy;

b) stability;

c) freedom from random errors.

Terminological dictionary: psychodiagnostics, test situation, reference personality, psychological test, testing, validity, test standardization, test reliability, out-of-test psychodiagnostics.

Essay topics

1. Scope and varieties of psychological tests.

2. Requirements for psychodiagnostic tests.

3. Rationale for the need to use psychodiagnostic tests.

4. Standards of psychodiagnostic testing.

5. Technology of conducting psychodiagnostic testing.

6. Influence of situational variables on the results of psychodiagnostic testing.

7. Test anxiety.

8. Influence of training on the results of the psychodiagnostic test.

Bibliography

1. Akimova, M.K. From the history of psychological diagnostics [Text]: textbook / M.K. Akimov // Ed. Gurevich K.M. - Biysk, 2006.

2. Glass, J., Stanley, J. Statistical methods in pedagogy and psychology [Text] / J. Glass, J. Stanley. - M., 2007.

3. Paley, I.M. Methodical issues of diagnostics in differential psychological research [Text] / I.M. Paley. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 52-68.

4. Workshop on General, Experimental and Applied Psychology [Text]: textbook / V.D. Balin, V.K. Gaida // Under the general editorship of A.A. Krylova, S.A. Manichev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 560s.

5. Psychological testing [Text]: textbook / A. Anastasi, S. Urbina. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - S. 15-60.

6. Shvantsara, J. Diagnostics of mental development [Text] / J. Shvantsara. - Prague, 2005. - S. 137-138.

7. Yaroshevsky, M.G. History of psychology [Text] / M.G. Yaroshevsky. – M.: Thought, 2006.

II. VISUAL PSYCHODIAGNOSIS

2.1. Social perception: the principles of a person's perception of himself and others in the process of communication

Each person, being in society, constantly comes into contact with other people. These people occupy a certain place in the psychological world of a person, creating a good or bad mood. Psychoanalyst K. Horney came to the conclusion that people, each of whom has individual characteristics (temperament, character, a certain mindset and intellect, the world of their values ​​and interests), when communicating, form a kind of socio-psychological field that arises from mutual perception and understanding.

Consider what constitutes communication from a psychological point of view. To do this, let's turn to the Drawing (it is considered and described from the bottom up, since the physical, observed "terrestrial" reality is depicted below, and above - representations in the heads, "virtual" reality. By the same principle, in comics, the thoughts of a character are written or drawn as usually above his head, not below it) (see Fig. 1.).

It schematically depicts the characters involved in communication. In the bottom row are real people A and B. For an external observer, they are the partners in communication: they exchange remarks, gestures, mimic signs. But can it be argued that communication is psychologically limited to this? Above the dotted line are "virtual characters" - images of themselves that exist in real A and B (I-images): A-A is A's idea of ​​himself, B-B is B's idea of ​​himself.

These I-images have some resemblance to real people, but do not completely coincide with them. But that's not all. Each of the characters has an image of their partner - You-image. These images are shown in the third row from the bottom. A-B is the image of A in the representation of B, B-A is the image of B in the representation of A. You-image has a resemblance to a real partner, but everyone brings something of himself into it.

When communicating, a person from his I-image refers to his existing You-image of a partner; this appeal hears the I-image of the partner and answers, also meaning the You-image of the interlocutor that he has. In other words, outwardly people A and B are real people, but psychologically A-A turns to B-A, receives this message B-B and sends the answer to A-B.

In addition to these real and "virtual" characters participating in the dialogue, there is another one - an invisible third, objective external factor: a social norm, or the opinion of an authority (in the figure above). His presence is reflected in remarks like: "I do (or think) like all normal people", "It's so natural, but you ...". Each of the participants in communication considers himself a unique person, different from everyone else, but still constantly checks his own and other people's behavior with the social norm. Therefore, the most important condition for the success of interpersonal communication is similar ideas about social norms.

For each person, another person is the most complex system for perception in the entire elemental world. In psychology, there is a special area of ​​​​knowledge on the perception of a person by a person, which is called social perception.

In business communication, the interests of the business always come to the fore, and possible personal differences remain in the background. There is always a goal in business communication; striving to achieve some substantive agreement, and this goal must be achieved.

The main thing in the process of business communication is the effective exchange of information. But it would be a mistake to think that information is transmitted only by words. The flows of information exchanged by partners in the process of communication form specific communication channels:

ü straight- what one partner (source) communicates to another in an explicit form, mainly verbally or with the help of special diagrams, drawings, formulas, samples, etc.;

ü indirect - information about this message, which is obtained intuitively or actively (for example, through special observation, attention to the details of the partner's behavior) and the result of which is trust or distrust in the partner and the message received through the direct channel;

ü controlled indirect - a message perceived as unintentional, but sent intentionally, a "trick" in order to inspire confidence (or distrust) in some message.

When perceiving another person, there are plant types affecting the features of communication:

ü positive- people overestimate the positive qualities of other people, which is manifested in unconscious gullibility towards them;

ü negative it manifests itself in the fact that people perceive mainly the negative qualities of another person, which is expressed in suspicion, distrust, and non-perception of him;

ü adequate- suggests that each person has both positive and negative qualities.

The presence of attitudes underlies the typical distortions of people's ideas about another person. Examples of typical distortions named by psychologists are:

1. The “halo effect” is the influence of the general impression of a person on the perception and assessment of the properties of his personality. For example, if there is an opinion about a person that he is very good, then his bad deed will be perceived as an accident. This effect makes it difficult to adequately evaluate people. In such conditions, capable and bright individuals can be known as "nerds", "loners";

2. “consistency effect” is the influence of rumors about a person on a judgment about him;

3. "Advance payment effect" is the attribution of non-existent positive qualities to a person;

4. "the effect of projecting one's own properties onto other people" is the expectation of the behavior of other people according to a model previously developed by a person. This effect is observed when people do not know how (or do not want) to take the place of another person, to accept his point of view.

