Phylogenetic aspect (or phylogeny of thinking) involves the study of how human thinking developed and improved in the history of mankind. IN phylogenythinking and speech, a pre-speech phase in the development of intelligence and a pre-intellectual phase in the development of speech clearly emerges.
Sociogenesis V psychology- origin and development consciousness, personalities, interpersonal relationships, due to the features socialization in different cultures and socio-economic formations.
In psychology ontogenesis- formation of the basic structures of the individual’s psyche during his childhood; the study of ontogenesis is the main task of child psychology.
By stage of development in ontogenesis:
Visual-effective thinking(the first genetic stage of development of mental activity. The child directly perceives an object and performs practical actions with it);
Visual-figurative thinking(the second genetic stage of thinking. The search for the unknown is carried out through the identification of hidden connections, properties and possible transformations of the elements of the image of an object);
Verbal and logical thinking(A person operates with concepts and logical constructs that function on the basis of language).
44. Thinking and intelligence
Intelligence - with the totality of human mental abilities ensuring the success of his cognitive activity. In a broad sense, this term refers to the totality of all cognitive functions of the individual(perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in a narrow sense - his mental abilities1. In psychology there is a concept of the structure of intelligence, however, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on
Thinking and intelligence are terms that are similar in content. Their relationship becomes even clearer if we switch to everyday speech. In this case, the word “mind” will correspond to intelligence. We say “smart person”, denoting individual characteristics of intelligence. We can also say that “the child’s mind develops with age” - this conveys the problem of intellectual development. We can associate the term “thinking” with the word “deliberation.” The word “mind” expresses a property, an ability, and “deliberation” expresses a process. Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. A person endowed with intelligence is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think, and thinking is the process of realizing intelligence.
In psychology there is a concept structures of intelligence , however, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a particular psychologist. For example, a famous scientist R. Cattell distinguished two sides in the structure of intelligence: dynamic - “fluid” (fluid) and static - “crystallized” (crystallized). According to his concept, “fluid intelligence” manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It depends more on the person's genotype. “Crystallized intelligence” is more dependent on the social environment and manifests itself when solving problems that require relevant skills and experience.
You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:
ability to learn (quickly master new knowledge, skills and abilities);
the ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;
ability to solve practical problems and problem situations;
the amount of available long-term and working memory.
Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain area; tests that evaluate a person’s intellectual development in connection with his biological age; tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special tests. For example, on abstract-logical or spatial thinking, on verbal intelligence, etc.
The most well-known tests of this type include:
Stanford-Binet test- assesses the child’s intellectual development;
Wechsler test- assesses the verbal and non-verbal components of intelligence;
Raven's test- non-verbal intelligence;
Eysenck test (IQ)- determines the general level of intelligence development.
The driving mechanism of rational cognition is thinking. This is not a stimulus to action, not fuel, not a steering device, but the most important thing in a car is its engine, i.e. the most important part of the car.
Depending on the goals and objectives, theoretical preferences and vocabulary, scientists give very different definitions of thinking: for some it is the process of modeling non-random relations of the surrounding world on the basis of axiomatic provisions, for others it is an active, purposeful, indirect, generalized and abstract reflection of essential properties and relations of the outside world, and at the same time the process of creating new ideas. But one thing is certain: thinking is a process of cognitive activity of an individual, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality.
Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. It allows one to obtain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition.
One of the most common in psychology is the classification of types of thinking depending on the content of the problem being solved. Here they distinguish between objective-active, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking. The peculiarities of objective-effective thinking are manifested in the fact that problems are solved with the help of a real, physical transformation of the situation. Visual-figurative thinking is associated with operating with images. This type of thinking is spoken of when a person, solving a problem, analyzes, compares, generalizes various images, ideas about phenomena and objects. Verbal-logical thinking functions on the basis of linguistic means and represents the latest stage in the historical development of thinking. It is characterized by the use of concepts and logical constructions.
Thinking generalizes, identifies the general in the individual, the repeating in the unique, and the generic in the individual. Thinking behind the external reveals the internal, behind the phenomena - the essence. It abstracts, distracts, brings into the system, restores order, builds hierarchies and ranks. Thinking seeks law where chance reigns.
