0 generation of computers. Generations of computers. Fundamentals of computer science. according to operating conditions

Table - Main characteristics of computers of various generations

Over the course of 50 years, several generations of computers have appeared, replacing each other. The rapid development of VT throughout the world is determined only by advanced element base and architectural solutions.
Since a computer is a system consisting of hardware and software, it is natural to understand a generation as computer models characterized by the same technological and software solutions (element base, logical architecture, software). Meanwhile, in a number of cases it turns out to be very difficult to classify VT by generation, because the line between them becomes more and more blurred from generation to generation.
First generation.
Element base - electronic tubes and relays; RAM was performed on flip-flops, later on ferrite cores. Reliability - low, a cooling system was required; Computers had significant dimensions. Performance - 5 - 30 thousand arithmetic op/s; Programming - in computer codes (machine code), later autocodes and assemblers appeared. Programming was carried out by a narrow circle of mathematicians, physicists, and electronics engineers. First generation computers were used mainly for scientific and technical calculations.

Second generation.
Semiconductor element base. Reliability and performance are significantly increased, dimensions and power consumption are reduced. Development of input/output facilities and external memory. A number of progressive architectural solutions and further development of programming technology - time sharing mode and multiprogramming mode (combining the work of the central processor for data processing and input/output channels, as well as parallelization of operations for fetching commands and data from memory)
Within the second generation, the differentiation of computers into small, medium and large began to clearly appear. The scope of application of computers to solve problems - planning, economic, production process management, etc. - has expanded significantly.
Automated control systems (ACS) for enterprises, entire industries and technological processes (ACS) are being created. The end of the 50s is characterized by the emergence of a number of problem-oriented high-level programming languages ​​(HLP): FORTRAN, ALGOL-60, etc. Software development was achieved in the creation of libraries of standard programs in various programming languages ​​and for various purposes, monitors and dispatchers for controlling modes operation of a computer, planning its resources, which laid the foundation for the concepts of next-generation operating systems.

Third generation.
Element base on integrated circuits (IC). A series of computer models appear that are software compatible from the bottom up and have increasing capabilities from model to model. The logical architecture of computers and their peripheral equipment have become more complex, which has significantly expanded the functionality and computing capabilities. Operating systems (OS) become part of a computer. Many tasks of managing memory, input/output devices and other resources began to be taken over by the OS or directly by the computer hardware. Software is becoming powerful: database management systems (DBMS), design automation systems (CAD) for various purposes are appearing, automated control systems and process control systems are being improved. Much attention is paid to the creation of application program packages (APP) for various purposes.
Languages ​​and programming systems are developing. Examples: - series of IBM/360 models, USA, serial production - since 1964; -EU Computers, USSR and CMEA countries since 1972.
Fourth generation.
The element base is becoming large-scale (LSI) and ultra-large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Computers were already designed for the efficient use of software (for example, UNIX-like computers, best immersed in the UNIX software environment; Prolog machines focused on artificial intelligence tasks); modern nuclear power plants. Telecommunications information processing is rapidly developing by improving the quality of communication channels using satellite communications. National and transnational information and computer networks are being created, which make it possible to talk about the beginning of the computerization of human society as a whole.
Further intellectualization of computer technology is determined by the creation of more developed human-computer interfaces, knowledge bases, expert systems, parallel programming systems, etc.
The element base has made it possible to achieve great success in miniaturization, increasing the reliability and performance of computers. Micro- and mini-computers have appeared, surpassing the capabilities of medium-sized and large computers of the previous generation at a significantly lower cost. The production technology of VLSI-based processors accelerated the pace of computer production and made it possible to introduce computers to the broad masses of society. With the advent of a universal processor on a single chip (microprocessor Intel-4004, 1971), the era of the PC began.
The first PC can be considered the Altair-8800, created on the basis of the Intel-8080, in 1974. E.Roberts. P. Allen and W. Gates created a translator from the popular Basic language, significantly increasing the intelligence of the first PC (they later founded the famous company Microsoft Inc). The face of the 4th generation is largely determined by the creation of supercomputers characterized by high performance (average speed 50 - 130 megaflops. 1 megaflops = 1 million operations per second with floating point) and non-traditional architecture (the principle of parallelization based on pipelined processing of commands) . Supercomputers are used in solving problems of mathematical physics, cosmology and astronomy, modeling complex systems, etc. Since powerful computers play and will continue to play an important switching role in networks, network issues are often discussed together with questions on supercomputers. Among domestic developments, supercomputers -Computers can be called the Elbrus series machines, the PS-2000 and PS-3000 computer systems, containing up to 64 processors controlled by a common command stream; performance on a number of tasks was achieved on the order of 200 megaflops. At the same time, given the complexity of the development and implementation of modern super-computer projects, which require intensive fundamental research in the field of computer science, electronic technologies, high production standards, and serious financial costs, it seems very unlikely that domestic super-computers will be created in the foreseeable future, according to the main characteristics not inferior to the best foreign models.
It should be noted that with the transition to IP technology for computer production, the defining emphasis of generations is increasingly shifting from the element base to other indicators: logical architecture, software, user interface, application areas, etc.
Fifth generation.

There are 4 main generations of computers.

Generations:

Computer on el. lamps, performance is about 20,000 operations per second, each machine has its own programming language (BESM, Strela).

In 1960ᴦ. Transistors invented in 1948 were used in computers; they were more reliable, durable, and had a large RAM memory. 1 transistor can replace approximately 40 el. lamps and works at a higher speed. Magnetic tapes (Minsk-2, Ural-14) were used as information storage media.

In 1964ᴦ. The first integrated circuits (ICs) appeared and became widespread. An IC is a crystal with an area of ​​10 mm 2. 1 IC can replace 1000 transistors. 1 crystal - 30-ton "Eniak". It became possible to process several programs in parallel.

For the first time, large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) were used, which roughly corresponded in power to 1000 ICs. This has led to a reduction in the cost of producing computers. In 1980ᴦ. It turned out that it was possible to place the central processor of a small computer on a crystal with an area of ​​\u200b\u200b1/4 inch (Illiac, Elbrus).

Synthesizer, sounds, ability to conduct dialogue, carry out commands given by voice or touch.

Differences between third generation computers and previous ones

In third-generation computers, a significant improvement in hardware is noticeable, thanks to the use of integrated circuits (ICs), which contributed to a reduction in size, energy consumption, increased speed, reliability, etc.

The main difference between such computers and computers of the first and second generations is a completely new organization of the computing process.

III generation computers are capable of processing both digital and alphanumeric information. The ability to operate on texts opens up great opportunities for the exchange of information between a person and a computer.

Also the creation of various means of input/output of information. A striking example of this is the method of entering information using regular telephone communications, teletype, or a light pencil. And the output is carried out not only to punched cards, as it was before, but also directly to the monitor screen, telephone communication channels, printers (for making hard copies).

In connection with the use of text, it is possible to bring the introductory language closer to human language, making it more accessible to a wide range of users. The ability to solve several problems on a computer in parallel. The third generation computer has external memory on magnetic disks. Wide range of applications.