Of course, communication through speech, which is inherent only to a person, has wide communicative capabilities, but cannot completely exhaust all the needs of communication. Non-verbal communication is carried out with the help of gestures, facial expressions, signs, drawings, tactile, sound, olfactory and any other non-verbal signals. It is convenient for conveying emotional assessments and is of little use for communicating specific information, but in any case it can contribute to or hinder mutual understanding between partners.

The work of a service sector specialist involves mandatory communication with people: colleagues, bosses, subordinates and customers. Communication plays an important role in everyday life. We can say that the ability to communicate largely determines both the professional and life success of a person. One often hears the opinion that “the ability to communicate largely determines both the professional and life success of a person; “The ability to communicate is from birth.” To some extent, this statement is true. The "innate" salesperson can sell anything; The “innate” leader does not have to spend much effort to force him to obey himself: his subordinates themselves strive to fulfill his orders, and the higher authorities treat him well. Such a person is usually sociable, moderately emotional, listens well to the interlocutor, enters into a conversation on time, unobtrusively, but firmly “draws his line”. And now the “other side” turns from an indifferent or even negative, or even aggressively minded person into a benevolent communication partner. This happens so easily and naturally that it seems as if the person did not do anything special, and the partner (boss, subordinate, client, buyer, student, etc.) does as he wants. However, contrary to popular belief, sociability is far from the only and even not the most important personal quality for a manager. Of great importance are professional knowledge and skills, as well as features of motivation.

Not everyone has the obvious ability to communicate. However, any ability to some extent can be developed. Each person can find such a professional "niche" in which his capabilities will be most manifested and useful. In order to wisely choose the sphere of application of one’s forces and purposefully correct self-development, without setting unrealistic tasks for oneself and without wasting one’s opportunities, one needs to know oneself better.

WORKSHOP

Fill in the blanks:

1. Interacting with each other, people form ………………………. field.

2. Participants in the communication process have their own …………………. peculiarities.

3. The flows of information exchanged by partners in the process of communication form specific …………….

4. When perceiving another person, there are types of …………., affecting the characteristics of communication.

5. The “advance effect” is ……………….. for a person with non-existent positive qualities.

Choose the correct answer:

1. The main characteristic of the business communication process is:

a) effective communication of information;

b) positive emotional atmosphere;

c) the presence of several participants.

2. Specific channels of communication are:

a) straight

b) indirect;

c) controlled indirect.

3. Special area of ​​knowledge on the perception of a person by a person:

a) social psychology;

b) social perception;

c) social psychodiagnostics.

4. Business communication is characterized by:

a) the presence of a goal;

b) subject agreement;

c) the desire to achieve the goal.

5. The halo effect is:

a) attributing non-existent qualities to a person;

b) the influence of the general impression of a person on his assessment;

c) projecting one's qualities onto a person.

Terminological dictionary: social perception, business communication, communication channels, types of perceptual attitudes, perceptual distortions, non-verbal communication.

Essay topics

1. Features of social perception.

2. Verbal and non-verbal means of perception.

3. Facial expressions, gestures: their influence on the efficiency of perception.

4. Distances of communication as a factor that determines the peculiarities of perception.

5. Sociocultural conditioning of social perception.

6. New Look J. Bruner.

7. Processes of identification and reflection in the process of communication.

9. Accuracy of interpersonal perception.

Bibliography

1. Andreeva, G.M. The place of interpersonal perception in the system of perceptual processes and features of its content [Text] / G.M. Andreeva//Interpersonal perception in the group. - M., 2007.

2. Asmolov, A.G. Activity and installation [Text] / A.G. Asmolov. – M.: MSU, 2005.

3. Bodalev, A.A. Perception and understanding of a person by a person [Text] / A.A. Bodalev.- M.: Pedagogy, 2005.

4. Zhukov, Yu.M. Problems of measuring the accuracy of interpersonal perception [Text] / Yu.M. Zhukov//Bulletin of Moscow University. Psychology. -2007. - No. 1.

5. Kelly, G. The process of causal attribution [Text] / G. Kelly / / Modern foreign psychology. Texts. - M., 2006.

6. Campbell, D.T. Social dispositions of the individual and their group functionality: an evolutionary aspect [Text] / D.T. Campbell// Psychological mechanisms of regulation of social behavior. - M.: Nauka, 2006. - S. 76-102.

7. Kolominsky, Ya.L. Psychology of interaction in small groups [Text] / Ya.L. Kolominsky. - Minsk.

9. Rezaev, A.V. Communication paradigms [Text] / A.V. Rezaev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005.

10. Kharash, A.U. Personality in communication [Text] / A.U. Kharash//Communication and optimization of modern activities. - M., 2006.

Similar information.

Content

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………	3
1. Visual diagnostics of temperament………………………………….	4
1.1. Temperament diagnostic theories…………………………………..	4
1.2. The main criteria for determining the type of temperament…………	6
1.3. Visual diagnostics of temperament type (psychomotor and emotional criteria)………………………………………………
2. Visual diagnostics of character accentuations……………………….	11
2.1. Theories of character diagnostics……………………………………….	11
2.1. The concept of character accentuation……………………………………...	13
2.2. Characteristics of behavioral features depending on the type of accentuation………………………………………………………………
3. Visual information in communication (psychosemiotic approach)…..	20
4. Methods of visual diagnostics in practical application……….	25
3.1. Graphology……………………………………………………………..	25
3.2. Physiognomy………………………………………………………….	26
3.3. “Sign Language”…………………………………………………………….	27
3.4. Diagnosis “for diseases”……………………………………………..	27
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………	29
List of used literature………………………………………..	30

Introduction

The identification of patterns of combination of individual traits of specific people has different strategies and results in scientific psychology. On the one hand, it is the totality, the set of his mental properties and qualities as separate elements that make up a certain class in total, that can be considered the individuality of a person.

