INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………….3

Chapter 1. THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY………………………………………………..4

Chapter.2. ORIGINS OF MORALITY………………………………………………….9

Chapter.3. NATURAL SCIENTIFIC JUSTIFICATION OF MORALITY…….14

Chapter.4. MORAL ISSUES…………………………………………...21

Chapter.5. APHORISMS ON THE TOPIC OF MORALITY…………………………………24

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………26

LIST OF USED LITERATURE…………………………………………28

INTRODUCTION

People have always felt in morality some strange, absolute power, which simply could not be called powerful - so it surpassed all human ideas about the strength and power of the mind.

G. Miroshnichenko

Morality is a purely historical social phenomenon, the secret of which lies in the conditions of production and reproduction of society, namely the establishment of such simple truths that moral consciousness, like any consciousness, “can never be anything other than a conscious being”, that, consequently, the moral renewal of man and society not only is not the basis and producing cause of the historical process, but can itself be rationally comprehended and correctly understood only as a moment of practical world-transforming activity, marked a revolution in the views on morality, marked the beginning of its scientific understanding. Morality in its essence is a historical phenomenon, it changes radically from epoch to epoch. “There is no doubt that in this case, in morality, as in all other branches of human knowledge, progress is generally observed.” However, being a secondary, derivative phenomenon, morality at the same time has relative independence, in particular, it has its own logic of historical movement, has a reverse effect on the development of the economic basis, and plays a socially active role in society.

In a word, the secret of morality lies not in the individual and not in itself; as a secondary, superstructural phenomenon, its origins and goals go into material and economic needs, and its content, as already noted, cannot be anything other than a conscious social being.

In order to reveal the specificity of morality, its internal qualitative boundaries, it is necessary to determine its originality within the framework of the social consciousness itself. In the era of globalization of the economy, the economy requires a natural scientific justification for morality.

Chapter 1. THE CONCEPT OF MORALS.

Having opened the "Big Encyclopedic Dictionary" on the word "morality", we will read: "morality" - see "morality". And in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" it is said: "Morality is the rules of morality, as well as morality itself." Therefore, the identity of these concepts is assumed. It is interesting that the word "morality" is absent in the German language at all. "Die Moral" is translated both as "morality" and as "morality". Also in two meanings (morality and morality) the word "die Sittlichkeit" (conformity to customs, decency) is used.

MORAL (from Latin moralis - concerning mores):

1) morality, a special form of social consciousness and the type of social relations (moral relations); one of the main ways to regulate human actions in society with the help of norms. Unlike simple custom or tradition, moral norms receive an ideological justification in the form of ideals of good and evil, due, justice, etc. Unlike law, the fulfillment of moral requirements is sanctioned only by forms of spiritual influence (public assessment, approval or condemnation). Along with universal human elements, morality includes historically transient norms, principles, and ideals. Morality is studied by a special philosophical discipline - ethics.

2) A separate practical moral instruction, moralizing (the moral of the fable, etc.).

MORALITY is a regulating function of human behavior. According to Z. Freud, its essence comes down to limiting drives.

MORALITY - the general tendency to behave in a way that is consistent with the moral code of society. The term means that such behavior is arbitrary; one who obeys this code against his will is not considered moral.

MORALITY is the acceptance of responsibility for one's actions. Since, as follows from the definition, morality is based on free will, only a free being can be moral. Unlike morality, which is an external requirement for the behavior of an individual, along with the law, morality is an internal attitude of an individual to act in accordance with his conscience.

MORALITY (moral) values ​​are what the ancient Greeks called "ethical virtues". The ancient sages considered prudence, benevolence, courage, and justice to be the main of these virtues. In Judaism, Christianity, Islam, the highest moral values ​​are associated with faith in God and zealous reverence for him. Honesty, fidelity, respect for elders, diligence, patriotism are revered as moral values ​​among all peoples. And although in life people do not always show such qualities, they are highly valued by people, and those who possess them are respected. These values, presented in their impeccable, absolutely complete and perfect expression, act as ethical ideals.

The subject area of ​​the term morality includes 3 definitions:

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY - the first level of moral development in Kohlberg's theory, when a person follows the rules in order to avoid punishment and earn a reward

CONVENTIONAL MORALITY - the second level of moral development in Kohlberg's theory, when special attention is paid to the implementation of rules determined by the approval of other people ...

POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY is the third level of moral development in Kohlberg's theory, when moral judgment is based on individual principles and conscience.

MORAL (moral) regulations are the rules of behavior focused on the specified values. Moral regulations are varied. Each individual chooses (consciously or unconsciously) in the space of culture those of them that are most suitable for him. Among them there may be those that are not approved by others. But in every more or less stable culture there is a certain system of universally recognized moral regulations, which, according to tradition, are considered binding on everyone. Such regulations are the norms of morality. It is clear that moral values ​​and ideals, on the one hand, and moral regulations and norms, on the other, are inextricably linked. Any moral value presupposes the presence of appropriate regulators of behavior aimed at it. And any moral regulator implies the existence of a value to which it is directed. If honesty is a moral value, then the regulative follows: "To be honest." And vice versa, if a person, by virtue of his inner conviction, follows the regulation: “Be honest,” then honesty is a moral value for him. Such interrelation of moral values ​​and regulations in many cases makes their separate consideration unnecessary. Speaking of honesty, they often mean both honesty as a value and a regulator that requires being honest. When it comes to characteristics that are equally related to both moral values ​​and ideals and moral regulations and norms, they are usually called the principles of morality (morality, ethics).

The most important feature of morality is the finality of moral values ​​and the imperative nature of moral regulations. This means that the principles of morality are valuable in themselves. That is, to questions, for example: “Why do we need moral values?”, “Why strive for moral values?”, “Why should a person observe moral standards?” - cannot be answered otherwise than to admit that the purpose for which a person follows moral principles is to follow them. There is no tautology here: simply following moral principles is an end in itself; the highest, final goal and there are no other goals that one would like to achieve by following moral principles. They are not a means to an end beyond their own.

MORALITY is a Russian word derived from the root "nature". It first entered the dictionary of the Russian language in the 18th century and began to be used along with the words "ethics" and "morality" as their synonyms.

And yet we take the liberty of asserting that the concept of "morality" is different from the concept of "morality". By definition, morality is a set of unwritten norms of behavior established in a given society that regulate relations between people. We emphasize - in this society, because in another society or in a different era, these norms can be completely different. Moral assessment is always carried out by strangers: relatives, colleagues, neighbors, and finally, just a crowd. As the English writer Jerome K. Jerome remarked, “The heaviest burden is the thought of what people will say about us.” Unlike morality, morality presupposes that a person has an internal moral regulator. Thus, it can be argued that morality is personal morality, self-esteem.