The forms of logical thinking are concept, judgment, inference. The concept reflects the general principles and properties of objects. This is a component of thought that distinguishes from a certain subject area and generalizes objects by indicating their common and distinctive feature. Judgment is a connection of concepts with the help of which dependencies between things are reflected. An inference is a connection between several propositions. Concepts can be subject to various operations - division, generalization, limitation, etc.
The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow are the subject of study of psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling certain mental functions.
Thinking is often replaced by another word - “intelligence” (from the Latin intellectus - mind, reason, reason, ability of thinking, rational cognition), which is given no fewer definitions than thinking - only in psychology there are several dozen interpretations of intelligence, depending on theoretical approach. Thus, according to the structural-genetic approach of J. Piaget, intelligence is interpreted as the highest way of balancing the subject with the environment, characterized by universality. According to the cognitivist approach, intelligence is a set of cognitive operations, and in the factor-analytic approach, stable factors are found based on a variety of test indicators (C. Spearman, L. Thurstone, H. Eysenck, S. Barth, D. Wexler, F. Vernon).
A Norwegian scientist has been conducting an experiment for many years. During lectures that he gives in different countries, he asks the audience to complete a simple task - draw a map of Europe. As a result, he is the owner of several thousand of these maps, none of which is similar to the other, but all together resemble real geographical Europe. It turned out that each nation has its own Europe, and even its outlines are perceived differently by everyone.
The Norwegian scientist, naturally, was largely concerned with the question of how Europeans perceived his native land. This is where the difference was especially noticeable. If Norwegian students drew a huge ledge hanging over a very modest territory, and the British Isles, for example, were often forgotten, then other Europeans, carefully drawing out the states of continental Europe, sometimes completely omitted those lands called the Scandinavian Peninsula - as not playing a big role. roles in real Europe.
The properties and capabilities of the intellect seem limitless to many, hence the inconsistency in defining its nature and functions. On the one hand, intelligence is a system of mental processes that ensure the implementation of a person’s ability to assess a situation, make a decision and regulate one’s behavior in accordance with this, on the other hand, the ability to cognition and logical thinking. On the one hand, intelligence is possessed by someone who is able to identify the main thing in a familiar problem, analyze it, breaking it down into its component parts, and find ways to solve the problem; on the other hand, intelligence is especially important in non-standard situations - as a symbol of a person’s learning everything new.
In psychology, there is the concept of general intelligence and its two substructures: verbal and nonverbal. General intelligence is understood as a complex integral quality, a certain synthesis of mental properties that together ensure the success of any activity. Verbal intelligence is an integral education, the functioning of which is carried out in a verbal-logical form, relying primarily on knowledge. Nonverbal intelligence is an integral education, the functioning of which is associated with the development of visual and effective thinking based on visual images and spatial representations.
The structure of intelligence depends on a number of factors: age, level of education, specifics, professional activity and individual characteristics. For example, D. Wexler introduced the concept of “age norm”. The subject received a test score based on a comparison of his results with the average results of the age group to which he belonged.
A British man decided to become the smartest person in the world. In his opinion, to do this it is enough to read the entire Encyclopedia Britannica. Esquire magazine editor Alexander Jacobs decided to try to read the Encyclopedia Britannica from cover to cover. He had already progressed to the letter "K", reading a hundred pages a day. Meanwhile, he does not yet know what the meaning of life is; the letter “C” is still far away. Upon completion of his titanic work, Jacobs wants to write an autobiography entitled “The Smartest Man in the World.”
It should be remembered that intelligence is cognition plus action. Therefore, you should not only develop all types of intelligence, but also be able to implement rational decisions, show your intelligence not only in words, but also in deeds, since only the result, specific actions determine the level of intelligence of an individual.
Thinking or cognition has many forms: daydreaming, problem solving and searching for causes. Thinking is the process of mental processing of information. In essence, thinking is an internal representation (mental expression, modeling) of a problem or situation. For this, the main components of thinking are used: images, concepts, language and symbols. An image is a mental representation enclosed in a picture; Concepts are a generalized idea representing a class of related objects or events united by a word; Language – words or symbols and the rules for combining them that are used for thinking and communication.
Complex thinking includes all three components, but it also includes many other components: attention, recognition, memory, decision making, intuition, knowledge, imagination, will, etc.