The result of the classification of individuals will be a collection of different sets of individual traits, combined according to the laws of statistics and observed empirically with varying frequency. On the other hand, individuality is defined as a type - an integral structure within which each specific property and quality of a person receives a natural explanation. As a result of the construction of a typology, qualitatively unique types of individuals are distinguished, correlated with each other and fundamentally different from each other.

Methods for distinguishing classes or types of individuals also differ in the nature of the criteria used. These can be empirical criteria obtained from the analysis and generalization of specific experimental data. As a rule, empirical classification is inductive, by a regular transition from special cases to general ones. The deductive method of constructing a typology of individuals - from the general to the particular - involves the theoretical selection of its main fundamental features, differences, and then - the verification and justification of the resulting types on empirical material.

General approaches to the typology of individuality are determined by the main cognitive and practical tasks of its study.

As one of the methods for diagnosing types of temperament and character accentuation, visual diagnostics can be distinguished.

1. Visual diagnostics of temperament

1.1. Temperament diagnostic theories

Since ancient times, it has been noticed that people differ from each other in the dynamics of behavior. The fact of individual differences between people, attested by common sense, was first turned into the subject of scientific analysis by the great Greek scientist Hippocrates (4th century BC), who, under the influence of Empedocles' natural philosophy, showed that the main condition for the existence of an organism is the data in it in a certain proportion and the four fluids that feed it (humor). According to Hippocrates, the presence of these fluids in different proportions in the human body determines the difference between people in terms of the strength of their experiences.

Based humoral theory Hippocrates, depending on which of the fluids prevails in the body, four types of temperament were established: sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic and choleric. This classification of temperaments has not lost its strength to this day. There were researchers who pointed out the insufficiency of this classification, adding new types, noting the presence of other variants of these types, mixed forms, reducing the number of these types (Kretschmer), but no one doubted the existence of temperament types. Do not cause dispute and the main features of the anciently established temperaments - their phenomenological characteristics. The difference in opinions affected the issue of explaining, understanding temperaments, establishing their psychological and physiological mechanisms.

One number of scientists consider temperament to be an innate biological property of an organism - temperament is presented as a property of a separate biological process or an integral constitution of an organism, as a property that manifests itself in the experiences and behavior of an individual. Some researchers, who adhere to the biological point of view, consider the humoral system (Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen) to be the cause of individual differences, while others consider the peculiarity of blood circulation (Geller, Stahl, Lesgaft) or the metabolic process in the body (Fulier), the constitution (Gal, Virenice, Gales, De Giovanni, Seago, Kretschmer, Sheldon), neurological processes (Erisberg, Henle, Zeland), features of higher nervous activity (I.P. Pavlov and his school).

There are a number of concepts in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies . The typological model proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. The main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types:

Leptosomatic- characterized by a fragile physique, high stature, a flat chest; the shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin;

Picnic- a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck;

^ Athletic- a person with well-developed muscles, strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips;

Dysplastic- people with a shapeless, irregular structure; individuals of this type are characterized by various deformations of the physique (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates two main types of temperament, which he calls schizothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, little susceptible to changes in attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. The cyclothymic has a picnic physique, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

Kretschmer develops his theory of temperaments, separately highlighting the “special talents” inherent in full-fledged social variants of temperaments with a table. For example, a cyclothymic poet for him is a “realist, a humorist”, and a schizotimic one is rather a romantic, an artist of form. In a similar way he shares the characters of explorers and leaders.

The theory of E. Kretschmer was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated in the 40s of the last century, gained popularity.

In contrast to the biological point of view, psychological theories were put forward, according to which temperament is not an innate, biological property of the organism, which finds a corresponding expression in the world of human experiences, but an innate property of the soul itself, the psyche (Platner, Kant, Wundt, Gefting, Stern, etc. ). According to psychological theories, temperament is associated with the body, but this connection does not have any specific character. This connection does not fundamentally differ from the nature of the connection of other personality traits with the organism; the question of the relationship between the organism and temperament is one of the questions in general about the relationship between mental and physical.
^ 1.2. The main criteria for determining the type of temperament

The properties of temperament manifest themselves in the same way in a variety of activities and for a variety of purposes. For example, if a student is worried before passing a test, shows anxiety before a lesson at school during teaching practice, is in anxious anticipation of a start in sports competitions, this means that high anxiety is a property of his temperament. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. Various properties of temperament are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization, a structure that characterizes the type of temperament.

Psychomotor and emotional criteria for characterizing temperament types are determined by the following main properties.

sensitivity- the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and the rate of occurrence of this reaction (hypersensitivity). If for one person certain conditions of activity do not cause irritation, then for another they become a strong confusing factor. The same degree of non-satisfaction of needs by one person is hardly noticed, while another causes suffering. In this case, the second one has a higher sensitivity.

Reactivity- the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a threat, a sharp and unexpected sound).

Activity- the degree of activity (energy) with which a person acts on the outside world and overcomes obstacles in the implementation of the goal. This includes purposefulness and perseverance in achieving the goal, focusing on long-term work, etc.

The ratio of reactivity and activity is something on which human activity depends to a greater extent: on random external and internal circumstances (on mood, desire, random events) or on the goal, intentions, aspirations, beliefs of a person.

^ Rate of reaction- the speed of various mental reactions and processes: speed of movement, resourcefulness, speed of memorization, speed of mind.