There are people who stand out sharply among their contemporaries for their high morality. So, Socrates was called "the genius of morality." True, such a “title” was assigned to him by much later generations. And this is quite understandable: it is not for nothing that the Bible says that "a prophet cannot be mocked, only in his own house and among his relatives."

"Geniuses of morality" were at all times, but it seems that they are much less than other geniuses. For example, you can call AD Sakharov such a genius. Probably, Bulat Okudzhava should also be included among them, who answered the immoral proposal of one high-ranking official as follows: “I see you for the last time, but I will be with myself until the end of my days.” And what is remarkable is that none of the truly moral people has ever boasted of their morality.

Some theologians and philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant, believed that a person has innate ideas about good and evil, i.e. internal moral law. However, life experience does not confirm this thesis. How else to explain the fact that people of different nationalities and religions have very different moral rules? A child is born indifferent to any moral or ethical principles and acquires them in the process of education. Therefore, children need to be taught morality just as we teach them everything else - science, music. And this teaching of morality requires constant attention and improvement.

According to Nietzsche, what the philosophers called the "justification of morality", which they demanded of themselves, was, in fact, only a scientific form of trust and belief in the prevailing morality, a new way of expressing it and, therefore, simply a factual position within a certain definite systems of moral concepts - even, in the end, a kind of denial of the very possibility and the very right to pose this morality as a problem - in any case, the complete opposite of the study, decomposition, vivisection and criticism of just this.

And so, what is MORALITY - THIS is the defining aspect of culture, its form, which gives the general basis for human activity, from the individual to society, from humanity to a small group. Destruction of morality. leads to the disintegration, disintegration of society, to a catastrophe; moral change. leads to changes in social relations. Society protects the established morality. through social integrators, through various kinds of social institutions, through the protection of cultural values. The absence or weakness of these mechanisms deprives society of the ability to protect morality. from distant and hidden threats, which makes it vulnerable to unexpected dangers of disorganization, moral decay. This makes society morally and organizationally disorganized. Morality includes the possibility of a variety of moral Ideals associated with various options for the unity of the integration of society. In those cultures where the formation of a moral foundation is undergoing a long crisis, where it is burdened by a split, the moral aspect of culture is in constant agitation. In any culture, morality acts as a dual opposition, for example, as conciliar - authoritarian, as traditional - liberal ideals, etc. Transitions from one pole of opposition to another can be carried out through inversion, i.e. through a logically instantaneous, explosive transition from one pole to another, or through mediation, i.e. slow creative development of a qualitatively new moral content, new dual oppositions. The ratio between inversion and mediation at each stage has an exceptionally great influence on the formation of morality and its content. The impetus for a change in ideals comes from the growth of an uncomfortable state.

Chapter.2. ORIGINS OF MORALITY

Human morality as a special form of human relations has evolved since ancient times. This perfectly characterizes the interest of society in it and the importance attached to morality as a form of social consciousness. Naturally, moral norms varied from era to era, and the attitude towards them has always been ambiguous.

In ancient times, "ethics" ("the doctrine of morality") meant life wisdom, "practical" knowledge about what happiness is and what are the means to achieve it. Ethics is the doctrine of morality, of instilling in a person the active-volitional, spiritual qualities that he needs first of all in public life, and then in his personal life. It teaches the practical rules of behavior and the way of life of the individual. But are morality, ethics and politics, as well as art, sciences? Is it possible to consider the teaching to observe the correct norms of behavior and lead a moral lifestyle as a science? According to Aristotle, "every reasoning is directed either to activity or creativity, or to the speculative ...". This means that through thinking a person makes the right choice in his actions and deeds, striving to achieve happiness, to realize the ethical ideal. The same can be said about works of art. The master embodies the ideal of beauty in his work in accordance with his understanding. This means that the practical sphere of life and various types of productive activity are impossible without thinking. Therefore, they are included in the realm of science, but they are not sciences in the strict sense of the word.

Moral activity is aimed at the person himself, at the development of the abilities inherent in him, especially his spiritual and moral forces, at improving his life, at realizing the meaning of his life and purpose. In the sphere of "activity" associated with free will, a person "chooses" a person who conforms his behavior and way of life with a moral ideal, with ideas and concepts of good and evil, proper and existing.

By this, Aristotle determined the subject of science, which he called ethics.

Christianity, undoubtedly, is one of the most majestic phenomena in the history of mankind, considering in the aspect of moral norms. Religious morality is a set of moral concepts, principles, ethical norms that are formed under the direct influence of the religious worldview. Arguing that morality has a supernatural, divine origin, preachers of all religions proclaim the eternity and immutability of their moral institutions, their timeless character.

Christian morality finds its expression in peculiar ideas and concepts of moral and immoral, in the totality of certain moral norms (for example, commandments), in specific religious and moral feelings (Christian love, conscience, etc.) and in some volitional qualities of a believer (patience , humility, etc.), as well as in systems of moral theology and theological ethics. Together, these elements make up the Christian moral consciousness.

The main feature of Christian (as well as any religious) morality is that its main provisions are put in a mandatory connection with the dogmas of the dogma. Since the "God-revealed" dogmas of Christian doctrine are considered unchanged, the basic norms of Christian morality, in their abstract content, are also relatively stable, retaining their strength in each new generation of believers. This is the conservatism of religious morality, which, even in the changed socio-historical conditions, bears the burden of moral prejudices inherited from past times.

Another feature of Christian morality, arising from its connection with the dogmas of dogma, is that it contains such moral instructions that cannot be found in systems of non-religious morality. Such, for example, is the Christian doctrine of suffering-good, of forgiveness, of love for enemies, non-resistance to evil, and other provisions that are in conflict with the vital interests of people's real lives. As for the provisions of Christianity, common with other systems of morality, they received a significant change in it under the influence of religious fantasy ideas.

In the most concise form, Christian morality can be defined as a system of moral ideas, concepts, norms and feelings and their corresponding behavior, closely related to the dogmas of the Christian dogma. Since religion is a fantastic reflection in the minds of people of the external forces that dominate them in their daily life, to the extent that real interhuman relations are reflected in the Christian consciousness in a form altered by religious fantasy.

At the basis of any code of morality lies a certain initial principle, a general criterion for the moral assessment of people's actions. Christianity has its own criterion for distinguishing between good and evil, moral and immoral behavior. Christianity puts forward its own criterion - the interest of saving a personal immortal soul for an eternal blissful life with God. Christian theologians say that God has put into the souls of people a certain universal, unchanging absolute "moral law." A Christian "feels the presence of the divine moral law", it is enough for him to listen to the voice of the deity in his soul in order to be moral.