Thinking- the highest mental process of reflection in consciousness of the general properties of objects and phenomena, contributing to the generation of new knowledge on the basis of subjective reflection and making it possible for a person to transform reality.
Images are associated with thinking through imagination - the mental process of creating new images based on previously perceived ones. 97% of people produce visual images in their minds and 92% auditory images. Over 50% can imagine movement, touch, smell, pain. When we talk about imagery, we usually think of mental “pictures,” but images can also include other senses. Some people have a rare form of imagination - synesthesia - for them, images cross the line of normal sensory barriers (feeling flashes while listening to music.) Most people use images when they think, remember and solve problems. In addition to reconstruction in the human mind, the direct creation of images also occurs. People with good imagination tend to show high creative abilities. In a sense, we think not only with our heads, but with our whole bodies. Kinesthetic images - arise on the basis of remembered or imagined muscle sensations, such images help us think about our actions (in which direction the faucet opens.) Kinesthetic images are especially important in music, sports, and martial arts. If you want to demonstrate the connection between thinking and muscle activity, ask a friend to talk about a sports competition.
Concepts are a powerful tool for thinking - they allow us to think abstractly and not pay attention to distracting details. Concept formation is the process of classifying information and transforming it into categories. Basically, the formation of concepts is based on encounters with positive and negative examples. As adults, people often learn concepts through conceptual rules—principles that help determine whether objects and events belong to a given class of concepts. However, the examples do not lose their relevance.
Most often, thinking occurs with the help of language, because it allows you to encode (translate) phenomena into symbols, which are easier to manipulate.
We can say that thinking is the psychological representation and manipulation of information in order to solve various problems. There are several ways to solve problems: mechanical solutions and intuitive solutions.
Mechanical solutions - can be obtained by trial and error using mechanical memorization (a combination of numbers in a lock). They also include solutions by insight - gaining a deeper understanding of the problem (understanding the puzzle) and heuristics - a random search method that can be useful if the number of alternatives is small.
Intuitive solutions or insight - it is usually based on the rearrangement of individual components of the problem. When we see a problem in a new light, the solution seems obvious. It is interesting that an intuitive solution either comes quickly or you are likely to make a mistake.
One of the most important barriers to problem solving is fixation, the tendency to cling to bad solutions or be blind to alternatives. This usually happens when we place unnecessary restrictions on our thinking. Let's illustrate with a problem: How to plant four small trees so that each of them is the same distance from each other. Despite the fact that we see the solution to this problem every day, when we enter the institute - this is a tetrahedron, there is a forced fixation of solutions in a plane where it is impossible to find the correct solution.
One of the characteristics of thinking can be considered intelligence – the general ability to think rationally, act purposefully, and cope effectively with the environment. Like many other important concepts in psychology, intelligence cannot be observed directly, however, we certainly know that it exists. Intelligence is understood as a person’s cognitive capabilities; they allow a comprehensive assessment of memory, knowledge stock (erudition), vocabulary, the ability to manipulate knowledge to solve practical problems and the ability to further enrich the stock of knowledge. Intelligence – this is a collective function, implying a stock of knowledge in related fields, the ability to foresee the consequences of one’s actions and adapt in the process of a changing situation. Intelligence is assessed taking into account upbringing, education and life experience; it can be average, below average (when the subject’s failures are easily predictable) and above average, found in approximately 3% of the population (which does not make it possible to confidently predict successes in life, because This is only a potential opportunity for success, which the subject may not take advantage of). What you do is much more important than what you could do. Of course, not all highly intelligent people make contributions to science, art or social practice (after all, this potential could have gone to a banal lazy person), but, as a rule, people with above average intelligence are more persistent and have a strong motivation to understand and transform the world.
People with below average intelligence are called mentally retarded in the Russian pedagogical tradition and children with delayed success in the American one. Mental retardation - occurs for various reasons: genetic, birth trauma, metabolic disorders, extreme poverty and in some cases no reason can be found at all. It is important to realize that social adaptation in most cases can help smooth out this gap; this is precisely what the factor of delayed but possible success is associated with.