Plastic rigidity. This is the ease and flexibility of a person's adaptation to external influences (plasticity) or the inertia and inertness of his behavior (rigidity).

extraversion and the opposite quality introversion. This is what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that have arisen at the moment (extroversion) or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introversion). Emotional excitability - how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction, and at what speed it occurs. It is expressed in emotional impressionability, impulsiveness, emotional mobility (the speed of changing emotional states, their beginning and ending).
^ 1.3. Visual diagnosis of temperament type (psychomotor and emotional criteria)

In the process of researching the four main types of temperament (according to Hippocrates), some properties common to each of the types were identified.

sanguine(based on a strong, balanced, mobile type of nervous system). What is characteristic of a sanguine person? First of all, his increased reactivity, which manifests itself in the fact that he responds vividly and with great excitement to everything that attracts their attention, is very impressionable. The sanguine person is also distinguished by increased activity - he shows great perseverance, energy. His activity and reactivity are balanced - he can easily restrain his reactions and manifestations of feelings. Feelings easily arise and change, emotional experiences are usually shallow. Facial expressions are rich, mobile, expressive. The reaction rate is quite high, which is manifested in fast movements, hopping gait, and a fast pace of speech. Sanguine is characterized by high plasticity of behavior and extroversion. He is inquisitive, cheerful, emotions arise easily, but they are not strong and deep, he quickly forgets insults, and is friendly.

Choleric(it is based on a strong, unbalanced - with a predominance of excitation - type of nervous system). The choleric, as well as the sanguine, is also characterized by high reactivity and activity, a fast pace of reaction. But reactivity prevails over activity. Therefore, he is so unrestrained and quick-tempered, easily loses his temper, impatient. He is less plastic and more rigid than the sanguine person, hence the greater stability and constancy of his interests. He is characterized by sharpness and swiftness of movements, strength, impulsiveness, vivid expression of emotional experiences. Choleric is taken with passion for any business, scary initiatives. In communication, he is quick-tempered, sharp, does not hold back emotions.

melancholic(based on a weak type of nervous system). Unlike other types of temperament, the melancholic has a high sensitivity, manifested in painful sensuality, in resentment. Low reactivity and reduced activity are manifested in the melancholic in the fact that he rarely laughs, is not confident in himself, often and easily gets lost, does not complete the work. Differs in a slow mental pace - his movements are sluggish, weak, he speaks slowly. He quickly gets tired of people and a new environment, feelings slowly arise, but are manifested by depth. These people are easily vulnerable, although outwardly they do not show it. Tactful, soft, shy. They are characterized by suspiciousness and pessimism.

Phlegmatic person(based on a strong, balanced, inert type of nervous system). It is characterized by a relatively low level of activity of behavior, new forms of which are developed slowly, but are persistent. It has slowness and calmness in actions, facial expressions and speech, evenness, constancy, depth of feelings and moods. This is manifested in the fact that it is difficult to make him laugh or anger. High activity significantly prevails over low reactivity, which determines patience, endurance, self-control. The mental pace is slow - the movements are unhurried, the gait is slow, it does not immediately answer questions. It is characterized by low plasticity and high rigidity. He is slow and calm, shows solidity in everything, inclined to order, but slowness interferes with the process of cognition, evades disputes. He has a stable mood, avoids quarrels. Failures and troubles do not piss him off.

In its pure form, temperaments are practically not found. Each person is dominated by the features of one temperament in the combination of the temperament of another. The above characteristics do not pretend to be categorical, since the division of the temperament of all people into four groups is very conditional. More broadly, one can only say that temperament determines mainly the course of a person’s mental life, the dynamics of mental activity. In this regard, basically, we can talk about the individual differences of people according to the properties of temperament.

One of the oldest, at the same time, methodologically most acute problems of characterology is the coverage of the dependencies that exist between character and temperament. Although even now there are attempts to reduce character to temperament, most scientists still believe that temperament is only the natural basis of character. Many studies have shown that if in early childhood a significant dependence of character on temperament makes itself felt, then later, with the development of personality, the relationship between them changes: character becomes increasingly important, transforming temperament, which now appears mainly only as an emotional- a dynamic form of existence and expression of the characterological relations of a person and makes itself felt, first of all, in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, features of expressive movements and actions, the speed of various personal manifestations, the flow of mental processes.

^ 2. Visual diagnostics of character accentuations

2.1. Theories of character diagnostics

Attempts to investigate character have been made since time immemorial. An independent doctrine of character was formed - characterology, which has a long history of its development. The most important problems of this doctrine for centuries have been the identification of character types and their determination by external manifestations in order to predict human behavior in various situations.

The typology of characters, as a rule, is based on the existence of certain typical features. Typical are traits and manifestations of character that are common and indicative for a certain group of people. Accordingly, the type of character should be understood as an expression in the individual character of traits common to a certain group of people.

Significant influence on the development of characterology was exerted by physiognomy - the doctrine of the relationship between the external appearance of a person and his belonging to a certain type of personality, due to which the psychological characteristics of this type can be established by external signs. Already Aristotle and Plato proposed to determine the character of a person, looking for features of similarity with some animal in his appearance, and then identified his character, as in the eastern horoscope, with the character of this animal. The most famous was the physiognomic system of Johann Kasper Lavater, who considered the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc. to be the main way of understanding the human character.

At present, American psychologists J. Glive and E. Clery are trying to substantiate these facts. They conducted many experiments, which, in their opinion, prove the huge influence of eye color on a person's character. For example, people with dark blue eyes are very persistent, but tend to be sentimental. They easily give in to mood, remember grievances for a long time, are capricious, sometimes their actions are unpredictable. People with dark gray eyes are stubborn and courageous, they are persistent and achieve their goal, despite various difficulties.