Typical representatives of generation III machines are ES computers and IBM-360. Οʜᴎ have the following features: the use of integrated circuits, aggregation, byte representation of information, the use of binary and decimal arithmetic, representation of numbers in floating and fixed point form, software compatibility, reliability, multi-system.

Features of ES computers.

ES computers are a whole family of machines that are built on a single element base, a single design basis, with a single software system, and the same set of peripheral equipment. Their production began in 1970, and the industrial production of such machines began in 1972ᴦ.

All ES computers are software compatible with each other and are designed to solve the most complex and voluminous problems. These machines can be classified as universal, multi-program machines, with the ability to process several tasks in parallel.

Many models have a single logical structure and operating principle. At the same time, different models differ from each other in speed, configuration, memory size, etc.

Since the ES computer system is constantly developing, all characteristics are constantly improving, these machines can be divided into 2 families. The first family of models (Series-1) includes machines such as ES-1010, ES-1020, ES-1021, ES-1030, ES-1040, ES-1050, ES-1060. This family also includes modified samples (Ryad-1M): EC-1012, EC-1022, EC-1033, EC-1052. More advanced machines: ES-1015, ES-1025, ES-1035, ES-1045, ES-1055 can be combined into row-2, and modernized ones (Row-2M): ES-1036, ES-1066, etc.
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ES computer devices are also divided into central and peripheral. Central are devices that determine the main technical characteristics of the machine, these are the central processor, RAM, multiplex and selector channels. Peripheral devices include external devices (ED), data preparation devices (DPD), and service devices.

To store large amounts of information, magnetic tape and magnetic disk drives are used. Input devices are designed to perceive externally input information, convert it into electrical code signals and transmit it to a multiplex channel via an input-output interface.

Output devices translate the signal output from the machine back and output it to punched cards (punched tapes) or to other external devices.

Display - a device for input/output of alphanumeric and graphic information onto a cathode ray tube. It is very convenient for quickly changing data directly while solving a problem.

Remote control panels are designed to connect the user with a computer when they are separated by hundreds of meters.

There are 3 groups of ES computer data preparation devices: punched card, punched tape and magnetic tape. Controllers in the computer monitor the correctness of recording information on punched cards.

There are two modes of operation of UTD on magnetic tape: recording data and printing read data.

Service devices are needed to monitor technical equipment, set them up, test and repair them.

The performance of ES computer hardware is constantly improving: performance, memory capacity, etc. are increasing. This is happening in particular due to the transition to microcircuits with a higher level of integration (LSI). But this already applies to IV generation machines.

Generations of computers: from tube “monsters” to integrated circuits

A little more than 50 years have passed since the first electronic computer appeared. During this short period for the development of society, several generations of computers have changed, and the first computers today are a museum rarity. The very history of the development of computer technology is of considerable interest, showing the close relationship of mathematics with physics (primarily solid state physics, semiconductors, electronics) and modern technology, the level of development of which is largely determined by progress in the production of computer technology.

In our country, electronic computers are usually divided into generations. Computer technology is characterized, first of all, by the rapid change of generations - during its short history of development, four generations have already changed, and now we are working on fifth-generation computers. What is the defining feature when classifying a computer as a particular generation? This is, first of all, their elemental base (from which elements they are mainly built), and such important characteristics as speed, memory capacity, methods of managing and processing information. Of course, dividing computers into generations is to a certain extent arbitrary. There are many models that, according to some characteristics, belong to one generation, and according to others, to another generation. And yet, despite this convention, computer generations can be considered qualitative leaps in the development of electronic computing technology.

There are 4 generations of computers

First generation of computers (1948-1958)

The elemental base of machines of this generation were electronic tubes - diodes and triodes. The machines were intended to solve relatively simple scientific and technical problems. This generation of computers includes: MESM, BESM-1, M-1, M-2, M-3, "Strela", "Minisk-1", "Ural-1", "Ural-2", M-20 , "Setun", BESM-2, "Hrazdan". They were of considerable size, consumed a lot of power, had poor operating reliability and weak software. Their speed did not exceed 2-3 thousand operations per second, the RAM capacity was 2K or 2048 machine words (1K-1024) with a length of 48 binary characters. In 1958ᴦ. the M-20 machine appeared with 4K memory and a speed of about 20 thousand operations per second. In the first generation machines, the basic logical principles of constructing electronic computers and the concepts of John von Neumann regarding the operation of computers using a program entered into memory and initial data (numbers) were implemented.

This period marked the beginning of the commercial use of electronic computers for data processing.

The computers of this time used vacuum tubes and external memory on a drum.

Οʜᴎ were entangled in wires and had an access time of 1 x 10 s. Production systems and compilers have not yet appeared. At the end of this period, memory devices based on magnetic cores began to be produced. At the end of this period, memory devices based on magnetic cores began to be produced. The reliability of computers of this generation was extremely low.

Second generation of computers (1959-1967)

The elemental base of machines of this generation were semiconductor devices. The machines were intended to solve various labor-intensive scientific and technical problems, as well as to control technological processes in production. The appearance of semiconductor elements in electronic circuits significantly increased the capacity of RAM, the reliability and speed of computers. Dimensions, weight and power consumption have decreased.

With the advent of second-generation machines, the scope of use of electronic computer technology has expanded significantly, mainly due to the development of software. Specialized machines also appeared, for example, computers for solving economic problems, for managing production processes, information transmission systems, etc. Second-generation computers include:

M-40, -50 computers for missile defense systems;

Ural -11, -14, -16-general purpose computers, focused on solving engineering, technical and economic planning problems;

Minsk-2, -12, -14 for solving engineering, scientific and design problems of a mathematical and logical nature;

Minsk-22 is designed to solve scientific, technical and economic planning problems;

BESM-3-4, -6 general-purpose machines aimed at solving complex problems of science and technology;

M-20, -220, -222 general purpose machine, focused on solving complex mathematical problems;

MIR-1 is a small electronic digital computer designed to solve a wide range of engineering and mathematical problems,

- "Nairi" is a general purpose machine designed to solve a wide range of engineering, scientific and technical,

as well as some types of economic planning and accounting and statistical tasks;

Ruta-110 general purpose mini computer;

and a number of other computers.

The BESM-4, M-220, M-222 computers had a speed of about 20-30 thousand operations per second and RAM - 8K, 16K and 32K, respectively. Among the machines of the second generation, BESM-6 stands out, with a speed of about a million operations per second and RAM from 32K to 128K (in most machines of the Computer Generation: from tube “monsters” to integrated microcircuits, two memory segments of 32K each are used).

This period is characterized by the widespread use of transistors and improved memory circuits on hearts. Much attention began to be paid to the creation of system software, capillaries and input/output facilities. At the end of this period, universal and quite effective capillaries for Cobol, Fortan and other languages ​​appeared.

An access time of 1x10-6 s had already been achieved, although most of the elements of the computer were still connected by wires.

Computers of this period were successfully used in areas related to processing sets of data and solving problems that usually required routine operations in factories, institutions and banks.

These computers worked on the principle of batch data processing. Essentially, this replicated manual data processing methods. The new possibilities provided by computers were practically not used.