The moral code of Christianity was created over the centuries, in different socio-historical conditions. As a result, one can find in it the most diverse ideological layers, reflecting the moral ideas of different social classes and groups of believers. The understanding of morality (moreover, its specificity), and its ethical concept, consistently developed in a number of special works, was the most developed, systematic and complete. Kant posed a number of critical problems related to the definition of the concept of morality. One of Kant's merits is that he separated the questions about the existence of God, the soul, freedom - questions of theoretical reason - from the question of practical reason: what should I do? The practical philosophy of Kant had a tremendous impact on the generations of philosophers that followed him (A. and W. Humboldt, A. Schopenhauer, F. Schelling, F. Hölderlin, and others).

The doctrine of morality is at the center of Kant's entire system. Kant succeeded in identifying, if not fully explaining, a number of specific features of morality. Morality is not the psychology of a person as such, it is not reduced to any elementary aspirations, feelings, inclinations, motives inherent in all people, nor to some special unique experiences, emotions, motives, different from all other mental parameters of a person. Morality, of course, can take the form of certain psychological phenomena in the mind of a person, but only through education, through the subordination of the elements of feelings and motives to a special logic of moral obligation. In general, morality is not reduced to the “internal mechanics” of a person’s mental impulses and experiences, but has a normative character, that is, it imputes a person to certain actions and the very motives for them according to their content, and not according to their psychological appearance, emotional coloring, mental attitude, etc. n. This is, first of all, the objectively obligatory nature of moral demands in relation to individual consciousness. With this methodological distinction between the "logic of feelings" and the "logic of morality", Kant managed to discover the essence of the moral conflict in the sphere of individual consciousness in the conflict of duty and inclinations, drives, desires, direct aspirations. According to Kant, duty is a one-sided and lasting integrity, a real alternative to moral softness and opposes the latter as principledness to compromises. One of Kant's historical merits in the development of the concept of morality is his indication of the fundamental universality of moral requirements, which distinguishes morality from many other similar social norms (customs, traditions). The paradox of Kantian ethics is that, although moral action is aimed at the realization of natural and moral perfection, it is impossible to achieve it in this world. Kant tried to outline and resolve the paradoxes of his ethics without resorting to the idea of ​​God. He sees in morality a spiritual source of radical transformation and renewal of man and society.

Kant's formulation of the problem of the autonomy of ethics, consideration of the ethical ideal, reflections on the practical nature of morality, etc., are recognized as an invaluable contribution to philosophy.

Chapter.3. NATURAL SCIENTIFIC JUSTIFICATION OF MORALITY

Over the past hundred years, new branches of knowledge have been created under the name of the science of man (anthropology), the science of primitive social institutions (prehistoric ethnology) and the history of religions, opening up to us a completely new understanding of the entire course of human development. At the same time, thanks to discoveries in the field of physics regarding the structure of celestial bodies and matter in general, new concepts about the life of the universe have been developed. At the same time, the former teachings about the origin of life, about the position of man in the universe, about the essence of the mind were radically changed due to the rapid development of the science of life (biology) and the emergence of the theory of development (evolution), as well as due to the progress of the science of mental life (psychology). ) of humans and animals.

To say that in all their branches - with the possible exception of astronomy - the sciences made more progress during the nineteenth century than during any three or four centuries of earlier times, would be insufficient. It is necessary to go back more than two thousand years, to the heyday of philosophy in ancient Greece, in order to find the same awakening of the human mind, but this comparison would also be incorrect, since then man had not yet reached such a possession of technology as we see now; the development of technology finally gives man the opportunity to free himself from slave labor.

At the same time, a bold, bold spirit of inventiveness has developed in modern humanity, brought to life by recent advances in science; and inventions, rapidly succeeding each other, have increased the productive capacity of human labor to such an extent that it has at last become possible for modern educated peoples to achieve such a general welfare, which could not have been dreamed of either in antiquity, or in the Middle Ages, or in the first half of the 19th century. For the first time, mankind can say that its ability to satisfy all its needs has surpassed its needs, that now it is no longer necessary to impose the yoke of poverty and humiliation on entire classes of people in order to give well-being to a few and facilitate their further mental development. General contentment - without imposing the burden of overwhelming and depersonalizing labor on anyone - was now possible; and humanity can finally rebuild its entire social life on the basis of justice.

It is difficult to say in advance whether the modern educated peoples will have enough building and social creativity and courage to use the conquests of the human mind for the common good. But one thing is certain: the recent flowering of science has already created the mental atmosphere necessary to call into being the proper forces; and he has already given us the knowledge we need to accomplish this great task.

Returning to a sound philosophy of nature, which had been neglected since the time of ancient Greece until Bacon awakened scientific research from its long slumber, modern science has developed the foundations of a philosophy of the universe, free from supernatural hypotheses and from the metaphysical "mythology of thoughts" - a philosophy so great, poetic and inspiring, and so imbued with the spirit of liberation that it is certainly capable of calling new forces into life. Man no longer needs to clothe his ideals of moral beauty and his ideas of a justly built society in a veil of superstition; he has nothing to wait for the restructuring of society from the Highest Wisdom. He can borrow his ideals from nature, and from the study of her life he can draw the necessary strength.

One of the main achievements of modern science was that it proved the indestructibility of energy, no matter what transformations it undergoes. For physicists and mathematicians, this idea was a rich source of the most diverse discoveries, and, in essence, all modern research is imbued with it. But the philosophical significance of this discovery is equally important. It teaches man to understand the life of the universe as a continuous, endless chain of transformations of energy; mechanical motion can be transformed into sound, into heat, into light, into electricity; and vice versa, each of these types of energy can be converted into others. And among all these transformations, the birth of our planet, the gradual development of its life, its final decomposition in the future and the transition back into the great cosmos, its absorption by the universe are only infinitely small phenomena - a simple minute in the life of the starry worlds.

The same happens in the study of organic life. The investigations made in the vast intermediate region separating the inorganic world from the organic, where the simplest processes of life in lower fungi can hardly be distinguished, and even then not completely, from the chemical movements of atoms that constantly occur in complex bodies - these studies have robbed vital phenomena of their mysterious mystical character. At the same time, our concepts of life have expanded so much that we are now accustomed to looking at the accumulations of matter in the universe - solid, liquid and gaseous (such are some of the nebulae of the stellar world) - as something living and going through the same cycles of development and decomposition that living things go through. creatures. Then, returning to the thoughts that once made their way in Ancient Greece, modern science has traced step by step the wondrous development of living beings, beginning with the simplest forms, hardly worthy of the name of organisms, up to the endless variety of living beings that now inhabit our planet and give it its the best beauty. And, finally, having mastered us with the idea that every living being is to an enormous extent a product of the environment where it lives, biology has solved one of the greatest mysteries of nature: it has explained the adaptations to the conditions of life that we encounter at every step.

Even in the most mysterious of all manifestations of life, in the realm of feeling and thought, where the human mind has to catch the very processes by which impressions received from the outside are imprinted in it - even in this region, still the darkest of all, man has already succeeded look into the mechanism of thinking, following the methods of investigation adopted by physiology.