Palmistry has no less famous and rich history than the physiognomic trend in characterology. Palmistry is a system of predictions of a person's character traits and his fate according to the skin relief of the palms. Palmistry has been known since ancient times, but the greatest dawn falls on the 16th-18th centuries, when there were departments of palmistry in many universities in Europe.

Until recently, scientific psychology has consistently rejected palmistry, but the study of the embryonic development of finger patterns in connection with heredity gave a new impetus to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge - dermatoglyphics. In particular, it was shown that the formation of the pattern of the palms of each person, as well as the development of the brain, occurs at 3-4 months of intrauterine development and is due to the same influence of the gene set of the parents or chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus. Therefore, palmistry should be considered rather as an anatomical or physiological feature of the body, and it can be put on a par with the constitutional direction of characterology, of which E. Kretschmer was a prominent representative. Kretschmer considered character in connection with the structure of the body as the mental constitution of a person, corresponding to his bodily constitution, and explained character, ultimately, by innate, primarily endocrine factors.

More valuable in a diagnostic sense, one can consider graphology - a science that considers handwriting as a kind of expressive movements that reflect the psychological properties of the writer. Graphological information, accumulated over the centuries, established a connection between a series of facts - the features of handwriting and character.

The concept of "accentuation" was introduced into psychology by K. Leonhard. His concept of "accentuated personalities" was based on the assumption of the presence of basic and additional personality traits. There are much fewer main features, but they are the core of the personality, determine its development, adaptation and mental health. With a significant expression of the main features, they leave an imprint on the personality as a whole, and under adverse circumstances they can destroy the entire structure of the personality.
^ 2.1. The concept of character accentuation

The classification of characters, depending on belonging to an extraverted and introverted type, proposed by K. Jung, has become widespread. Extraversion - introversion is considered by modern psychology as a manifestation of temperament. The first type is characterized by the orientation of the personality to the surrounding world, the objects of which, like a magnet, attract the interests, vital energy of the subject, which in a certain sense leads to a belittling of the personal significance of the phenomena of his subjective world. Extroverts are characterized by impulsiveness, initiative, flexibility of behavior, sociability. Introverts are characterized by fixing the interests of the individual on the phenomena of their own inner world, uncommunicativeness, isolation, a tendency to introspection, difficult adaptation. It is also possible to divide into conformal and independent, dominant and subordinate, normative and anarchic and other types.

There are other classifications of character types. For example, a well-known typology of character is based on a person's attitude to life, society and moral values. Its author is E. Fromm, who called this classification a social typology of characters.

According to the famous German psychiatrist K. Leonhard, in 20 - 56% of people, some character traits are so pointed (accentuated) that under certain circumstances this leads to the same type of conflicts and nervous breakdowns.

Accentuation of character is an exaggerated development of individual character traits to the detriment of others, as a result of which interaction with other people worsens. The severity of accentuation can be different - from mild, noticeable only to the immediate environment, to extreme options, when you have to wonder if there is a disease - psychopathy.

Leonhard distinguishes 12 types of accentuation, each of which predetermines a person's selective resistance to one life's adversities, with increased sensitivity to others, to frequent conflicts of the same type, to certain nervous breakdowns. In favorable conditions, when it is precisely the weak links of the personality that do not fall under attack, such a person can become outstanding; for example, character accentuation according to the so-called exalted type can contribute to the flowering of the talent of an artist, an artist.

Later, the classification of characters based on the description of accentuations was proposed by A.E. Lichko. This classification is based on observations of adolescents. Accentuation of character according to Lichko is an excessive strengthening of individual character traits, in which deviations in human behavior that do not go beyond the norm, bordering on pathology, are observed. Accentuations such as temporary mental states are most often observed in adolescence and early adolescence.

Accentuations of character are often found in adolescents and young men (50 - 80%). You can determine the type of accentuation or its absence using special psychological tests, such as the Shmishek test. Often you have to deal with accentuated personalities and it is important to know and anticipate the specific features of people's behavior.

Since in the process of visual diagnostics the main attention is paid to motor skills (the specifics of movements) and emotional psychological processes (reaction to various situations), the behavior and communication features of the subject are one of the main parameters by which the accentuation of his character is determined.
^ 2.2. Characteristics of behavioral features depending on the type of accentuation

Hyperthymic (hyperactive) type.

Features of communication and behavior. Excessively high spirits, always cheerful, talkative, very energetic, independent, striving for leadership, risks of adventures, does not respond to comments, ignores punishments, loses the line of the unlawful, lacks self-criticism. It is necessary to be reserved about his unreasonable optimism and overestimation of his capabilities. Energy is sometimes directed to the use of alcohol, drugs, promiscuity.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Energy, thirst for activity, new, optimism.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Frivolity, a tendency to immoral acts, a frivolous attitude to duties, irritability in the circle of close people.

^ Dystymic type.

Features of communication and behavior. Constantly low mood, sadness, isolation, laconicism, pessimism, they are burdened by a noisy society, they do not closely converge with colleagues. They rarely enter into conflicts, more often they are a passive side in them. Appreciate those who are friends with them and tend to obey them.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Seriousness, high morality, conscientiousness, justice.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Passivity, pessimism, sadness, slowness of thinking, "separation from the team."

^ Cycloid type.

Features of communication and behavior. Sociability cycles (high when moody, low when depressed)

During a period of upsurge, they manifest themselves as people with hyperthymic accentuation, during a period of decline - with dysthymic accentuation. During the recession, they perceive troubles sharply, up to suicide. There are cases of manic depressive psychosis

^ Emotive (emotional) type.