It was during this period that the profession of computer science specialist arose, and many universities began to provide educational opportunities in this field.

Third generation of computers (1968-1973)

The elemental base of a computer is small integrated circuits (MIS). The machines were intended for wide use in various fields of science and technology (calculations, production management, moving objects, etc.)

Thanks to integrated circuits, it was possible to significantly improve the technical and operational characteristics of computers.

For example, third-generation machines, compared to second-generation machines, have a larger amount of RAM, increased performance, increased reliability, and reduced power consumption, occupied space and weight.

In the USSR in the 70s, automated control systems were further developed. The foundations of a state and interstate data processing system covering CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) member countries are laid. Universal computers of the third generation EC are being developed, compatible both with each other (medium and high-performance machines EC computers) and with foreign computers of the third generation (IBM-360, etc. - USA). Specialists from the USSR and the People's Republic are taking part in the development of EC computers Bulgaria (NRB),

the Hungarian People's Republic (HPR), the Polish People's Republic (PPR), the Czechoslovak Soviet Socialist Republic (CSSR) and the German Democratic Republic (GDR). At the same time, multiprocessor and quasi-analog computers are being created in the USSR, and mini-computers “Mir-31”, “Mir-32”, “Nairi-34” are being produced.

To control technological processes, computers of the ASVT M-6000 and M-7000 series are created (developed by V.P. Ryazanov and others). Desktop mini-computers based on integrated circuits M-180, "Electronics-79, -100, -125" are developed and produced ,-200", "Electronics DZ-28", "Electronics NTs-60", etc.

The third generation machines included "Dnepr-2", Unified System computers (ES-1010, ES-1020, ES-1030, ES-1040, ES-1050, ES-1060 and several of their intermediate modifications - ES-1021, etc. ), MIR-2, Nairi-2 and a number of others.

A characteristic feature of this period was a sharp decline in hardware prices. This was achieved mainly through the use of integrated circuits. Conventional electrical connections using wires were built into the chip. This made it possible to obtain a time value of up to 2x10-9s. During this period, user-friendly workstations appeared on the market, which, by being networked, greatly simplified the ability to obtain the short access times usually inherent in large machines.

Further progress in the development of computer technology was associated with the development of semiconductor memory, liquid crystal screens and electronic memory. At the end of this period there was a commercial breakthrough in microelectronic technology.

The increased productivity of computers and the newly emerging multi-machine systems made it possible in principle to implement such new tasks, which were quite complex and often led to insoluble problems in their software implementation. They started talking about a “software crisis.”

Then effective software development methods appeared. The creation of new software products was now increasingly based on planning methods and special programming methods.

This period is associated with the rapid development of real-time computers. A tendency has emerged according to which, in control tasks, along with large computers, there is also a place for the use of small machines. Thus, it turned out that a mini computer copes exceptionally well with the functions of controlling complex industrial installations, where a large computer often fails.

Complex control systems are divided into subsystems, each of which uses its own minicomputer. A large real-time computer is assigned planning (monitoring) tasks in a hierarchical system in order to coordinate the control of subsystems and process central data about the object.

Software for small computers was at first very basic, but by 1968 it was. The first commercial real-time operating systems appeared, along with high-level programming languages ​​and cross-systems specially developed for them. All this ensured the availability of small machines for a wide range of applications. Today it is hardly possible to find an industry in which these machines are not successfully used in some form. Their functions in production are very diverse; Thus, simple process control systems can be specified. It should be emphasized that the control computer is now increasingly intruding into the data area, where it is used to solve commercial problems.

Mini computers began to be used to solve engineering problems related to design. The first experiments were carried out to show the effectiveness of using computers as design tools.

Fourth generation of computers (1974-1982)

The elemental base of a computer is large integrated circuits (LSI). The machines were intended to dramatically increase labor productivity in science, production, management, healthcare, service and everyday life. A high degree of integration helps to increase the packaging density of electronic equipment and improve its reliability, which leads to an increase in computer performance and a reduction in its cost. All this has a significant impact on the logical structure (architecture) of the computer and its software.

The connection between the structure of the machine and its software becomes closer, especially the operating system (or monitor) - a set of programs that organize the continuous operation of the machine without human intervention.

This generation includes EC computers: ES-1015, -1025, -1035, -1045, -1055, -1065 (“Row 2”), -1036, -1046, -1066, SM-1420, -1600,- 1700, all personal computers ("Electronics MS0501", "Electronics-85", "Iskra-226", ES-1840, -1841, -1842, etc.), as well as other types and modifications. The fourth generation computer also includes the Elbrus multiprocessor computing complex. "Elbrus-1KB" had a speed of up to 5.5 million floating point operations per second, and a RAM capacity of up to 64 MB. Elbrus-2 has a performance of up to 120 million operations per second, a RAM capacity of up to 144 MB or 16 MSwords (72-bit word), and a maximum throughput of I/O channels of 120 MB/s.

Lesson No. 3: Topic: Block diagram of a computer. Computer architecture external and internal

To familiarize students with the main PC devices, their purposes and functions.

The architecture of a computer is a representation of it at some general level, including a description of user capabilities. The architecture defines the principles, actions, information connections and mutual connection of the basic logical nodes of a computer: processor, random access memory (RAM), external storage devices and peripheral devices. The structure of a computer is the totality of its functional elements and the connections between them. Elements come in a wide variety of devices - from basic computer logic units to simple circuits.

Von Neumann's principles (architecture)

The basis for constructing a large computer position follows the general principle formulated in 1945ᴦ. American scientist John He Neumann.

1. Program control principle. It follows from it that the program consists of a set of commands that are executed by the processor automatically one after another in a certain sequence.

A program is retrieved from memory using a program counter. This processor register sequentially increases the address of the next instruction stored in it by the instruction length, since the program instructions are located in memory one after another, thereby organizing the selection of a chain of instructions from a sequential arrangement of memory cells.

If, after filling out a command, you should move not to the next one, but to some other one, we use conditional and unconditional jump commands (branching), which enter the number of the memory cell containing the next command into the command counter.

2. The principle of homogeneous memory. Programs and data are stored in the same memory. For this reason, the computer does not distinguish between what is stored in one memory cell: a number, text, or a command.

3. The principle of targeting. Structure - main memory consists of renumbered cells.

Hence it follows that it is possible to give names to memory areas, so that the values ​​filled in them can be subsequently accessed or changed during program execution using the assigned names.

Logical series (units) of a computer, the simplest type of architecture

The central unit (CU) represents the main component of the computer and, in turn, includes the central processing unit (CPU) and RAM.

The processor directly implements the operations of information processing and control of the computing process, which retrieves machine instructions and data from operating memory and writes to operating memory, turning on and off internal devices.

The main blocks of the processor are:

Control device from an interface processor (system for interfacing and communicating the processor with other machine components);

Arithmetic-logical devices;

Processor memory (internal, cache);

RAM is designed for temporary storage of data and programs during computational and logical operations.

The central device describes the following characteristics:

Length of the machine word (bit depth, addressability);

Command system, RAM capacity;

Performance (processor clock speed, RAM write/read cycle).