To distinguish more capable people or capable but lazy people from those lagging behind, in 1904 American psychologists created tests that determined intellectual level. The main idea of IQ tests is that an intellectually capable person who has not suffered too much from learning can answer certain questions, and the range of questions has an age reference. Having summarized the experience of social development, blocks of questions were identified that a person of average intelligence at a certain age is able to answer. Thus, intellectual age is determined - the age group to which the respondent confidently answers questions; if we divide mental age by chronological age and multiply by 100%, we get the IQ indicator. It becomes clear that the position of average intelligence is responsible for the correspondence of chronological age to mental age, high intelligence indicates the predominance of mental age over chronological, low intelligence indicates the opposite situation.
To the above, we can add that thinking can be inductive (from specific facts to general features), deductive (from general principles to specific situations), logical (from given information to new conclusions based on obvious rules) or alogical (intuitive or irrational), and also creative. Creative thinking includes various thinking styles in different combinations, adding to them such features as spontaneity, flexibility and originality. We can talk about creative or imaginative thinking if the thought process leads to the creation of new ideas and unexpected answers to posed questions that are both practical and reasonable.
In the search for new, original solutions, the formulation of the problem is of great importance. When we approach solving a problem from only one side, that is, we mean one correct answer, this leads to convergent thinking. Divergent thinking does the opposite: it helps to find many possible answers, developed on the basis of the same initial data, and then selects the most suitable and practical ones.
Forms of thinking, specific stages of obtaining new knowledge, are concept, judgment and inference. A concept is a generalized idea of a group of objects or phenomena. A concept can be empirical, theoretical, concrete, abstract, everyday, etc. A Sami person can develop concepts, or he can borrow them from social experience. Judgment allows you to establish a true or false connection between phenomena. Inference is the ability to draw certain conclusions based on several judgments. The formation of complete mental forms is facilitated by mental operations: analysis, synthesis, abstraction, concretization, comparison, generalization. Mental operations allow you to work with complex objects; mental operations are often presented in the form of inextricably existing pairs, for example, analysis is not capable of solving problems without the use of synthesis. Analysis allows you to break a complex object into parts and consider it separately, but conclusions will be incorrect if you do not return the parts into a single whole, which is ensured when using synthesis. Abstraction allows you to cope with a system of related objects, distracting from the existence of connections and considering the object in isolation. However, only specification can return the object to the system and ensure the accuracy of the model. Comparison aims to identify common features and differences in a number of objects, and generalization makes it possible to classify them based on the identified features.
Concepts of thinking and intelligence
In the process of sensation and perception, a person learns about the world around him as a result of its direct, sensory reflection. However
internal patterns, the essence of things cannot be reflected in our
consciousness directly. Not a single pattern can be perceived directly by the senses. Whether we determine, looking out the window, by wet roofs, whether it has rained, or establish the laws of planetary motion, in both cases we carry out a thought process, i.e. We reflect the essential connections between phenomena indirectly by comparing facts.
Thinking is a person’s purposeful, indirect and generalized reflection of the essential properties and relationships of things. Thinking is an active process aimed at posing problems and solving them. The external aspects of things and phenomena are reflected mainly with the help of living contemplation, empirical knowledge, and the general aspects of things - with the help of concepts and logical thinking. In thinking, in concepts, there is no longer a direct connection with things. We can also understand what we are unable to perceive.
Exploring the world, a person generalizes the results of sensory experience and reflects the general properties of things. To understand the world around us, it is not enough to just notice the connection between phenomena; it is necessary to establish that this connection is a common property of things. On this generalized basis, a person solves specific cognitive problems.
Thinking provides answers to questions that cannot be resolved through direct, sensory reflection. So, looking around the place
incident, the investigator finds some traces of the past event.
By establishing significant, inevitably recurring relationships between
them, the investigator, through logical thinking, reconstructs a possible
course of events. This reconstruction occurs indirectly, by understanding the connections between external manifestations and the essence of what happened in reality. This indirect reflection is possible
only on the basis of generalization, on the basis of knowledge. Thanks to thinking a person
correctly navigates the world around him, using previously obtained generalizations in a new, specific environment. Human activity is rational thanks to knowledge of the laws and relationships of objective reality.
Establishing universal relationships, generalizing the properties of a homogeneous group of phenomena, understanding the essence of a specific phenomenon as a variety of a certain class of phenomena - this is the essence of human thinking.
But thinking, going beyond sensations and perception, always remains inextricably linked with the sensory reflection of reality. Generalizations are formed on the basis of the perception of individual objects, and their truth is verified by practice.