Features of communication and behavior. Excessive sensitivity, vulnerability, deeply experiencing the slightest trouble, overly sensitive to comments, failures, so they often have a sad mood. They prefer a narrow circle of friends and relatives who understand perfectly. Rarely enter into conflicts, play a passive role in them. Grudges do not spill out.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Altruism, compassion, compassionate, rejoice in other people's successes. Executive, with a high sense of duty. Good families.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Extreme sensitivity tearfulness May provoke attacks by ill-mannered or irritable people.

^ Demonstrative type.

Features of communication and behavior. The desire to be in the spotlight and achieve their goals at any cost is expressed: tears, fainting, scandals, illnesses, bragging, outfits, an unusual hobby, lies. They easily forget about their unseemly deeds. Behavior depends on the person with whom it deals, high adaptability to people.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Courtesy, perseverance, focus, acting talent, the ability to captivate others, originality.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Selfishness, unbridled actions, deceit, boastfulness, shirking from work, a tendency to “get sick” at the most crucial and difficult moments. Tendency to intrigue, self-confidence and high claims. They provoke conflicts, while actively defending themselves.

^ Excitable type.

Features of communication and behavior. Increased irritability, intemperance, aggressiveness, sullenness, "boring", but flattery, helpfulness (as a disguise) are possible. A tendency to rudeness and obscene language or silence, slowness in conversation. They actively and often conflict, do not avoid quarrels with superiors, are quarrelsome in a team, are despotic and cruel in a family.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Outside of fits of anger - conscientiousness, accuracy, love for children.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Irritability, irascibility, inadequate outbursts of anger and rage with assault, cruelty; weakened control over attraction.

^ Stuck type.

Features of communication and behavior. He “gets stuck” on his feelings, thoughts, cannot forget insults, “settles scores”, official and domestic intractability, a tendency to protracted squabbles, in conflicts they are more often an active side, the circle of enemies and friends is clearly defined. Shows lust for power - "the tediousness of a moralist."

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. The desire to achieve high performance in any business, the manifestation of high demands on oneself, a thirst for justice, adherence to principles, strong stable views.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Resentment, suspicion, vindictiveness, ambition, arrogance, jealousy, a sense of justice inflated to fanaticism.
^ Pedantic type.

Features of communication and behavior. Pronounced boredom in the form of "experiencing" the details, in the service they can torture visitors with formal requirements, exhaust the household with excessive accuracy.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness, reliability in business and in feelings, even mood.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Formalism, "chicanery", "tediousness", the desire to shift the adoption of an important decision to others.

^ Anxious (psychasthenic) type.

Features of communication and behavior. Decreased mood background, fear for oneself, loved ones, timidity, self-doubt, extreme indecision, long experiencing failure, doubting one's actions. Rarely enters into conflicts, passive role.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Friendliness, self-criticism, diligence.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Fearfulness, suspiciousness, due to defenselessness, sometimes serve as a target for jokes, "scapegoats".

^ Exalted (labile) type.

Features of communication and behavior. Very changeable mood, emotions are pronounced, increased distractibility to external events, talkativeness, amorousness.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Altruism, a sense of compassion, artistic taste, artistic talent, brightness of feelings, attached to friends.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Excessive impressionability, pathos, alarmist susceptibility to despair.
^ Introverted (schizoid) type.

Features of communication and behavior. Low sociability, closed, aloof from everyone, communication out of necessity, immersed in himself, does not tell anything about himself, does not reveal his experiences, although increased vulnerability is characteristic. Restrainedly cold treats other people, even close ones. Behavior, logic are often incomprehensible to others. They love loneliness. They rarely enter into conflicts - when trying to invade their inner world. Choice in choosing a spouse, the search for an ideal. Emotional coldness - weak attachment to loved ones.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Restraint, degree, deliberation of actions, the presence of firm convictions, adherence to principles.

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. Stubbornly defending their unrealistic views. Everything has its own point of view, often sharply different from the opinion of the majority.

^ Extroverted (conformal) type.

Features of communication and behavior. High sociability, talkativeness to the point of talkativeness, has no opinion of his own, is not very independent, strives to be like everyone else, disorganized, prefers to obey. Accepts orders from superiors without hesitation. In society with friends and in the family, he concedes leadership to another.

Features that are attractive to interlocutors. Willingness to listen to the "confession" of another, diligence

Traits that are repulsive and conducive to conflict. "A man without a king in his head", susceptibility to other people's influence, thoughtlessness of actions, gullibility, passion for entertainment.

^ 3. Visual information in communication (psychosemiotic approach)

Since the beginning of the 70s of the last century, a new scientific direction has been actively developing in domestic psychological science, which arose on the basis of a cultural-historical concept (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, S.L. Rubinshtein) and received the name - psychosemiotic approach .

In domestic psychology, the concept of "sign" occupied a special place within the framework of the cultural and historical concept of the development of the human psyche (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria and A.N. Leontiev). As you know, it was L.S. Vygotsky considered signification (the creation and use of signs) to be the central difference between man and animals and assigned a special instrumental (instrumental) function to signs, calling the sign and the way it is used “determining” or “focus” of the entire process of the formation of the psyche, the main moment of its construction.

The psychosemiotic approach is a complex direction that combines the study of the processes of communication and human activity, taking into account the historical nature of the signs themselves used, acting as peculiar tools of human mental activity (I.M. Sechenov, L.S. Vygotsky), objectifying and materializing socio-historical experience and “imposing” processes, and therefore, to some extent predetermining the result of reflection (in the sense of aspect, completeness, depth, measure, generalization), the result of a person’s knowledge of objective reality (M.V. Gamezo, V.F. Rubakhin) , the level of development of human activity and communication, and, accordingly, their subject - personality, the development of the entire human psyche.