External devices - ensure the efficiency of interaction between the computer and the environment: users, control objects, and other objects. External devices are divided into the following groups:

Interactive input/output devices;

Storage devices (mass storage);

Mass input devices;

Mass output devices

External mainframe computers. External devices include printer terminals and other devices.

On communication channels.

Computer device

Typically, IBM PC personal computers consist of three parts (blocks):

System unit;

A keyboard that allows you to enter characters into a computer;

Monitor (or display) - for displaying text and graphic information.

Computers are also available in a portable version - usually in a “notepad” (laptop) version.

Here the system unit, monitor and keyboard are enclosed in one case: the system unit is hidden under the keyboard, and the monitor is made as a cover for the keyboard.

System unit. He is the “master” of the computer. It contains all the main components of the computer:

Electronic circuits that control the operation of a computer (microprocessor, RAM, device controllers, etc.);

A power supply that converts mains power into low-voltage direct current that is supplied to the computer's electronic circuits;

Drives (or drives) for floppy magnetic disks, and used for reading and writing to floppy disks (floppy disks);

A hard magnetic disk drive designed for reading and writing to a non-removable hard magnetic disk (hard drive);

Other devices.

Additional devices. You can connect various input-output devices to the system unit of an IBM PC computer, thereby expanding its functionality.

External devices. Many devices are located outside the computer system unit and are connected to it through special sockets (connectors), usually located on the rear wall of the system unit. Such devices are usually called external. The cut of the monitor and keyboard, such devices are:

Printer - for printing text and graphic information;

A mouse is a device that facilitates entering information into a computer;

Joystick manipulator in the form of a handle with a button mounted on a hinge, used mainly for computer games;

As well as other devices.

Internal devices. Some devices can be inserted inside the computer system unit (for this reason they are often called internal), for example:

Modem or fax modem - for exchanging information with other computers through the telephone network (a fax modem can also receive and receive faxes);

CD drive, it provides the ability to read data from computer CDs and play audio CDs;

Streamer - for storing data on magnetic tape;

Sound card - for playing and recording sounds (music, voice, etc.).

However, modems, fax modems, streamers, CD drives and other devices can also be produced in external versions. As a rule, internal devices are cheaper; they do not require a housing and do not need to be equipped with their own power supply.

Controllers and devices. To control the operation of devices in IBM PC-shared computers, electronic circuits - controllers - are used. Different devices use different ways to connect to controllers:

Some devices (floppy disk drive, keyboard, etc.) are connected to standard controllers included in the computer;

Some devices (sound cards, many fax modems, etc.) are designed as electronic boards, that is, they are mounted on the same board with their controller;

The remaining devices use the following connection method: an electronic board (controller) is inserted into the computer system unit, which controls the operation of the device, and the device itself is connected

cable to this board.

Practical work No. 1

IBM PC keyboard. Safety precautions

Safety precautions:

Students working on computers are required to:

1. perform only the work assigned by the teacher;

2. work only with that equipment that is extremely important for performing tasks;

3. work at a distance of at least 50cm. from the screen;

5. handle equipment with care;

6. Stop working immediately if an unusual sound appears or the equipment spontaneously turns off.

Students working on a computer are prohibited from:

1. be indoors in outerwear;

2. work in wet clothes and wet hands;

3. use the keyboard if there is no voltage connected;

4. turn power and equipment on and off;

5. move computer equipment and devices;

6. touch the back of the keyboard and monitor;

7. put books and notebooks on the keyboard and monitor;

8. troubleshoot problems yourself;

9. get up from your workplace when visitors enter the office.

Generations of computers - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Computer Generations" 2017, 2018.

Introduction

1. First generation of computers 1950-1960s

2. Second generation of computers: 1960-1970s

3. Third generation of computers: 1970-1980s

4. Fourth generation of computers: 1980-1990s

5. Fifth generation of computers: 1990-present

Conclusion

Introduction

Since 1950, every 7-10 years the design-technological and software-algorithmic principles of constructing and using computers have been radically updated. In this regard, it is legitimate to talk about generations of computers. Conventionally, each generation can be given 10 years.

Computers have come a long evolutionary way in terms of the element base (from lamps to microprocessors) as well as in the sense of the emergence of new capabilities, expanding the scope and nature of their use.

The division of computers into generations is a very conditional, loose classification of computing systems according to the degree of development of hardware and software, as well as methods of communication with the computer.

The first generation of computers includes machines created at the turn of the 50s: vacuum tubes were used in the circuits. There were few commands, the controls were simple, and the RAM capacity and performance indicators were low. Performance is about 10-20 thousand operations per second. Printing devices, magnetic tapes, punched cards and punched paper tapes were used for input and output.

The second generation of computers includes those machines that were designed in 1955-65. They used both vacuum tubes and transistors. RAM was built on magnetic cores. At this time, magnetic drums and the first magnetic disks appeared. So-called high-level languages ​​have appeared, the means of which allow the description of the entire sequence of calculations in a visual, easily understandable form. A large set of library programs has appeared for solving various mathematical problems. Second-generation machines were characterized by software incompatibility, which made it difficult to organize large information systems, so in the mid-60s there was a transition to the creation of computers that were software compatible and built on a microelectronic technological base.

Third generation of computers. These are machines created after the 60s that have a single architecture, i.e. software compatible. Multiprogramming capabilities have appeared, i.e. simultaneous execution of several programs. Third generation computers used integrated circuits.

Fourth generation of computers. This is the current generation of computers developed after 1970. 4th generation machines were designed to effectively use modern high-level languages ​​and simplify the programming process for the end user.

In terms of hardware, they are characterized by the use of large integrated circuits as an elemental base and the presence of high-speed random access storage devices with a capacity of several MB.

4th generation machines are multi-processor, multi-machine complexes running on external power. memory and general field ext. devices. Performance reaches tens of millions of operations per second, memory - several million words.

The transition to the fifth generation of computers has already begun. It consists in a qualitative transition from data processing to knowledge processing and in improving the basic parameters of a computer. The main emphasis will be on "intelligence".

To date, the actual "intelligence" demonstrated by the most complex neural networks is below the level of an earthworm, however, no matter how limited the capabilities of neural networks are today, many revolutionary discoveries may be just around the corner.

1. First generation of computers 1950-1960s

Logic circuits were created using discrete radio components and electronic vacuum tubes with a filament. Random access memory devices used magnetic drums, acoustic ultrasonic mercury and electromagnetic delay lines, and cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Drives on magnetic tapes, punched cards, punched tapes and plug-in switches were used as external storage devices.

The programming of this generation of computers was carried out in the binary number system in machine language, that is, the programs were strictly focused on a specific model of the machine and “died” along with these models.

In the mid-1950s, machine-oriented languages ​​such as symbolic coding languages ​​(SCLs) appeared, which made it possible to use their abbreviated verbal (letter) notation and decimal numbers instead of binary notation of commands and addresses. In 1956, the first high-level programming language for mathematical problems was created - the Fortran language, and in 1958 - the universal programming language Algol.

Computers, starting from UNIVAC and ending with BESM-2 and the first computer models "Minsk" and "Ural", belong to the first generation of computers.