Finally, in the vast field of human institutions, customs and laws, superstitions, beliefs and ideals, such light has been shed by the anthropological schools of history, jurisprudence and political economy, that it can already be said with certainty that the desire for "the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people" no longer exists. a dream, not a utopia. It is possible; moreover, it has also been proved that the welfare and happiness of neither an entire people, nor an individual class, can be based, even temporarily, on the oppression of other classes, nations, and races.

Modern science has thus achieved a double goal. On the one hand, it gave a person a very valuable lesson in modesty. It teaches him to consider himself only an infinitely small part of the universe. She knocked him out of narrow egoistic isolation and dispelled his self-conceit, by virtue of which he considered himself the center of the universe and the object of the Creator's special care. She teaches him to understand that without the great whole, our "I" is nothing; that the 'I' cannot even define itself without some 'You'. And at the same time, science has shown how powerful humanity is in its progressive development, if it skillfully uses the boundless energy of nature.

Thus, science and philosophy have given us both the material strength and the freedom of thought necessary to call into being agents who are capable of moving humanity onto a new path of universal progress. There is, however, one branch of knowledge left behind the others. This branch is ethics, the doctrine of the basic principles of morality. Such a doctrine, which would be in accordance with the modern state of science and would use its achievements to build the foundations of morality on a broad philosophical foundation, and would give educated peoples the strength to inspire them for the forthcoming great restructuring, such a doctrine has not yet appeared. Meanwhile, the need is felt everywhere and everywhere. A new realistic science of morality, liberated from religious dogmatism, superstition and metaphysical mythology, just as modern natural science philosophy has already been liberated, and at the same time inspired by the highest feelings and bright hopes inspired by modern knowledge about man and his history - that's what urgently demanded by mankind.

That such a science is possible is beyond doubt. If the study of nature has given us the foundations of philosophy, embracing the life of the entire universe, the development of living beings on earth, the laws of mental life and the development of societies, then this same study should give us a natural explanation of the sources of moral feeling. And it must show us where the forces lie that are capable of raising the moral feeling to ever greater heights and purity. If the contemplation of the universe and close acquaintance with nature could inspire the great naturalists and poets of the nineteenth century with high inspiration, if penetration into the depths of nature could increase the pace of life in Goethe, Byron, Shelley, Lermontov while contemplating a roaring storm, a calm and majestic mountain range or a dark forest and of its inhabitants, why could not a deeper insight into the life of man and his fate equally inspire the poet. When the poet finds real expression for his feeling of communication with the Cosmos and unity with all of humanity, he becomes able to inspire millions of people with his high impulse. He makes them feel the best forces in themselves, he awakens in them the desire to become even better. It awakens in people the very ecstasy that was previously considered the property of religion. Indeed, what are the psalms, in which many see the highest expression of religious feeling, or the most poetic, parts of the sacred books of the East, if not attempts to express the ecstasy of man when contemplating the universe, how not to awaken in him a sense of the poetry of nature.

One of the differences between man and animals, in addition to walking upright, the development of the hand, the manufacture of tools, reason, words, is morality. The birth of morality is the most important stage of anthropogenesis - the formation of man.

“Abstract thinking gave man dominance over the entire non-specific environment and thereby unleashed intraspecific selection,” says one of the founders of ethology, K. Lorenz. The “track record” of such selection should probably also include the hypertrophied cruelty that we still suffer from today. By giving man a verbal language, abstract thinking endowed him with the possibility of cultural development and transmission of supra-individual experience, but this also entailed such drastic changes in the conditions of his life that the adaptive capacity of his instincts collapsed. You might think that every gift that a person gets from his thinking, in principle, should be paid for by some kind of dangerous misfortune that inevitably follows. Fortunately for us, this is not so, because from abstract thinking grows that reasonable responsibility of a person, on which alone the hope of coping with ever-growing dangers is based.

The triumphal cry of wild geese observed by K. Lorenz resembles love, which is stronger than death; fights between rat packs resemble blood feuds and a war of extermination. As in many ways, after all, man is close to animals: the more ethology develops, the more fair this conclusion becomes. But much that is clearly social in man also went to him as compensation for some biological shortcomings or excessive advantages over other species. Such is morality.

Dangerous predators (such as wolves) have selective mechanisms that prohibit the killing of a member of their own species. Non-dangerous animals (chimpanzees) do not have such mechanisms. Man does not either, since he does not have the "nature of a predator" and he does not have a natural weapon belonging to his body with which he could kill a large animal. “When the invention of artificial weapons opened up new possibilities for killing, the previous balance between the relatively weak prohibitions on aggression and the same weak possibilities for killing was fundamentally upset.”

Man does not have natural mechanisms for killing his own kind and therefore, like wolves, there is no instinct forbidding the killing of a member of his own species. But man has developed artificial means of destroying his own kind, and in parallel, artificial mechanisms have developed in him as a means of self-preservation, prohibiting the killing of a representative of his own species. This is morality, which is a social evolutionary mechanism.

But social ethics is only the first stage of morality. Man has now created artificial means that allow him to destroy the entire planet, which he successfully does. If man continues to exterminate the species of animals and plants inhabiting the Earth, then, in accordance with the basic law of ecology - the science of the relationship of living organisms with the environment - a decrease in diversity in the biosphere will lead to a weakening of its stability and, ultimately, the death of man himself, who cannot exist. outside the biosphere. To prevent this from happening, morality must rise to a new level, spreading to the whole of nature, that is, becoming an ecological ethics that prohibits the destruction of nature.

Such a process can be called the deepening of morality, firstly, because the criterion of morality is conscience, which is located in the depths of the human soul, and, trying to listen to this inner voice, a person, as it were, plunges into himself. The second reason is related to the emergence of the concept of "deep ecology", which calls for a more careful attitude towards nature from the standpoint of environmental ethics, extending moral principles to the relationship between man and nature.

Ecology deepens into the realm of the moral. The "expanding consciousness" model also has an obvious ecological significance, which made it possible to talk about the expansion of consciousness in "deep ecology". So, from the expanding Universe to the expanding consciousness and deepening morality. These are not random parallels. The development of the Universe leads to social changes - this is one of the conclusions, namely ethical, from modern concepts of natural science.

When we survey the enormous successes of the natural sciences during the nineteenth century and see what they promise us in their further development, we cannot but be aware that a new phase is opening before humanity in its life, or at least what it has in its the hands of all means to open such a new era.

Chapter.4. MORAL ISSUES

The bus outside the city was not too crowded, however, all the seats were taken. Who goes where: who - home, who - to work. One happy young family in full force - mom, dad, a two-year-old baby and a girl of about twelve, apparently, is going to the dacha. Everyone has fun, the children are happy - in general, a complete idyll. At the next stop, an elderly woman enters, there is no doubt that it is very difficult for her to stand. But none of the two parents ever gave way to the old woman, and even the girl, freely lounging on the seat, could not even come up with such a thing. How does she know that old women need to give way, who taught her this, who set an example?