The allocation of the instrumental function of signs represents, first of all, the psychological aspect of the sign problem and inevitably leads to the need to raise and resolve the issue of the conditions and methods for implementing this function in relation not only to the processes of cognition, but also to human activity and his communication with others.

At the center of psychosemiotics lies the idea that signs are not only indicators of the internal (mental) content, but also ways of its development and formation. The object of psychosemiotics is the functioning of semiotic systems of natural or artificial genesis in the activity, cognition and communication of people. The subject of modern psychosemiotics is defined as "the process of emergence, development and differentiation of various systems connected by relations of representation, mutual reflection and mutual expression, taken in unity with its results, leading to the formation of a special semiotic reality" .

The triad "sign - meaning - meaning" occupies a central place in the process of human communication. The six main functions of a person as a subject of communication - communicative (providing interconnection), informational (mutual expression), cognitive (mutual knowledge), emotive (experiencing relationships), conative (mutual manifestation, management), creative (mutual influence, transformation) - are transformed into one main - regulatory , which at the instrumental level can explore the specifics of their implementation, depending on the nature of the sign means used.

The most general idea of ​​a sign is associated with the so-called Frege's triangle with vertices: sign, meaning (designatum), object (denotatum), the relationship between the sides of which was the subject of dispute both in philosophy and in semiotics and psychology. Central to psychology was the question of the mechanism of the relationship between sign and meaning. For example, from the standpoint of associative theories, a sign is simply associated with an object; according to the phenomenological theory, intention is the mechanism, and so on.

The psychological study of signs and sign systems, according to the division into three areas traditional for semiotics - pragmatics (the relationship of a sign to a person), semantics (the relationship of a sign and meaning) and syntax (the relationship between signs at an abstract level), - can be attributed to all three designated areas. . “Psychological problems are present everywhere - both in semantics and in the syntax of signs, as soon as they begin to be considered in the context of human activity and relationships, communication,” wrote M.V. Gamezo.

A sign is most often defined in semiotics as a material, sensually perceived object (phenomenon, action), acting in the process of cognition and communication as a representative (substitute) of another object or phenomenon and used to receive, store, transform and transmit information about this substitute object or phenomenon. With such a broad interpretation, the term is used in relation to any object (event, phenomenon) that carries information (message, information, knowledge) about something different from itself, and the sign system is considered as a material intermediary that serves to exchange information between two other material objects. systems.

The connection of a sign and sign systems with communication is dialectical: on the one hand, communication is a necessary condition for mastering signs and their systems, on the other hand, signs are specific tools (tools) of communication, without which its very existence is impossible. The activity of the subject is already expressed in the very individual set (thesaurus) of the signs used. Traditionally, a thesaurus is defined as "a stock of knowledge of one or a group of subjects, reflected in his mind as a system of concepts expressed in words" (K.K. Platonov, M.S. Mirimanova, etc.). The indicative function is possessed not only by the content, but also by the formal-dynamic and spatio-temporal parameters of each "language".

Features of the appearance and expression of a person can become "signs" that will be involved in the life of the individual. How does this happen? In our opinion, the signs of a person's external appearance function in communication indirectly by the activity of the subject himself, who chooses from those generated by the field of culture those signs that correspond to his Self-concept, correspond to the conditions of communication and the goals of his activity. In this regard, all semiotic manifestations of a person, voluntarily or involuntarily, are his self-affirmation.

Psychosemiotics of external appearance refers to the signs of "external characteristics of behavior and appearance of a person", "non-verbal behavior of a person", "body language". In other words, it studies all visual sign systems formed by semiotic manifestations of a person's external appearance and carrying information in communication.

Accordingly, visually perceived information about a person and from a person is transmitted by visual signs of three visual communication systems: habitus (physical appearance, anatomical features of the face, other parts of the body, constitution, etc.), costume (social design of appearance: clothes, shoes, jewelry, accessories , hairstyle, glasses, etc.), kinesics (any meaningful movements: facial expressions, gestures, gait, postures).

The subject of the psychosemiotic study of the external appearance of the subject of communication is the role and functions of visual signs in the everyday (ordinary) communication of people. In accordance with the traditions of studying communication in the mainstream of general and social psychology, visual psychosemiotics of communication explores sign systems of external appearance as a personal phenomenon, as a communicative tool and as a subject of social cognition. Thus, there is an integration of general psychological and socio-psychological research of communication, the need for which was pointed out by A.A. Bodalev, B.F. Lomov, A.V. Petrovsky and others.

Visual transmission and reception of information in communication is carried out with the help of signal-sign elements of three visually perceived semiotic systems of a person's external appearance: habitus, kinesics and costume. Visual-semiotic manifestations of the external appearance of a person are carriers of socially developed meanings (the “sign-society” analysis plane). Realizing the basic functions of communication, they become a multifunctional means of non-verbal communication.

The role of visual information in communication in relation to verbal information is ambiguous, it ranges from a dominant value to an insignificant nuance. Two types of correlation between speech and visual information can be distinguished: conjugated (the semantics of visual and verbal signs are interconnected) and non-conjugated (parallel) functioning. Visual signs can perform certain functions in relation to verbal information in communication: anticipatory manifestation of psychological content, semantic and more.

Visual signs of a person's appearance play a special role in communication and interpersonal cognition. They are an important means (tool) of non-verbal communication that implements affective-communicative, regulatory-communicative and informational-communicative functions, become the main sources of visual information about a person, indicators of his personality.
^ 4. Methods of visual diagnostics in practical application

To know your employee, business partner or competitor means to be able to anticipate his actions in a particular situation. However, without taking into account deep psychological (including psychophysiological and genetic parameters) characteristics, relying solely on professional and business information, it is almost impossible to achieve an effective prediction about human behavior. In other words, the personality factor can work in the most unexpected way, but still it is worth trying to minimize this risk, and best of all - to extract from it, if not profit, then at least benefit.