2. Second generation of computers: 1960-1970s

Logic circuits were built on discrete semiconductor and magnetic elements (diodes, bipolar transistors, toroidal ferrite microtransformers). Printed circuit circuits (boards made of foil getinax) were used as a design and technological basis. The block principle of machine design has become widely used, which allows you to connect a large number of different external devices to the main devices, which provides greater flexibility in the use of computers. Clock frequencies of electronic circuits have increased to hundreds of kilohertz.

External drives on hard magnetic disks1 and floppy disks began to be used - an intermediate level of memory between magnetic tape drives and RAM.

In 1964, the first computer monitor appeared - the IBM 2250. It was a monochrome display with a 12 x 12 inch screen and a resolution of 1024 x 1024 pixels. It had a frame rate of 40 Hz.

Control systems created on the basis of computers demanded higher performance from computers, and most importantly, reliability. Error detection and correction codes and built-in control circuits have become widely used in computers.

In second-generation machines, batch processing and teleprocessing modes of information were implemented for the first time.

The first computer that partially used semiconductor devices instead of vacuum tubes was the SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) machine, created in 1951.

In the early 60s, semiconductor machines began to be produced in the USSR.

3. Third generation of computers: 1970-1980s

In 1958, Robert Noyce invented the small silicon integrated circuit, which could house dozens of transistors in a small area. These circuits later became known as Small Scale Integrated circuits (SSI). And already in the late 60s, integrated circuits began to be used in computers.

The logic circuits of 3rd generation computers were already entirely built on small integrated circuits. Clock frequencies of electronic circuits have increased to several megahertz. The supply voltage (units of volts) and the power consumed by the machine have decreased. The reliability and performance of computers have increased significantly.

Random access memories used smaller ferrite cores, ferrite plates, and magnetic films with a rectangular hysteresis loop. Disk drives have become widely used as external storage devices.

Two more levels of storage devices have appeared: ultra-random access memory devices on trigger registers, which have enormous speed but small capacity (tens of numbers), and high-speed cache memory.

Since the widespread use of integrated circuits in computers, technological progress in computing can be observed using the well-known Moore's law. One of the founders of Intel, Gordon Moore, discovered a law in 1965 according to which the number of transistors in one chip doubles every 1.5 years.

Due to the significant complexity of both the hardware and logical structure of 3rd generation computers, they often began to be called systems.

Thus, the first computers of this generation were models of IBM systems (a number of IBM 360 models) and PDP (PDP 1). In the Soviet Union, in collaboration with the countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, East Germany, etc.), models of the Unified System (EU) and the system of small computers (SM) began to be produced.

In third-generation computers, significant attention is paid to reducing the complexity of programming, the efficiency of program execution in machines, and improving communication between the operator and the machine. This is ensured by powerful operating systems, advanced programming automation, efficient program interruption systems, time-sharing operating modes, real-time operating modes, multi-program operating modes and new interactive communication modes. An effective video terminal device for communication between the operator and the machine has also appeared - a video monitor, or display.

Much attention is paid to increasing the reliability and reliability of computer operation and facilitating their maintenance. Reliability and reliability are ensured by the widespread use of codes with automatic error detection and correction (Hamming correction codes and cyclic codes).

The modular organization of computers and the modular construction of their operating systems have created ample opportunities for changing the configuration of computer systems. In this regard, a new concept of “architecture” of a computing system has emerged, which defines the logical organization of this system from the point of view of the user and programmer.

4. Fourth generation of computers: 1980-1990s

A revolutionary event in the development of computer technology of the third generation of machines was the creation of large and very large integrated circuits (Large Scale Integration - LSI and Very Large Scale Integration - VLSI), a microprocessor (1969) and a personal computer. Since 1980, almost all computers began to be created on the basis of microprocessors. The most popular computer has become a personal computer.

Electronic computer types in our country are divided into several generations. The defining features when assigning devices to a certain generation are their elements and varieties of such important characteristics as performance, memory capacity, methods of managing and processing information. The division of computers is conditional - there are a considerable number of models that, according to some characteristics, belong to one type, and according to others - to another type of generation. As a result, these types of computers may belong to different stages of the development of electronic computing technology.

First generation of computers

The development of computers is divided into several periods. The generation of devices of each period differs from each other in their element bases and mathematical type support.

1st generation of computers (1945-1954) - electronic computers using electronic lamps (similar ones were in the first models of televisions). This time can be called the era of the formation of such technology.

Most of the machines of the first type of generation were called experimental types of devices, which were created with the aim of testing one or another of the theories. The size and weight of computer units, which often required separate buildings, have long become the stuff of legend. Numbers were entered into the first machines using punched cards, and software control of function sequences was carried out, for example, in ENIAC, as in calculating-analytical machines, using plugs and typesetting fields. Despite the fact that such a programming method required a lot of time in order to prepare the machine, for connections on the typesetting fields (patchboard) of blocks, it provided every opportunity to implement the counting “abilities” of ENIAC, and with great benefit had differences from the software method punched tape, which is typical for relay-type devices.

How did these units work?

The employees who were assigned to this machine were constantly near it and monitored the performance of the vacuum tubes. But as soon as at least one lamp burned out, ENIAC immediately rose, and troubles ensued: everyone was in a hurry to search for the burnt out lamp. The main reason (maybe not the exact reason) for the very frequent replacement of lamps was the following: the heat and glow of the lamps attracted moths, they flew inside the car and contributed to the occurrence of a short circuit. Thus, the 1st generation of computers was extremely vulnerable to external conditions.

If the above is true, then the term “bugs,” which refers to errors in the software and hardware of computer equipment, is gaining a new meaning. Once all the tubes were in working order, the engineering staff could customize the ENIAC for any task by manually changing the connections of the 6,000 wires. All wires had to be switched again if a different type of task was required.

The very first production cars

The first commercially produced computer of the first generation was the UNIVAC computer (Universal Automatic Computer). The developers of this computer were: John Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert. It was the first type of general purpose electronic digital computer. UNIVAC, whose development work began in 1946 and ended in 1951, had an addition time of 120 μs, a multiplication time of 1800 μs, and a division time of 3600 μs.

These machines occupied a lot of space, used a lot of electricity and consisted of a huge number of electronic lamps. For example, the Strela machine had 6,400 such lamps and 60 thousand pieces of semiconductor type diodes. The performance of this generation of computers did not exceed 2-3 thousand operations per second, the volume of RAM was no more than 2 KB. Only the M-2 machine (1958) had 4 KB of RAM, and its speed was 20 thousand operations per second.

Second generation computers - significant differences

In 1948, theoretical physicists John Bardeen and William Shockley, together with leading experimentalist at Bell Telephone Laboratories Walter Brattain, created the first working transistor. It was a point-contact type device, in which three metal “antennae” were in contact with a block of polycrystalline material. Thus, generations of computers began to improve already at that distant time.

The first types of computers that operated on the basis of transistors mark their appearance in the late 1950s, and by the mid-1960s external types of devices with more compact functions were created.