Today it is often said that morality has fallen in modern society, that moral norms are being destroyed.

In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, morality is “internal, spiritual qualities that guide a person, ethical norms; behavior rules". If now someone talks about morality, he will most likely be accused of hypocrisy and hypocrisy. It has become unfashionable and not prestigious to observe the norms of morality. Elderly people say that only a few decades ago people were different and did not hesitate to be polite, helpful. And today it is embarrassing for us to give a hand to a woman, to help a blind man cross the road. But this is the natural state of man, his true nature.

The story of the destruction of this true nature is vividly depicted in one Chinese poem:

“In the 50s, people helped each other,

In the 60s, people fought each other,

In the 70's people lied to each other

In the 80s people only cared about themselves

In the 90s, people took advantage of everyone they met."

Man was created by God, and this obliges us to live according to His laws. But we are used to living by our own laws, however, are they correct?

From childhood we were taught that the concepts of “struggle” and “happiness” are synonymous, that nobility and honor are relics of the past. Gradually, the older generation began to forget about love and mercy, while the youth do not think about it.

The first lessons of morality, morality, ethics we receive in the family.

Let's remember the ancient sages. Many of them attached great importance to the ethics of family relations, believing that all good things begin with the family. Confucius, for example, noted that “as long as traditions are maintained in the family, social morality is naturally maintained, and thus the improvement of oneself can lead to the prosperity of the family and the state, and, in the end, bring peace to everyone.” And this is what we miss so much!

Most of all, Nietzsche's thought was attracted by questions of moral philosophy: the problem of morality in the strict sense - the origin and significance of the norms and ideals of human activity, and the problem of moral worldview - the meaning and value of human life. Not only theoretical interest and "impersonal objective curiosity" attracted him to these problems: in them he saw the task of his life, his personal business. “All great problems,” he says, “require great love,” with all its passion and with the enthusiasm that a person brings to a dear business. There is a huge difference in how a thinker relates to his problems: whether personally, seeing his fate, his need, and also his best happiness in them, or “impersonally”, touching them and grasping them with tentacles of cold thought and curiosity; one can probably give your word that in the latter case nothing will come of it"

“Why, then,” says Nietzsche, “until now I have not met anyone, even in books, who would stand for morality in such a personal position, who would know morality as a problem and feel this problem as his personal need, torment, passion and voluptuousness? As you can see, hitherto morality was not a problem at all, but rather what people finally agreed on after all the mistrust, quarrels and contradictions - a sacred place in the world, where thinkers sighed calmly, came to life and rested from themselves. Philosophers have hitherto sought to justify morality, and each of them thought that he had justified it; morality itself was considered something "given" by everyone. They neglected the more modest, apparently "covered with dust and mold" task of collecting minor facts of the moral life of mankind, describing and history of moral consciousness, in its diverse forms and various stages of development. Precisely because moralists were too rudely familiar with moral facts, in arbitrary extraction or accidental reduction, in the form of the morality of the people around them, their class, their church, their modernity, their climate or earthly belt, precisely because they were too bad familiar, and not very willing to get acquainted, with the peoples, times and past eras - they did not meet with real problems of morality, which arise only when comparing different moral views. Strange as it may seem, in the entire "science of morality" that existed hitherto, there was not yet the very problem of morality, there was not even a suspicion that there was something problematic here.

What philosophers called the "justification of morality", which they demanded of themselves, was, in fact, only a scientific form of trust and belief in the prevailing morality, a new way of expressing it, and, therefore, simply a factual position within a certain definite system of moral concepts. , - even, in the end, a kind of denial of the very possibility and the very right to pose this morality as a problem - in any case, the complete opposite of the study, decomposition, vivisection and criticism of just this.

Meanwhile, in order to really seriously pose the problem of morality and its value - not to mention solving it - one must rise not only above private moral views, no matter how widespread and generally recognized, no matter how deeply they are rooted in our feelings, life and culture: we need to rise above and beyond any moral assessments, as such, to pass "beyond good and evil", and to pass not only abstractly, in thought, but also in feelings and in life. "To see how high the towers rise in the city, one must go out of the city."

Chapter.5. APHORISMS ON THE THEME OF MORALITY

The main condition of morality is the desire to become moral

Morality does not depend on hereditary factors

K.Vasiliev

So, in everything you want people to do to you, do the same to them; for in this is the law and the prophets

By the name of morality, we mean not only outward propriety, but also the whole inner basis of motives.

Ya.A.Kamensky

The moral qualities of a person must be judged not by his individual efforts, but by his daily life.

B. Pascal

"Good and moral are one and the same."

"Reasonable and moral always coincide"

“Two exact sciences: mathematics and moral teaching. These sciences are exact and undoubted because all people have the same mind, which perceives mathematics, and the same spiritual nature, which perceives (the doctrine of life) the moral doctrine.

“It is not the quantity of knowledge that is important, but its quality. Nobody can know everything, but it is shameful and harmful to pretend that you know what you don’t know.”

“The goal of the life of every single person is one: perfection in goodness. And therefore, only the knowledge that leads to this is needed.

"Knowledge without a moral basis means nothing."

“It seems to us that the most important work in the world is work on something visible: to build a house, plow a field, feed livestock, collect fruits, and work on one’s soul, on something invisible, is an unimportant business, such as may or may not be done. Meanwhile, this is only one thing, work on the soul, on doing better and kinder every day, only this work is real, and all other work, visible, is useful only when this main work is done on the soul.

L. N. Tolstoy

“Socrates constantly pointed out to his students that with a properly placed education in each science, one must reach only a certain limit, which should not be crossed.

He had such a low opinion of them not out of ignorance, since he himself studied these sciences, but because he did not want time and effort to be spent on unnecessary studies that could be used for the most necessary thing for a person: for his moral improvement.

Xenophon

“Wisdom is not about knowing a lot. We cannot know everything. Wisdom is not in knowing as much as possible, but in knowing what knowledge is most needed, what is less and what is even less needed. Of all the knowledge that a person needs, the most important is the knowledge of how to live well, i.e. to live in such a way as to do as little evil as possible and as much good as possible. In our time, people study all sorts of unnecessary sciences, and do not study this one, the most necessary.

“The higher a person is in mental and moral development, the more pleasure life gives him, the freer he is.”

“For a man there is no bliss in immorality; it is only in morality and virtue that he achieves the highest bliss.

A. I. Herzen

CONCLUSION

The "Golden Rule of Morality" is the oldest ethical standard of human behavior. Its most common formulation is: "Do not treat others as you would not like them to treat you." The "golden rule" is already found in the early written records of many cultures (In the teachings of Confucius, in the ancient Indian Mahabrat, in the Bible, in Homer's Odyssey, etc.) and firmly enters the consciousness of subsequent eras.In Russian, it appears in the form of a proverb "What you do not love in another, do not do it yourself.