It's no secret that the world's leading firms prefer to compile detailed psychological dossiers on their business partners, competitors, and key professionals.
3.1. Graphology

Graphology, without being either officially recognized or rehabilitated in the former post-Soviet space, nevertheless, already in the 90s of the past century, began its “technological reincarnation”. In France, the birthplace of psychological handwriting, the position of a graphologist has state status, there is an extensive network of specialist training centers, which, however, somewhat bureaucratized this procedure. In Holland, Israel, and the USA, they rely more on the quality of a graphologist's work than on his official status. An error in diagnosis can be costly, and not only for the graphologist himself, but the possibilities of the method are really impressive, because you can learn a lot about a person from handwriting.

You cannot enumerate all the possibilities of graphology. It opens, like a surgical knife, or reveals, like a developer, carefully disguised symptoms and complexes of a person, exposing his true nature. What the individual himself may not even guess about.

According to the handwriting of individuals, it is quite easy to predict future interpersonal relationships in a group, team or personal life. In the same way, one can trace the changes of a person before and after any events, you never know what could turn over in the soul after the experience. It is also realistic to trace the reaction of the subject to a specific situation (for example, business negotiations) according to his minutes. According to the specifics of the spelling of some semantic words (company name, address to someone, promises or assurances, etc.), it is possible to decipher the actual attitude or real reaction of the writer to the facts indicated in the letter. Simply put, one can find out the truth about intentions and motives, which is the high class of any targeted business.
3.2. Physiognomy

Thanks to this method, we can determine the genetic characteristics of the individual, so to speak, his natural inclinations. So, a powerful jaw gives out a strong type of nervous system, but whether a person really took advantage of this quality in life will be shown by the physiognomic "assembly" of all elements. The one who really turned out to be a strong personality, among other things, chewing muscles (the so-called nodules) will clearly stand out, and the jaw itself will be pushed forward. A large mouth with a weak narrow jaw is a genetically provocative nonsense for a person: there is an irresistible desire to capture, but there is no way to keep and master the prey, i.e. appetite well does not correspond to the possibilities. But a small mouth indicates selectivity and even scrupulousness (sometimes it is perceived as capriciousness) in choosing an object of desire. But on the other hand, the “little short ones” will never miss their own (which from the outside may seem cunning). But developed full lips determine the so-called sensory type. Such people never make decisions without first feeling the situation (in Japanese management, this would be called “go and see for yourself”). And they do this with all the senses available to them.

Physiognomic analysis will not disregard any organ or segment of your face. Reading the genotype makes it possible to reveal hitherto hidden motivating impulses in human behavior, moreover, often not realized by the subject himself. In addition, it is possible to judge with greater certainty about his capabilities and inclinations.
^ 3.3. "Sign Language"

Gestures, unlike handwriting and facial features, are much easier to fake, i.e. depict what is needed at the moment. With the release of Alan Pease's book "Sign Language", this can be done on a reliable technological basis. Surrounding yourself with a platoon of image makers, you can eventually get into the "image" to its maximum plausibility. Gestures, posture, facial expressions are the oldest communication system of the human community, and its programming blocks are extremely firmly fixed in our subconscious (at the level of the so-called ancient cerebral cortex).

Of course, every people and nation has its own characteristics in the transfer of information and state of mind through gestures. However, the layer of social culture is always incommensurably thinner, in comparison with the powerful layer of the most ancient signal reflexes of communication.
^ 3.4. Diagnosis "for diseases"

Another method of diagnosis according to more reliable and prognostic criteria. These are our...diseases. Psychoanalysis of a person's character and his problems as a diagnostic method has become popular relatively recently, since the mid-80s of the past century. A medical record can tell too much about the real, not invented, essence of a person.

Today, there are several more types of so-called applied visual psychodiagnostics. This, for example, is the determination of personality traits by the manner of dressing, by name (or rather, psychophonology and psychonaming - the ways and manner of pronouncing names and names), and even by “our smaller brothers” - pets, which, according to many, are similar to their owners (or vice versa).

The bottom line is that mastering at least some of the methods of this specific branch of psychology helps both in business and simply in building relationships with others. After all, it is much easier to find a common language with a person, knowing something about him that sometimes he himself does not know!
Conclusion

In folk beliefs, legends, sayings, we often meet with the expression of the individual characteristics of a person in his appearance. People who are prone to fullness seem to be good-natured, but lazy, thin people are shrewd and sarcastic, the owners of fiery red hair are attributed to angry temper, etc.

Hippocrates was also engaged in the search for grounds for the classification of individuals. In addition to highlighting the types of temperament, he first tried to connect the constitutional features, the physique of people with their predisposition to certain diseases. On the basis of empirical comparisons, he showed that people of short stature, dense, prone to apoplexy, while people who are tall and thin are prone to tuberculosis. These two types of body structure are, of course, the most general, but it was their descriptions that laid the foundation for the constitutional approach to the analysis of individuality that is being developed in modern psychology and psychiatry.

There were also attempts to identify the dependence of the type of temperament and character on other physiological indicators - facial features and facial expressions (physiognomy), the pattern of lines on the fingers and palms (chiromancy and dermatoglyphics), handwriting features (graphology).

According to psychological theories, temperament is associated with the body, but this connection does not have any specific character.

Using the method of visual diagnostics, it is possible, according to psychomotor and emotional criteria, i.e. to the peculiarities of the movements and behavior of the diagnosed person, to preliminarily determine his type of temperament or character accentuation. With further detailed testing, this helps to obtain more accurate results, as well as to determine in advance the most appropriate testing methodology for a given individual.

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