Architecture Features

One of the amazing abilities of the transistor is that it alone can carry out the work of 40 electronic type lamps, and even in this case have a high operating speed, generate a minimal amount of heat, and practically do not consume electrical resources and energy. Along with the process of replacing electric lamps with transistors, methods for storing information have improved. There was an increase in memory capacity, and magnetic tape, which was first used in the first generation UNIVAC computer, began to be used for both input and output of information.

In the mid-1960s, disk storage was used. Enormous types of advances in computer architecture have made it possible to achieve rapid actions of a million operations per second! For example, transistor computers of the 2nd generation of computers include “Stretch” (England), “Atlas” (USA). At that time, the Soviet Union also produced devices that were not inferior to the above-mentioned devices (for example, BESM-6).

The creation of computers, which are built with the help of transistors, has led to a reduction in their dimensions, weights, energy costs and prices, and also increased reliability and productivity. This contributed to expanding the range of users and the range of tasks to be solved. Taking into account the improved characteristics that the 2nd generation of computers had, developers began to create algorithmic types of languages ​​for engineering (for example, ALGOL, FORTRAN) and economic (for example, COBOL) types of calculations.

OS value

But even at these stages, the main task of programming technologies was to ensure resource savings - computer time and memory. To solve this problem, they began to create prototypes of modern operating systems (complexes of utility-type programs that provide good distribution of computer resources when executing user tasks).

Types of the first operating systems (OS) contributed to the automation of the work of computer operators, which is associated with the execution of user tasks: entering program texts into the device, calling the necessary translators, calling the library subroutines required for the program, calling the linker to place these subroutines and programs of the main type in the computer memory , entering data of the original type, etc.

Now, in addition to the program and data, it was also necessary to enter instructions into the second generation computer, which contained a list of processing stages and a list of information about the program and its authors. After this, a certain number of tasks for users began to be entered into the devices simultaneously (packages with tasks); in these types of operating systems, it was necessary to distribute the types of computer resources between these types of tasks - a multiprogram mode for data processing arose (for example, while the results of the task of one type, calculations are made for another, and data for a third type of problem can be entered into memory). Thus, the 2nd generation of computers went down in history with the appearance of streamlined operating systems.

Third generation of cars

Through the development of integrated circuit (IC) production technology, it has been possible to achieve increases in the speed and reliability levels of semiconductor circuits, as well as a reduction in their size, power consumption and cost. Integrated types of microcircuits consist of dozens of electronic elements, which are assembled in rectangular silicon wafers, and have a side length of no more than 1 cm. This type of wafer (crystals) is placed in a plastic case of small dimensions, the dimensions of which can only be determined using the number of “legs” "(terminals from the input and output of electronic circuits created on chips).

Thanks to these circumstances, the history of the development of computers (computer generations) made a big breakthrough. This made it possible not only to improve the quality of work and reduce the cost of universal devices, but also to create machines of a small-sized, simple, cheap and reliable type - mini-computers. Such units were initially intended to replace hardware-implemented controllers in control loops of any objects, in automated process control systems of a technological type, experimental data collection and processing systems, various control complexes at mobile objects, etc.

The main point at that time was considered to be the unification of machines with design and technological parameters. The third generation of computers begins releasing its own series or families of compatible model types. Further leaps in the development of mathematical and software contribute to the creation of package-type programs for solvability of standard problems, problem-oriented program language (for solvability of problems of certain categories). This is how software systems were created for the first time - types of operating systems (developed by IBM), on which the third generation of computers runs.

Fourth generation cars

The successful development of electronic devices led to the creation of large integrated circuits (LSI), where one crystal had a couple of tens of thousands of electrical-type elements. This contributed to the emergence of new generations of computers, the elemental base of which had a large amount of memory and short cycles for executing commands: the use of memory bytes in one machine operation began to decrease sharply. But, since there were practically no reductions in programming costs, the tasks of saving human resources, rather than machine ones, were put to the fore.

New types of operating systems were created that allowed programmers to debug their programs directly behind the computer displays (in dialog mode), and this helped to facilitate the work of users and speed up the development of new software. This point was completely contrary to the concepts of the initial stages of information technology, which used first-generation computers: “the processor performs only that amount of data processing work that people fundamentally cannot perform - mass counting.” A different type of trend began to emerge: “Everything that can be done by machines, they must do; “People do only that part of the work that cannot be automated.”

In 1971, a large integrated circuit was manufactured, which completely housed the processor of an electronic computer of simple architectures. The possibilities have become real for placing in one large integrated circuit (on one chip) almost all electronic devices that are not complex in the computer architecture, that is, the possibility of serial production of simple devices at affordable prices (not taking into account the cost of external devices). This is how the 4th generation of computers was created.

Many cheap (pocket keyboard computers) and control devices have appeared, which are equipped on one or several large integrated circuits containing processors, memory capacity and a system of connections with executive-type sensors in control objects.

Programs that controlled the supply of fuel to car engines, the movements of electronic toys or specified modes of washing clothes were installed in the computer memory either during the manufacture of similar types of controllers, or directly at enterprises that produce cars, toys, washing machines, etc.

Throughout the 1970s, the production of universal computing systems began, which consisted of a processor, memory capacity, and interface circuits with an input-output device, located in a single large integrated circuit (single-chip computers) or in some large integrated circuits installed on a single printed circuit board. (single board units). As a result, when the 4th generation of computers became widespread, the situation that arose in the 1960s was repeated, when the first mini-computers took over part of the work in large universal electronic computers.

Characteristic properties of fourth generation computers

1. Multiprocessor mode.
2. Processing of parallel-sequential type.
3. High-level types of languages.
4. The emergence of the first computer networks.

Technical characteristics of these devices

1. Average signal delays 0.7 ns/v.
2. The main type of memory is semiconductor. The time it takes to generate data from this type of memory is 100-150 ns. Capacities - 1012-1013 characters.
3. Application of hardware implementation of operating systems.
4. Modular constructions have also begun to be used for software-type tools.

The personal computer was first created in April 1976 by Steve Jobs, an employee of Atari, and Stephen Wozniak, an employee of Hewlett-Packard. Based on integrated 8-bit electronic game controllers, they created the simplest Apple gaming computer programmed in BASIC, which was a huge success. At the beginning of 1977, Apple Comp. was registered, and from that time the production of the world's first personal computers, Apple, began. The history of the computer generation marks this event as the most important.

Currently, Apple is producing Macintosh personal computers, which in most respects are superior to IBM PC computers.

PC in Russia

In our country, IBM PC types of computers are mainly used. This point is explained by the following reasons:

1. Until the early 90s, the United States did not allow the supply of advanced information technologies, which included powerful Macintosh computers, to the Soviet Union.
2. Macintosh devices were much more expensive than IBM PCs (they are now about the same price).
3. A large number of application-type programs have been developed for the IBM PC, which makes them easier to use in a variety of areas.

Fifth type of computer generation

In the late 1980s, the history of the development of computers (computer generations) marked a new stage - machines of the fifth type of generation appeared. The emergence of these devices is associated with the transition to microprocessors. From the point of view of structural constructions, maximum decentralization of management is characteristic, speaking about software and mathematical support - transitions to work in the software sphere and the shell.

Performance of the fifth generation of computers - 10 8 -10 9 operations per second. This type of units is characterized by a multiprocessor structure, which is created on simplified types of microprocessors, of which a plurality is used (decisive field or environment). Electronic computer types are being developed that are focused on high-level types of languages.

During this period, two opposing functions exist and are used: personification and collectivization of resources (collective access to the network).

Due to the type of operating system that ensures ease of communication with fifth-generation electronic computers, a huge database of applied programs from various fields of human activity, as well as low prices, computers become an indispensable accessory for engineers, researchers, economists, doctors, agronomists, teachers, editors, secretaries and even children.

Development today

One can only dream about the sixth and newer generations of computer development. This includes neurocomputers (types of computers that are created based on neural networks). They cannot yet exist independently, but are actively simulated on modern computers.

Novruzlu Elnura 10 a

1. Electronic computer (computer)

2.

2.1. Icomputer generation

2.2. IIcomputer generation

2.3. IIIcomputer generation

2.4. IV computer generation

2.5. V computer generation

3. Computer generation (table)

List of used literature

1. GENERATION COMPUTER

Download:

Preview:

MBOU Astrakhan secondary school No. 52

ABSTRACT on the topic:

"ELECTRONIC COMPUTING MACHINE"

Prepared

10th grade student

Novruzlu Elnura

Checked by a computer science and ICT teacher

Komissarova I.M.

Astrakhan, 2013

Page

1. Electronic computer (computer) 3
2. Electronic stage of computer technology development

1. I generation computer 3
2. II generation computers 4-5
3. III generation of computers 5-7
4. IV generation of computers 7-8
5. V generation computers 8-10

1. Computer generation (table) 11
2. References 12

1. ELECTRONIC COMPUTING MACHINE (COMPUTER)

An electronic computer (computer) is a high-speed computer that solves mathematical and logical problems with great accuracy when performing several tens of thousands of operations per second. The technical basis of a computer is electronic circuits. A computer has a storage device (memory) designed to receive, store and output information, an arithmetic device for operations on numbers, and a control device. Each machine has a specific command system.

1. ELECTRONIC STAGE OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

1. I generation of computers

It is generally accepted that the first generation of computers appeared during the Second World War after 1943, although the first working representative should be considered the V-1 (Z1) machine of Konrad Zuse, demonstrated to friends and relatives in 1938. It was the first electronic (built on homemade analogues of relays) machine, capricious to use and unreliable in calculations. In May 1941, in Berlin, Zuse presented the Z3 car, which caused delight among specialists. Despite a number of shortcomings, it was the first computer that, under different circumstances, could have been a commercial success. However, the first computers are considered to be the English Colossus (1943) and the American ENIAC (1945). ENIAC was the first vacuum tube computer.

Character traits

• Element base –electron vacuum tubes.
• Connection of elements –wire mounted installation.
• Dimensions – The computer is made in the form of huge cabinets.
• Performance –10-20 thousand operations per second.
• Operation is difficult due to frequent failure of vacuum tubes.
• Programming – machine codes.
• RAM – up to 2 KB.
• Data input and output usingpunched cards, punched tape.

1. II generation of computers

The second generation of computers is the transition to a transistor element base, the emergence of the first mini-computers. The principle of autonomy is further developed - it is already implemented at the level of individual devices, which is expressed in their modular structure. I/O devices are equipped with their own control units (called controllers), which made it possible to free the central control unit from managing I/O operations. Improvement and reduction in the cost of computers led to a decrease in the specific cost of computer time and computing resources in the total cost of an automated solution to a data processing problem, while at the same time the costs of program development (i.e. programming) almost did not decrease, and in some cases tended to increase . Thus, there was a trend towards effective programming, which began to be realized in the second generation of computers and is being developed to the present day. The development begins on the basis of libraries of standard programs for integrated systems that have the property of portability, i.e. functioning on computers of different brands. The most frequently used software tools are allocated in the software for solving problems of a certain class. The technology for executing programs on a computer is being improved: special software tools are being created - system software. The purpose of creating system software is to speed up and simplify the processor's transition from one task to another. The first batch processing systems appeared, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor. Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs designed to manage the computing process. During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A collection of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package. This element is still alive: the so-called MS DOS batch (or command) files are nothing more than packages of tasks (the extension in their name bat is an abbreviation for the English word batch, which means package). Second-generation domestic computers include Promin, Minsk, Hrazdan, and Mir.

Character traits

• Element base –semiconductor elements (transistors).
• Connection of elements –printed circuit boards and surface mounting.
• Dimensions – .
• Performance –100-500 thousand operations per second.
• Exploitation - computing centerswith a special staff of service personnel, a new specialty appeared - computer operator.
• Programming –in algorithmic languages, the emergence of OS.
• RAM - 2 – 32 KB.
• Introduced time sharing principle.
• Introduced microprogram control principle.
• Flaw - software incompatibility.

1. III generation of computers

The development in the 60s of integrated circuits - entire devices and assemblies of tens and hundreds of transistors made on a single semiconductor crystal (what are now called microcircuits) led to the creation of 3rd generation computers. At the same time, semiconductor memory appeared, which is still used in personal computers as operational memory. The use of integrated circuits has greatly increased the capabilities of computers. Now the central processor has the ability to work in parallel and control numerous peripheral devices. Computers could simultaneously process several programs (the principle of multiprogramming). As a result of the implementation of the multiprogramming principle, it became possible to work in time-sharing mode in an interactive mode. Users remote from the computer were given the opportunity, independently of each other, to quickly interact with the machine. During these years, computer production acquired an industrial scale. IBM, which had become a leader, was the first to implement a family of computers - a series of computers that were fully compatible with each other, from the smallest, the size of a small closet (they had never made anything smaller then), to the most powerful and expensive models. The most common in those years was the System/360 family from IBM. Starting with the 3rd generation computers, the development of serial computers has become traditional. Although machines of the same series were very different from each other in capabilities and performance, they were informationally, software and hardware compatible. For example, the CMEA countries produced computers of a single series (“ES EVM”) “ES-1022”, “ES-1030”, “ES-1033”, “ES-1046”, “ES-1061”, “ES-1066” etc. The performance of these machines reached from 500 thousand to 2 million operations per second, the amount of RAM reached from 8 MB to 192 MB. Computers of this generation also include “IVM-370”, “Electronics - 100/25”, “Electronics - 79”, “SM-3”, “SM-4”, etc. For the computer series, the software (operating systems, high-level programming languages, application programs, etc.). The low quality of electronic components was the weak point of third-generation Soviet computers. Hence the constant lag behind Western developments in terms of speed, weight and dimensions, but, as the SM developers insist, not in functionality. In order to compensate for this lag, special processors were developed that made it possible to build high-performance systems for specific tasks. Equipped with a special Fourier transform processor, SM-4, for example, was used for radar mapping of Venus. Back in the early 60s, the first minicomputers appeared - small, low-power computers affordable for small firms or laboratories. Minicomputers represented the first step towards personal computers, prototypes of which were released only in the mid-70s. The well-known family of PDP minicomputers from Digital Equipment served as the prototype for the Soviet SM series of machines. Meanwhile, the number of elements and connections between them that fit in one microcircuit was constantly growing, and in the 70s, integrated circuits already contained thousands of transistors. This made it possible to combine most of the computer components into a single small part - which is what Intel did in 1971, releasing the first microprocessor, which was intended for desktop calculators that had just appeared. This invention was destined to create a real revolution in the next decade - after all, the microprocessor is the heart and soul of the modern personal computer. But that’s not all - truly, the turn of the 60s and 70s was a fateful time. In 1969, the first global computer network was born - the embryo of what we now call the Internet. And in the same 1969, the Unix operating system and the C programming language appeared simultaneously, which had a huge impact on the software world and still maintains its leading position.