When this principle underlies the relationship of people, then we will achieve “heaven on earth” even during our lifetime, embody the ideal of ancient and ancient philosophers, nullify wars and any disagreements, and there will be world peace. Only at this stage of human existence, the realization of these hopes cannot be expected - the centrifugal force of human greed and anger is too great. It is impossible to build a heaven on earth in a world where money is elevated to the place of God, and their quantity is a measure of prestige.

Natural-science consciousness in the era of scientific and technological revolution actively invades all spheres of society, becomes a direct productive force. Despite the complexity of the content of science, it should be remembered that science is a phenomenon of a spiritual nature. Science is a system of knowledge about nature, society, and man. Scientific knowledge is a product of spiritual production, by its nature it is ideal. In science, the criterion of rational development of the world occupies the main place, and from the trinity of truth, goodness, beauty, truth acts as the leading value in it. Science is a historically established form of human activity aimed at understanding and transforming objective reality, such an area of ​​spiritual production that results in purposefully selected and systematized facts, logically verified hypotheses, generalizing theories, fundamental and particular laws, as well as research methods. Thus, science is both a system of knowledge, and their production, and practically transforming activity based on them. Science, like all other forms of human exploration of reality, arises and develops from the need to meet the needs of society. The role and social significance of science are not limited to its explanatory function, because the main goal of knowledge is the practical application of scientific knowledge. Thus, the forms of social consciousness, including naturally scientific, aesthetic and moral consciousness, determine the level of development of the spiritual life of society.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1.A.A. Gorelov. Concepts of modern natural science. - Moscow: Center Publishing House, 2000.-205 p.

2. Concepts of modern natural science: textbook / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Moscow.: Publishing house UNITY-DANA, 2006. - 447 p.

3. A.A. Arutsev, B.V. Ermolaev, I.O. Kutateladze, M.S. Slutsky. Concepts of modern natural science. - Moscow: Textbook MGOU, 2000.-348 p.

4. G.I. Ruzavin. Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for universities. - Moscow: UNITI Publishing House, 2000. - 287 p.

5. M.S. Kunafin. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. - Ufa: Ufa Publishing House, 2003. - 488 p.

heat exchange 3) health preservation; 4) physical activity.

2. To the needs of a person, due to his biological

organization includes the need for:

1) self-realization; 2) self-preservation; 3) self-knowledge; 4) self-education

3. Personality is:

1) any representative of human society; 2) socially significant features that characterize a person as a member of society; 3) every human individual; 4) a set of biological and social characteristics of a person.

4. Individuality is:

1) specific features inherent in a person as a biological organism; 2) the temperament of a person, his character; 3) the unique originality of both natural and social in man; 4) the totality of human needs and abilities.

5. Personal socialization is:

1) communication with others; 2) change in social status; 3) the assimilation of social experience accumulated by mankind; 4) the transition from one social group to another.

6. A sign of human activity that distinguishes it from the behavior of animals is:

1) manifestation of activity; 2) goal setting; 3) adaptation to the surrounding world; 4) interaction with nature.

7. What is “ecological imbalance”?:

a) a sharp deterioration in the state of the natural environment;

b) changes in the ecosystem, leading, ultimately, to its replacement by another ecosystem for a long or indefinite period.

8. What area does the concept of "morality" belong to:

a) social;

b) spiritual;

c) political;

d) economic.

9. Choose the correct statements:

a) Man's freedom consists in his ability to live outside society.

b) No person - no society.

c) Each new generation is included in the already established social relations.

d) The life of society is not subject to change.

e) Knowledge, labor skills, moral standards are the products of social development.

10. Choose the correct statements:

a) Labor creates everything necessary for human life.

b) Throughout history, society has regarded work as the greatest good.

c) Labor is connected with nature and affects - directly or indirectly - natural objects.

d) The advent of automatic technology frees man from the need to work.

e) The introduction of machines into production has made it possible to replace the human hand in many operations.

11. Choose the correct statements:

a) Political relations always concern power, the state.

b) Politics and political relations arose with the advent of human society.

c) Only the state issues laws that are binding on all its citizens.

d) The interests of large social communities are formulated and expressed by political parties.

e) Membership in one of the political parties is the duty of every citizen.

12. What are the factors of production?:

3) capital;

4) entrepreneurial abilities;

5) information.

13. What type of economy is most common?:

a) traditional;

b) centralized;

c) market;

d) mixed.

14. Choose the correct statement:

a) the main principle of the market - the transaction should be profitable either only for the seller, or only for the buyer;

b) the main problem of the economy is the distribution of unlimited resources;

c) the three main questions of economics - what, how and for whom to produce.

15. Adjust:

1) power, state, presidential elections, suffrage

2) production of material goods, finance, banks, trade

3) classes, nations, primary collectives, inequality

4) theater, religion, science, moral standards, values

A) the spiritual sphere of society

B) the social sphere of society

C) the economic sphere of society

D) the political sphere of society

Reading time: 3 min

Morality is the desire of a person to evaluate conscious actions, the state of a person on the basis of a set of conscious norms of behavior inherent in a particular individual. The conscience is the spokesman for the ideas of a morally developed person. These are the deep laws of a decent human life. Morality is an individual's idea of ​​evil and good, the ability to correctly assess the situation and determine the typical style of behavior in it. Each individual has his own standards of morality. It forms a certain code of relations with a person and the environment as a whole, based on mutual understanding and humanism.

What is morality

Morality is an integral characteristic of a person, which is the cognitive basis for the formation of a morally healthy person: socially oriented, adequately assessing the situation, having an established set of values. In today's society, in general use, there is a definition of morality as a synonym for the concept of morality. The etymological features of this concept show the origin from the word "nature" - character. For the first time, the semantic definition of the concept of morality was published in 1789 - "The Dictionary of the Russian Academy".

The concept of morality combines a certain set of qualities of the personality of the subject. Primarily it is honesty, kindness, compassion, decency, diligence, generosity, reliability. Analyzing morality as a personal property, it should be mentioned that everyone is able to bring their own qualities to this concept. In people with different types of professions, morality also forms a different set of qualities. A soldier must necessarily be brave, a fair judge, a teacher. Based on the formed moral qualities, the directions of the subject's behavior in society are formed. The subjective attitude of the individual plays a significant role in assessing the situation in a moral way. Someone perceives civil marriage as absolutely natural, for others it is like a sin. Based on religious studies, it should be recognized that the concept of morality has retained very little of its true meaning. The ideas of modern man about morality are distorted and emasculated.

Morality is a purely individual quality that allows a person to consciously control their own mental and emotional state, personifying a spiritually and socially formed personality. A moral person is able to determine the golden measure between the self-centered part of his self and sacrifice. Such a subject is able to form a socially oriented, value-defined civil and worldview.