Thinking, being an ideal reflection of reality, has a material form of its manifestation. The mechanism of human thinking is hidden, silent, inner speech.
In the diverse phenomena of thinking, the following are distinguished: mental activity, mental actions, mental operations, forms of thinking, types of thinking, individual typological features of thinking, thinking as a process of solving creative, non-standard problems.
Mental activity is a system of mental actions aimed at solving a problem. Individual mental actions are associated with solving intermediate problems, components of the overall problem. Mental actions are a set of mental operations aimed at identifying directly non-data, hidden properties and relationships of objects in the real world. Every mental act is based on a system of operations.
Mental operations include comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification and specification. All mental operations are associated with analysis and synthesis. Analysis and
synthesis is two inseparable aspects of the entire process of cognition. The product of mental actions is certain cognitive results that are expressed in three forms of thinking: judgment, inference and concept.
Psychology studies the patterns of creative thinking, leading to new cognitive results and the discovery of new knowledge. According to the predominant content, mental activity is divided into: 1) practical; 2) artistic and 3) scientific.
The structural unit of practical thinking is action, and
The communicative unit is a signal. In artistic thinking, the structural unit is the image, and the communicative unit is the symbol. In scientific thinking, respectively, a concept and a sign.
Mental activity can be carried out through various operating procedures. Algorithmic thinking is carried out in accordance with the established sequence of elementary operations necessary to solve problems of a given class.
Heuristic thinking is a creative solution to non-standard problems.
Discursive thinking (rational) - thinking that is rational
character, based on a system of inferences, having a sequential series of logical links, each of which is determined by the previous one and determines the subsequent link. Discursive thinking leads to inferential knowledge. Developed according to general laws, the thinking of different people is distinguished by individual characteristics: the degree of independence, criticality, consistency, flexibility, depth and speed, and a different ratio of analysis and synthesis.
Thinking has its own laws: 1. thinking is the continuous interaction of a thinking subject with the object of knowledge. 2. this interaction is always carried out in order to resolve a problem, it is based on analysis and synthesis and results in a new generalization.
Problematicism is expressed in the fact that thinking always arises in connection with the solution of a problem, and the problem itself arises from a problematic situation. A problem situation is a circumstance in which a person encounters something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge.
Interaction between analysis and synthesis. Every act of thinking, every mental operation is based on analysis and synthesis. As you know, the main principle of higher nervous activity is the principle of analysis and synthesis. Thinking as a function of the brain is also based on this principle.
All stages of the thinking process are based on analysis and synthesis.
Any search for an answer to any question requires analysis and synthesis in
their various connections (derived from analysis and synthesis by mental
operations are abstraction and generalization). Analysis - identifying those aspects of an object that are essential for solving a given problem; this is the identification of the structure of the object under study, its structure, the division of a complex phenomenon into simple elements, the separation of the essential from the inessential. It answers the question: which part of the whole has certain characteristics. For example, when analyzing traces of a crime, an investigator identifies only those that have evidentiary value. The results of the analysis are combined and synthesized.
Synthesis is the unification of elements, parts, parties based on the establishment of significant connections between them in a certain respect. The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern, is analysis through synthesis: the identification of new properties in an object (analysis) is carried out through its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In the process of thinking, the object of knowledge is constantly included in more and more new connections and, because of this, appears in more and more new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; Thus, all new content is drawn out of the object; it seems to turn every time with its other side, new properties are revealed in it.
Analysis and synthesis ensure the continuous movement of thought towards deeper and deeper knowledge of the essence of phenomena.
The generality of thinking is manifested in the fact that thinking is carried out with the aim of knowing certain essential properties of an object, in order to obtain knowledge. An essential property is always common to a given group of homogeneous objects. Generalized knowledge and general rules can be applied to the solution of a specific problem. In the process of thinking, the individual is always considered as a concrete expression of the general.
Thinking is a form of human cognition. Solving the mental problems that life poses to a person, he reflects, draws conclusions and thereby learns the essence of things and phenomena, discovers the laws of their connection, and then transforms the world on this basis. Thinking is closely connected with sensations and perceptions and is formed on the basis of them. The transition from sensation to thought is a complex process, which consists, first of all, in isolating and isolating an object or its sign, in abstracting from the concrete, individual and establishing the essential, common to many objects.