Character traits

• Element base –integrated circuits.
• Connection of elements – printed circuit boards .
• Dimensions – The computer is made in the form of identical racks.
• Performance –1-10 mil. operations per second.
• Exploitation - computer centers, display classes, a new specialty - systems programmer.
• Programming –algorithmic languages, OS.
• RAM - 64 KB.
• Applicable principle of time sharing, principle of modularity, principle of microprogram control, principle of trunking.
• Appearance magnetic disks, displays, plotters.

1. IV generation of computers

Unfortunately, starting from the mid-1970s, the orderly picture of generational change has been disrupted. There are fewer and fewer fundamental innovations in computer science. Progress is proceeding mainly along the path of developing what has already been invented and invented - primarily through increasing power and miniaturization of the element base and the computers themselves. The period since 1975 is generally considered to be the fourth generation of computers. Their elemental base was large integrated circuits (LSI. Up to 100 thousand elements are integrated in one crystal). The speed of these machines was tens of millions of operations per second, and the RAM reached hundreds of MB. Microprocessors (1971 by Intel), microcomputers and personal computers appeared. It became possible to communally use the power of different machines (connecting machines into a single computing node and working with time sharing). However, there is another opinion - many believe that the achievements of the period 1975-1985. not large enough to be considered an equal generation. Proponents of this point of view call this decade belonging to the “third and a half” generation of computers. And only since 1985, when super-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI) appeared. The crystal of such a circuit can accommodate up to 10 million elements. The years of life of the fourth generation itself, which is still alive today, should be counted.

1st direction - the creation of supercomputers - complexes of multiprocessor machines. The speed of such machines reaches several billion operations per second. They are capable of processing huge amounts of information. This includes the complexes ILLIAS-4, CRAY, CYBER, Elbrus-1, Elbrus-2, etc. Multiprocessor computing complexes (MCC) Elbrus-2 were actively used in the Soviet Union in areas requiring a large volume of calculations, before everything in the defense industry. Elbrus-2 computer systems were operated at the Space Flight Control Center and at nuclear research centers. Finally, it was the Elbrus-2 complexes that have been used in the missile defense system and at other military facilities since 1991.

2nd direction - further development on the basis of LSI and VLSI microcomputers and personal computers (PC). The first representatives of these machines are Apple, IBM - PC (XT, AT, PS /2), Iskra, Elektronika, Mazovia, Agat, ES-1840, ES-1841, etc. Starting from this generation, computers began to be called computers everywhere. And the word “computerization” has firmly entered our everyday life. Thanks to the emergence and development of personal computers (PCs), computing technology is becoming truly widespread and accessible to the public. A paradoxical situation arises: despite the fact that personal and minicomputers still lag behind large machines in all respects, the lion's share of innovations - graphical user interfaces, new peripheral devices, global networks - owe their appearance and development to precisely this “frivolous” technology. Large computers and supercomputers, of course, have not died out and continue to develop. But now they no longer dominate the computer arena as they once did.

Character traits

• Element base –large integrated circuits (LSI).
• Connection of elements – printed circuit boards .
• Dimensions – compact computers, laptops.
• Performance –10-100 million operations per second.
• Exploitation - multiprocessor and multi-machine systems, any computer users.
• Programming –databases and data banks.
• RAM - 2-5 MB.
• Telecommunication data processing, integration into computer networks.

1. V generation of computers

The fifth generation computer is the computer of the future. The development program for the so-called fifth generation of computers was adopted in Japan in 1982. It was assumed that by 1991 fundamentally new computers would be created, focused on solving problems of artificial intelligence. With the help of the Prolog language and innovations in computer design, it was planned to come close to solving one of the main problems of this branch of computer science - the problem of storing and processing knowledge. In short, for fifth-generation computers there would be no need to write programs, but it would be enough to explain in “almost natural” language what is required of them. It is assumed that their elemental base will not be VLSI, but devices created on their basis with elements of artificial intelligence. To increase memory and speed, advances in optoelectronics and bioprocessors will be used. The fifth generation computers are posed with completely different tasks than during the development of all previous computers. If the developers of computers from the 1st to 4th generations were faced with such tasks as increasing productivity in the field of numerical calculations, achieving large memory capacity, then the main task of the developers of the 5th generation computers is the creation of artificial intelligence of the machine (the ability to draw logical conclusions from the presented facts), the development of “ intellectualization" of computers - eliminating the barrier between man and computer.

Unfortunately, the Japanese fifth-generation computer project repeated the tragic fate of early research in the field of artificial intelligence. More than 50 billion yen of investment were wasted, the project was discontinued, and the developed devices turned out to be no higher in performance than mass-produced systems of that time. However, the research conducted during the project and the experience gained in knowledge representation and parallel inference methods have greatly helped progress in the field of artificial intelligence systems in general. Already now, computers are able to perceive information from handwritten or printed text, from forms, from the human voice, recognize the user by voice, and translate from one language to another. This allows all users to communicate with computers, even those who do not have special knowledge in this area. Many of the advances that artificial intelligence has made are being used in industry and the business world. Expert systems and neural networks are effectively used for classification tasks (SPAM filtering, text categorization, etc.). Genetic algorithms conscientiously serve humans (used, for example, to optimize portfolios in investment activities), robotics (industry, production, everyday life - everywhere it has put its cybernetic hand), as well as multi-agent systems. Other areas of artificial intelligence are also not asleep, for example, distributed knowledge representation and problem solving on the Internet: thanks to them, in the next few years we can expect a revolution in a number of areas of human activity.

Software

Examples of computers

since 1946

Electric lamp

10-20 thousand operations in 1 s.

2 KB

Punched tapes

Punch cards

Machine codes

UNIVAC, MESM, BESM, STRELA

since 1955

Transistor

100-1000 thousand operations in 1 s.

2 – 32 KB

Magnetic tape, magnetic drums

Algorithmic languages, operating systems

"Tradis"

M-20

IBM-701

BESM-6

since 1966

Integrated Circuit (IC)

1-10 million operations in 1 s.

64 KB

Multi-terminal systems

OS

EC-1030

IBM-360

BESM-6

since 1975

Large scale integrated circuit (LSI)

1-100 million operations in 1 s.

1-64 KB

PC networks

Databases and data banks

IBM-386

IBM-486

Cornet

UKSC

since the 90s of the 20th century.

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI)

More than 100 million operations in 1 second.

Optical and laser devices

Expert systems

4. LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. http://evm-story.narod.ru/#P0

1. http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/EVM