A moral person, choosing the direction of his actions, acts solely according to his own conscience, relying on the formed personal values ​​and concepts. For some, the concept of morality is the equivalent of a “ticket to heaven” after death, but in life it is something that does not really affect the success of the subject and does not bring any benefit. For this type of people, moral behavior is a way to cleanse the soul of sins, as if to cover up their own wrong deeds. Man is a being unhindered in his choice, has his own course of life. At the same time, society has its own influence, is able to set its own ideals and values.

In fact, morality, as a property necessary for the subject, is extremely important for society as well. This is, as it were, a guarantee of the preservation of humanity as a species, otherwise, without the norms and principles of moral behavior, humanity will eradicate itself. Arbitrariness and gradual - the consequences of the disappearance of morality as a set of trailers and values ​​of society as such. Most likely, the death of a certain nation or ethnic group, if it is headed by an immoral government. Accordingly, the level of life comfort of people depends on the developed morality. Protected and prosperous is that society, observance of values ​​and moral principles, in which respect and altruism, above all.

So, morality is internalized principles and values, based on which a person directs his behavior, performs actions. Morality, being a form of social knowledge and relations, regulates human actions through principles and norms. Directly, these norms are based on the point of view about the impeccable, about the categories of good, justice and evil. Based on humanistic values, morality allows the subject to be human.

Rules of morality

In everyday use of expressions, morality and have the same meaning and common origins. At the same time, everyone should determine the existence of certain rules that easily outline the essence of each of the concepts. So moral rules, in turn, allow the individual to develop his own mental and moral state. To some extent, these are the "Laws of the Absolute" that exist in absolutely all religions, worldviews and societies. Consequently, moral rules are universal, and their non-fulfillment entails consequences for the subject who does not comply with them.

There are, for example, 10 commandments received as a result of direct communication between Moses and God. This is part of the rules of morality, the observance of which is argued by religion. In fact, scientists do not deny the presence of a hundred times more rules, they come down to one denominator: the harmonious existence of mankind.

Since ancient times, many peoples have had the concept of a certain "Golden Rule", which carries the basis of morality. Its interpretation has dozens of formulations, while the essence remains unchanged. Following this “golden rule”, an individual should behave towards others in the same way as he relates to himself. This rule forms the concept of a person that all people are equal in terms of their freedom of action, as well as the desire to develop. Following this rule, the subject reveals its deep philosophical interpretation, which says that the individual must learn in advance to realize the consequences of his own actions in relation to the “other individual”, projecting these consequences onto himself. That is, the subject, who mentally tries on the consequences of his own act, will think about whether it is worth acting in this direction. The golden rule teaches a person to develop his inner instinct, teaches compassion, empathy and helps to develop mentally.

Although this moral rule was formulated in antiquity by famous teachers and thinkers, it has not lost its relevance in the modern world. “What you do not want for yourself, do not do to another” - this is the rule in the original interpretation. The emergence of such an interpretation is attributed to the origins of the first millennium BC. It was then that a humanistic upheaval took place in the ancient world. But as a moral rule, it received its status of "golden" in the eighteenth century. This prescription emphasizes the global moral principle according to the relationship to another person within various interaction situations. Since its presence in any existing religion has been proven, it can be noted as the foundation of human morality. This is the most important truth of the humanistic behavior of a moral person.

The problem of morality

Considering modern society, it is easy to notice that moral development is characterized by decline. In the twentieth century, the world experienced a sudden fall of all the laws and values ​​of the morality of society. Moral problems began to appear in society, which negatively influenced the formation and development of humane humanity. This fall has reached even greater development in the twenty-first century. Throughout the existence of man, many problems of morality have been noted, which in one way or another had a negative impact on the individual. Guided by spiritual guidelines in different eras, people put something of their own into the concept of morality. They were able to do things that in modern society terrify absolutely every sane person. For example, the Egyptian pharaohs, who, fearing to lose their kingdom, committed unthinkable crimes, killing all newborn boys. Moral norms are rooted in religious laws, following which shows the essence of the human personality. Honor, dignity, faith, love for the motherland, for a person, fidelity - the qualities that served as a direction in human life, to which some of the laws of God reached at least to some extent. Consequently, throughout its development, it was common for society to deviate from religious precepts, which instilled in the emergence of moral problems.

The development of moral problems in the twentieth century is a consequence of the world wars. The era of the decline of morals has been stretching since the First World War, during this crazy time, a person's life has depreciated. The conditions in which people had to survive erased all moral restrictions, personal relationships depreciated exactly, like human life at the front. The involvement of mankind in inhuman bloodshed dealt a crushing blow to morality.

One of the periods when moral problems appeared was the communist period. During this period, it was planned to destroy all religions, respectively, and the moral standards laid down in it. Even if in the Soviet Union the development of the rules of morality was much higher, this position could not be held for a long time. Along with the destruction of the Soviet world, there was also a decline in the morality of society.

For the current period, one of the main problems of morality is the fall of the institution of the family. Which entails a demographic catastrophe, an increase in divorces, the birth of countless children in unmarried. Views on the family, motherhood and fatherhood, on the upbringing of a healthy child have a regressive character. Of certain importance is the development of corruption in all areas, theft, deceit. Now everything is bought, exactly as it is sold: diplomas, victories in sports, even human honor. This is just the consequences of the decline of morality.

moral education

The education of morality is a process of purposeful influence on a personality, which implies an impact on the consciousness of the behavior and feelings of the subject. During the period of such education, the moral qualities of the subject are formed, allowing the individual to act within the framework of public morality.

The education of morality is a process that does not involve interruptions, but only close interaction between the student and the educator. To educate a child's moral qualities should be by example. It is quite difficult to form a moral personality, it is a painstaking process in which not only teachers and parents take part, but also a public institution as a whole. At the same time, the age characteristics of the individual, his readiness for analysis, and information processing are always provided. The result of the education of morality is the development of a holistically moral personality, which will develop together with its feelings, conscience, habits and values. Such education is considered a difficult and multifaceted process that generalizes pedagogical education and the influence of society. Moral education involves the formation of feelings of morality, a conscious connection with society, a culture of behavior, consideration of moral ideals and concepts, principles and behavioral norms.

Moral education takes place during the period of study, during the period of education in the family, in public organizations, and directly includes individuals. The continuous process of educating morality begins with the birth of the subject and lasts throughout his life.

Speaker of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"

Criteriological approach to the category of morality requires, first of all, the achievement of understanding and orientation in the space of life and natural criteria in general in order to build a system of assessments of knowledge of the highest level. Such a desire is very difficult to fulfill, because morality itself is already such a high-level evaluation system that allows humanity and each individual to correlate virtually any actions and thoughts with each other.