Thinking acts mainly as a solution to tasks, questions, problems that are constantly put forward to people by life. Solving problems should always give a person something new, new knowledge. Finding solutions can sometimes be very difficult, so mental activity, as a rule, is an active activity that requires focused attention and patience.
Intelligence (from Latin intellectus - knowledge, understanding, reason) is the ability of thinking, rational cognition. This is the Latin translation of the ancient Greek concept nous (“mind”) and in its meaning it is identical to it.
Scientists of various specializations have long been studying human intelligence and intellectual capabilities. One of the main questions facing psychology is the question of whether intelligence is innate or formed depending on the environment. This question, perhaps, concerns not only intelligence, but here it is especially relevant, because intelligence and creativity (non-standard solutions) acquire special value at the present stage of development of civilization.
Nowadays we especially need people who are capable of thinking outside the box and quickly, who have high intelligence, to solve the most complex scientific and technical problems, and not only to maintain super-complex machines and automatic devices, but also to create them.
Many definitions of intelligence have been given; philosophers, biologists and psychologists have tried.
Since the end of the 19th century, various quantitative methods for assessing intelligence and the degree of mental development have become widespread in experimental psychology using special tests and a certain system of their statistical processing in factor analysis.
Intelligence quotient (abbreviated IQ), an indicator of mental development, the level of existing knowledge and awareness, established on the basis of various test methods. The IQ is attractive because it allows you to quantitatively express the level of intellectual development.
The idea of quantitatively determining the level of intellectual development of children using a test system was first developed by the French psychologist A. Binet in 1903, and the term was introduced by the Austrian psychologist W. Stern in 1911.
While most intelligence tests have primarily measured verbal ability and, to some extent, the ability to deal with numerical, abstract, and other symbolic relationships, it has become clear that they have limitations in measuring ability in a variety of activities.
Currently, tests for determining abilities are complex; among them, the Amthauer test of the structure of intelligence is the most famous. The benefits of the practical application of this test, or more precisely, knowledge of the degree of development of certain intellectual capabilities of a person, makes it possible to optimize the interaction between the manager and the performer in the process of work.
A high IQ (above 120 IQ) does not necessarily accompany creative thinking, which is very difficult to assess. Creative people are able to act in unconventional ways, sometimes contrary to generally accepted laws, and get good results and make discoveries.
The ability to achieve such extraordinary results in unconventional ways is called creativity. Not only do creative people with creativity solve problems in non-standard ways, but they also generate them themselves, struggle with them and as a result solve them, i.e. they find the lever that can “turn the globe over.”
However, lateral thinking is not always creative, it is often just original, so it is really difficult to define creative thinking, much less quantify it.
The development of intelligence is a change in processes and abilities throughout life. You can define intelligence by the direction in which its development is oriented, and not think about the boundaries of intelligence. The main theory of the development of intelligence can be called the theory of stages by Piaget, who made his conclusions by observing children of different ages.
Human intelligence is an extremely multifaceted quantity. It determines both the social usefulness of a person and his individual characteristics, and serves as the main manifestation of reason. In fact, intelligence is what sets a person apart from the animal world, what gives him special significance, allows him to dynamically change the world around him, rebuild the environment to suit himself, and not adapt to the conditions of a rapidly changing reality.
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Thinking and intelligence are similar terms. Their relationship becomes even clearer when translated into words from ordinary Russian. In this case, the word “mind” will correspond to intelligence. We say “smart person” to denote individual differences in intelligence. We can also say that the child’s mind develops with age - this conveys the problem of intellectual development.
With the term “thinking” we can associate in our ordinary language the word “deliberation” or (less normatively, but perhaps more accurately) “thinking.” The word “mind” expresses a property, an ability; thinking is a process. When solving a problem, we think, and do not “get smart” - this is the sphere of the psychology of thinking, not intelligence. Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. An intelligent person is one who is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think. Thinking is a process in which intelligence is realized. Ushakov D.V. Thinking and intelligence // Psychology of the 21st century / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina. M.: Per Se, 2003, p. 291..
Thinking and intelligence have long been considered the most important and distinctive features of a person. It is not without reason that the term “homo sapiens” is used to define the species of modern man. A person who has lost his sight, hearing or the ability to move, of course, suffers a serious loss, but does not cease to be a person. After all, deaf Beethoven or blind Homer are considered by us as great personalities. The one who has lost his mind seems to us to be struck at the very essence of humanity.
The description of the various types and types of thinking is based on the premise that there is no thinking at all: thinking is heterogeneous and subject to detail. Different types of thinking are divided according to their functional purpose, development, structure, means used, and cognitive capabilities.
In psychology, the most common classification of types of thinking is: visual-actional, visual-figurative, verbal-logical. This classification is based on a genetic principle and reflects three successive levels of development of thinking. Each of these types of thinking is determined by two criteria. One of them (the first part of the names) is the specific form in which it is necessary to present the subject with a cognizable object or situation in order for them to be able to be successfully operated:
The object as such in its materiality and concreteness;
An object depicted in a picture, diagram, drawing;
An object described in one or another sign system.
Another criterion (the second part of the names) is the main ways in which a person experiences the world around him:
Through practical action with an object;
Using figurative representations;
Based on logical concepts and other sign formations.
The main characteristic of visual-effective thinking is determined by the ability to observe real objects and learn the relationships between them in a real transformation of the situation. Practical cognitive objective actions are the basis of all later forms of thinking. With visual-figurative thinking, the situation is transformed in terms of image or representation. The subject operates with visual images of objects through their figurative representations. At the same time, the image of an object allows one to combine a set of heterogeneous practical operations into a holistic picture. Mastering visual and figurative representations expands the scope of practical thinking.
At the level of verbal-logical thinking, a subject can, using logical concepts, cognize essential patterns and unobservable relationships of the reality under study. The development of verbal-logical thinking rebuilds and organizes the world of figurative ideas and practical actions.
The described types of thinking form the stages of development of thinking in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. They coexist in an adult and function in solving various problems. Therefore, they cannot be assessed in terms of greater or lesser value. Verbal-logical thinking cannot be the “ideal” of thinking in general, the end point of intellectual development.
Intelligence (from the Latin intellectus - understanding, comprehension, comprehension) in psychology is defined as the general ability to cognition and problem solving, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities. Intelligence is not limited to thinking, although thinking abilities form the basis of intelligence. In general, intelligence is a system of all human cognitive abilities: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination and thinking. The concept of intelligence as a general mental ability is used as a generalization of behavioral characteristics associated with successful adaptation to new life challenges.
In 1937, the first version of his test for measuring intelligence was proposed by D. Wexler. He created a scale to measure intelligence not only for children, but also for adults. The Wechsler intellectual scale for children has been translated into Russian, adapted and widely used in our country. The Wechsler scale differed significantly from the Stanford-Binet test. The tasks that were offered to the subjects according to L. Theremin’s method were the same for all ages. The basis for the assessment was the number of correct answers given by the subject. This number was then compared with the average number of responses for subjects in that age group. This procedure greatly simplified the calculation of IQ. D. Wexler proposed a qualitative classification of levels of intelligence development, based on the frequency of occurrence of a certain IQ:
69 and below - mental defect (dementia);
70-79 - borderline level of development;
80-89 - reduced level of intelligence;
90-109 - average level of intelligence;
110 - 119 is a good norm;
120-129 - high intelligence;
130 and above - very high intelligence.
Currently, interest in intelligence tests has weakened significantly, primarily due to the low predictive value of these methods: subjects with high scores on intelligence tests do not always achieve high achievements in life, and vice versa. In this regard, the term “good intelligence” even appeared in psychology, which is understood as intellectual abilities that are effectively implemented in a person’s real life and contribute to his high social achievements.
Today, despite attempts to identify new “elementary intellectual abilities,” researchers are generally inclined to believe that general intelligence exists as a universal mental ability. In connection with the successes in the development of cybernetics, systems theory, information theory, etc., there has been a tendency to understand intelligence as the cognitive activity of any complex systems capable of learning, purposeful processing of information and self-regulation. The results of psychogenetic studies indicate a high level of genetic determination of intelligence. Nonverbal intelligence is more trainable. The individual level of intellectual development is also determined by a number of environmental influences: the “intellectual climate” of the family, the order of birth of the child in the family, the profession of the parents, the breadth of social contacts in early childhood, etc.