Morality is a more detailed and subtle regulation of behavior than morality. The requirements of morality apply to any moment of behavior and to any life situation. It requires that every act of a Person correspond to its requirements, this also captures the sphere of attitude towards oneself. It follows from this that the sphere of morality is wider than the sphere of morality, but is less formalized and normative. Morality can be represented as a wide field of spontaneous formation of Human assessments of his behavior, including those that are not within the scope of moral norms. Some of these assessments are institutionalized over time and take the form of law. Until this happens, there will be a large number of immoral people who skillfully act in front of everyone, without transgressing the boundaries of the law.

This word appeared in the Russian language in the 18th century, came from the root "nature" and began to be used as a synonym for the words "morality" and "ethics". However, after some time, these terms began to be distinguished.

Morality is a concept that refers to an individual and is understood subjectively. Morality is the life attitude of a certain person, which includes individual forms of behavior in certain situations, values, goals, concepts of good and evil, etc. in the understanding of the individual. Thus, morality is a purely individual concept. So, for one, living with a beloved girl out of wedlock and not cheating on her is quite moral, but for another, this is unacceptable, since living fully with a girl and not being married to her is an example of anti-moral behavior. The subjective point of view allows us to evaluate morality as high and low, depending on a particular opinion.

When we try to comprehend this concept, we first of all note that in the concept of morality in a special way, if not successfully, the knowledge of human civilization about the ideal and reality is combined: the ideal attracts reality to itself, forcing it to change according to moral principles.

In addition, this category, as an expanded concept, combines the essential social root cause of people's real actions: they voluntarily take on personal responsibilities for conforming their actions to certain general ideas (common mores) and for correlating these actions and their thoughts with the goals, objectives, criteria of society. . In a different way, life turns into a Winning Game for Everyone and Everyone.

OPTION 8

Part 1

A1. What distinguishes a person from an animal?

A3. Are the following judgments about the global problems of modern society correct?

A. Global problems threaten the existence of humanity as a biological species.

B. Global problems cannot be solved in individual countries, regions of the world.

A4. What is the exact sciences?

A5. He went out to the instrument, and enchanting music poured into the hall. Listeners experienced a flurry of various emotions. This is an example of activity in the field

A6. Are the following judgments about spiritual culture correct?

A. Works of spiritual culture are the result of creativity of individuals, society as a whole.

B. Works of spiritual culture are preserved and passed on to the next generations.

A7. In market conditions, commodity prices

A8. Which of the following is a factor (source) of production?

A9. In Germany in the 1920s, cafe patrons were often forced to pay twice as much for lunch as the price indicated on the menu. This fact is a direct manifestation

A10. Are the following statements about forms of ownership correct?

A. One of the ways to increase the share of state property is nationalization.

B. Competitive struggle of producers is possible only under conditions of private property.

A11. Siberians, Urals are

A12. On average, in the world in the age group over 65, there are 67 men per 100 women. This indicator reflects

A13. Are the following statements about social conflict correct?

A. The discrepancy between the interests of social groups can lead to social conflict.

B. Interethnic conflict is a kind of social.

A14. The hallmark of any state is

A15. In the USA in the middle of the 19th century, all white men got the right to vote, then - former slaves, and in 1920 - women. It's a move towards suffrage

A16. Are the following statements about forms of government correct?

A. All modern democracies are republics.

B. The transfer of power of the head of state by inheritance is inherent in monarchies.

A17. What branch of law governs parenting?

A19. An initiative group of citizens opposed the construction of a residential area planned by the local authorities on the site of the park. Citizens went to court to protect their rights. This fact testifies to

1) the presence of civil society

2) activities of local governments

3) violation of environmental legislation

4) the federal structure of the state

A20. Are the following statements about the rights of the child correct?

A. The rights of the child are protected by a special convention.

B. The right to live and be brought up in a family is one of the main rights of a child.

Part 2

IN 1. The above list shows the similarities between religion and morality and the differences between religion and morality.

Select and write down in the first column of the table the serial numbers of the similarities, and in the second column - the serial numbers of the differences.

1) based on belief in the supernatural

2) is an area of ​​spiritual culture

3) influences the norms of people's behavior

4) uses cults and rituals

AT 2. Find the state budget expenditure items in the list below and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the answer line.

Answer: ___________

AT 3. Establish a correspondence between the forms of democracy and examples: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the selected numbers in the table.

AT 4. Below are some terms. All of them, with the exception of one, belong to the concept of " administrative offense».

1) offense, 2) action, 3) violation of public order,

4) arrest, 5) conviction.

Find and write down the number of the term that falls out of this row.

Answer:________

Part 3

Read the text and complete tasks C1 - C6

Family Code of the Russian Federation

Chapter 8. Contractual regime of property of spouses.

Article 41

1. A marriage contract can be concluded both before the state registration of marriage, and at any time during the period of marriage. A marriage contract concluded before the state registration of the conclusion of marriage shall enter into force on the day of the state registration of the conclusion of marriage.

2. A marriage contract is concluded in writing and is subject to notarization.

Article 42

1. By a marriage contract, the spouses have the right to change the statutory regime of joint ownership (Article 34 of this Code), to establish the regime of joint, shared or separate ownership of all the property of the spouses, its separate types or the property of each of the spouses.

2. A marriage contract may be concluded both in relation to the existing and in relation to the future property of the spouses.

Spouses have the right to determine in the marriage contract their rights and obligations for mutual maintenance, ways of participating in each other's income, the procedure for each of them to bear family expenses; determine the property that will be transferred to each of the spouses in the event of divorce, as well as include in the marriage contract any other provisions relating to the property relations of the spouses ...<...>

3. A marriage contract cannot restrict the legal capacity or legal capacity of the spouses, their right to apply to the court for the protection of their rights; regulate personal non-property relations between spouses, the rights and obligations of spouses in relation to children; provide for provisions restricting the right of a disabled needy spouse to receive maintenance; contain other conditions that put one of the spouses in an extremely unfavorable position or contradict the basic principles of family law.

C1

C2

C3

C4. Write out from the text of the document any two conditions that cannot be included in the prenuptial agreement, and illustrate each of them with an example.

C5

C6

Keys Option 8

C1. Highlight the main semantic parts of the text. Give a title to each of them (make a text plan). Answer:

C2. When can a prenuptial agreement be concluded? Answer:

C3. Find in the text and write down three conditions, without which the prenuptial agreement has no legal force. Answer:

C4. Write out from the text of the document any two conditions that cannot be included in the prenuptial agreement, and illustrate each of them with an example.

Answer:

C5. When discussing the terms of the marriage contract, a dispute arose. One side argued that it was necessary to include all the property of the spouses in the contract, the other side argued that only part of the property could be stipulated. How do you think this dispute can be resolved? Provide a piece of text that helps answer this question. Answer:

C6. In our society, there are both positive and negative attitudes towards the marriage contract. What is your point of view on the need to conclude a marriage contract? Based on the text and social science knowledge, give two arguments (explanations) in defense of your position.

Answer: