The role of religion in modern society: a sociological study. Research work on the topic “Religion and modern youth Do you think all religions lead to the same God?”

Potassium Elena

annotation

The 20th century witnessed a huge number of scientific discoveries. Many age-old secrets of nature have been revealed, and far-advanced science has proven the evidence of the truth of Creation.

Each new scientific discovery brings more and more evidence of the existence of a perfect project, plan, design, order in any living organism and even in any object of inanimate nature. Many scientists who directly witnessed these discoveries saw and realized that the project of the Universe is the fruit of the Creation of the Almighty Lord, the Possessor of Infinite Knowledge. Therefore, now these people stand in the position of recognizing the fact of the creation of the Universe.

Problem: the views of religious figures and famous scientists on the development of the world should differ from each other.

Relevance of the topic: The dispute between two points of view on the development of physics and religion is still ongoing.

Object of study: mutual influence of physics and religion.

Subject of study: features of the mutual influence of physics and religion.

Purpose of the study: determining the conditions for the harmonious coexistence of essentially opposite forms of social consciousness of religion and science.

Research hypothesis: If religion and science do not come into conflict and express contradictions, then new views on known facts and new discoveries will be possible.

Research objectives:

1. Study the literature on this topic.
2. Systematize and summarize the information received, compare the points of view of scientists on the relationship between science and religion.
3. Analyze the relationship between the church and science that has developed over the centuries.
4. Interview the rector of the Holy Protection Church, Father Eugene, on the issue of the relationship of religion to scientific discoveries.

Research methods:

1. Studying literary sources and Internet resources.
2. Comparison of the points of view of scientists and religious figures on the same phenomena.
3. Classification of the results obtained.

Practical application of the work can be carried out in physics lessons, military-industrial complex, and in extracurricular activities.

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Municipal educational budgetary institution

"Secondary school No. 7 named after V.P. Adodin"

The relationship between physics and religion.

Kaliy Elena Evgenevna,

Student of 8th grade "B".

Sinchenko Petr Kuzmich,

Physics teacher

year 2012

St.Dyadkovskaya

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………5
2. Chapter I. History of relations between religion and science……………………………..……... 7
3. Chapter II. Physics and religion………………………………………………………….. 7

3.1. Physicists about God ……………………………………………………………..............9

1. From a conversation between physicists about the relationship of natural science to religion………...…..11
2. ………………………….12

1. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………15
2. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...16
3. Applications ……………………………………………………………………………17

1. Introduction

The 20th century witnessed a huge number of scientific discoveries. Many age-old secrets of nature have been revealed, and far-advanced science has proven the evidence of the truth of Creation.

Each new scientific discovery brings more and more evidence of the existence of a perfect project, plan, design, order in any living organism and even in any object of inanimate nature. Many scientists who directly witnessed these discoveries saw and realized that the project of the Universe is the fruit of the Creation of the Almighty Lord, the Possessor of Infinite Knowledge. Therefore, now these people stand in the position of recognizing the fact of the creation of the Universe.

Problem: the views of religious figures and famous scientists on the development of the world should differ from each other.

Relevance of the topic:The dispute between two points of view on the development of physics and religion is still ongoing.

Object of study:mutual influence of physics and religion.

Subject of study:features of the mutual influence of physics and religion.

Purpose of the study:determining the conditions for the harmonious coexistence of essentially opposite forms of social consciousness of religion and science.

Research hypothesis:If religion and science do not come into conflict and express contradictions, then new views on known facts and new discoveries will be possible.

Research objectives:

1. Study the literature on this topic.
2. Systematize and summarize the information received, compare the points of view of scientists on the relationship between science and religion.
3. Analyze the relationship between the church and science that has developed over the centuries.
4. Interviewthe rector of the Holy Protection Church, Father Eugene, on the issue of the relationship of religion to scientific discoveries.

Research methods:

1. Studying literary sources and Internet resources.
2. Comparison of the points of view of scientists and religious figures on the same phenomena.
3. Classification of the results obtained.

Practical application of the work can be carried out in physics lessons, military-industrial complex, and in extracurricular activities.

For a deeper understanding of the problem under study, I familiarized myself with various collections of scientific works of Einstein, Laplace, Singer and others, with abstracts of reports at the regional student conference “Physics and Scientific and Technological Progress”.

1. Chapter I. History of relations between religion and science

Science is a sphere of human activity whose task is to develop and theoretically systematize objective knowledge about reality. Unlike faith in religions, the main feature of science is doubt. The source of knowledge is scientifically established facts and their theoretical generalization.

The history of the relationship between religion and science is a very interesting subject to study. It is known that the beginnings of science were formed as a result of practical necessity, as well as to serve mystical cults, the latter mainly associated with astronomical observations. Scientific achievements of Egypt, Greece, and China that were significant for their time are known. The greatest flowering of ancient science and philosophy dates back to 300 BC. It was then that the first schools of Plato and Aristotle appeared.

The further development of science and philosophical thought was carried out by Christian leaders. The main scientific centers have been associated with Christian activities for more than a thousand years. Even in the early stages, attempts were made to connect religion and science, which had a significant impact on the development of Western European thought.

1. Chapter II. Physics and religion

For a long time in the USSR, in the country in which my parents were born, the ideology prevailed, according to which any religion was born out of fear of natural phenomena inaccessible to the understanding of primitive man. However, how did the religious consciousness of a scientist, for example Newton, arise in this case, who himself gave an explanation for the external forces acting in nature?

At first glance, the subject of religion and the means that the believer uses to communicate with it are too alien for a physicist and incomprehensible from a scientific point of view. The rector of the Holy Protection Church, Father Eugene, is convinced that religion played an important role in the formation of the natural sciences.

From antiquity until the Middle Ages, religion also included knowledge, since it satisfied all the spiritual needs of man, including the need to understand the world. What in religion contributes to the development of natural sciences?

At first glance, this question is posed incorrectly. Science that emerged in modern times decisively rejected the authority of the Church in matters of knowledge of nature. And the entire subsequent history of science was its struggle with the Church for self-affirmation.

Scientists rightly defended their autonomous rights to freely explore nature, independent of the power of any authority. However

Moreover, the creators of the new science themselves were religious people. Therefore, they fought not against faith in general, but against the prejudices of blind faith, against unfounded judgments.

The first reason is mutual intolerance. The Catholic Church showed intolerance towards scientific knowledge because it considered itself alone to be the owner of absolute truth. She burned Giordano Bruno at the stake, forced Galileo Galilei to recant, and anathematized Blaise Pascal. However, many scientists also showed intolerance on their part, who attributed the ability to completely master the truth only to reason.

There was a more important, albeit hidden, reason for the conflict. The struggle between religion and science boiled down to a struggle over the choice of causality. What underlies the world: the free will of a deity or a natural mechanism?

When Napoleon Bonaparte asked the famous French astronomer, mathematician and physicist Pierre Simon Laplace why the name of God was not mentioned in his Treatise on Celestial Mechanics, the scientist had every reason to answer: “I did not need this hypothesis.”

The physicist Laplace said that science does not refute religion and cannot do this, however, by explaining phenomena without reference to God, it makes religion unnecessary, superfluous for knowledge. And today, a reference to God means, from the point of view of a physicist, a rejection of science and the scientific method. However, this does not mean at all that science makes religion unnecessary for a scientist and displaces God from his soul. It often happens the other way around: religiosity can enrich a scientist’s creativity and become a stimulus for him. Albert Einstein, for example, said that his belief in the harmony of the Universe played a huge role in creating the theory of gravity.

It is no coincidence that of the six greatest scientists of the 17th century. three - Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - were religious rationalists, and the other three

Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, Blaise Pascal were mystics who believed not only in the creation of the world, but also in God's providence in the world.

A curious picture emerged: the creator of mathematical physics, Newton, was a deeply religious believer, and the Newtonian Laplace proclaimed the complete godlessness of physicists. Based on the same science, Newton made the same conclusions regarding God, and Laplace made completely opposite ones.

The fact remains: after Newton, physics made a choice opposite to Newton’s. She followed the path of abandoning metaphysics and God - along the path of positivism.

Positivism, like materialism, recognizes only what is given to us in the world. Russian religious philosopher Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev called this “the slavery of man to the world.”

“In religion, language is used completely differently than in science. The language of religion is more akin to the language of poetry than to the language of science... If religions of all eras speak in images, symbols and paradoxes, this is apparently because there are simply no other possibilities to embrace that reality ", which is meant here. But it does not at all follow from this that it is not genuine reality," argued Niels Bohr.

The opposition of science and religion can be understood precisely as the opposition of two deep truths - the truth of natural causality and the truth of free, final causality.

Religiosity is a normal human condition; it is sometimes taken as the main characteristic that distinguishes man from the entire animal world: man is a religious animal. However, the motives for which a person comes to religious faith can be different.

1. Physicists about God

... I believe in God as a Person and in all conscience I can say that I have not been an atheist for a single minute of my life.

Albert Einstein

Isaac Bashevis Singer, a famous physicist of our day, a scientist who denies evolution and believes in God, during one of his lectures, criticizing Darwinism, used the following interesting story: “Scientists discovered a deserted island where no human had set foot before. The first to land on this island were very amazed by the local nature and life. They were impressed by the forests, full of animals and never seen by loggers. Having climbed the steep slope of the mountain, the scientists looked around. There was no trace of civilization on the island. Returning to the ship, we suddenly discovered an elegant wristwatch of the latest model on the sand. The clock worked great. Scientists were confused. Where did the clock come from here? They knew for sure that no human had set foot on the island before them. But in this case, there was only one option left. This watch with a leather strap, with expensive glass, with hour and minute hands, with a battery and other integral attributes of modernity, appeared on the island by itself, by accident, and somehow ended up on this sand! There was no alternative to this proposal." At the end of the story, for clarification

misconceptions of evolutionists, Singer said: “Every watch has a watchmaker who made it.”

There is no direct way to define what God is. We can only say what God is not: God is not an idol, not fire, not nature. But, as the French thinker Blaise Pascal said, you can know that God exists without even knowing what He is. One can understand the existence of God from his creations.

This way of understanding God turns out to be quite typical for a physicist studying observable nature. Already the ancient Greeks, who perceived the world as a harmoniously arranged whole, believed that “reason rules the world” (Anaxagoras), that the world is arranged according to a rational plan, and this plan is mathematical: “God is always a geometer” (Plato). Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz believed that nature itself, with its intelligent structure, testifies in favor of the idea of ​​​​its intelligent creator. Leonard Euler also believed that discovering mathematical laws means testifying to the ineffable wisdom of the Almighty: “Our world is structured in the most perfect way and is the creation of an omniscient Creator.”

Physics of the twentieth century not only did not reject, but also persistently confirmed this “evidence of nature against atheists.” Albert Einstein wrote: "I can think of no better expression than 'religion' to describe belief in the rational nature of reality." Einstein talks about faith, not knowledge. He once said: the most incomprehensible thing in the world for him is that the world can be understood. "The world of our sensory experience

knowable,” the scientist argued elsewhere. “The very fact of this cognition seems like a miracle.” This “miracle” is possible because our ability to think is designed in such a way that we can understand nature. The German theoretical physicist, one of the creators of quantum mechanics, Werner Heisenberg, for example, defined it this way: “Those the same ordering forces that created nature in all its forms are also responsible for the structure of our soul, and therefore of our mental abilities." One can say differently: only that Universe is amenable to scientific knowledge that was created from beginning to end by free Reason.

Einstein called this special “natural science” type of religiosity a cosmic religious feeling. This is precisely religiosity: not the knowledge of God, but confidence in his existence, which comes, in the words of Einstein, “from deep emotional confidence in the highest logical order of the structure of the Universe.” Cosmic religion is reasonable and therefore not blind or superstitious: it banishes ghosts and excludes fanaticism. This religion is sublime.

According to the German mathematician Hermann Weyl, physics reveals to the thinker

man the way to God, since it gives “a vision of that impeccable harmony that

consistent with a sublime reason." Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and Werner Heisenberg spoke similarly about religion.

Einstein repeatedly stated that he does not believe in a God who “rewards and punishes.” These words were often interpreted to mean that the brilliant physicist did not believe in God as a person, i.e. into a living being. Einstein was therefore considered a pantheist who identified God with the Universe, and pantheism, as they say, is only a polite form of atheism. However, Einstein rebelled only against the anthropomorphic idea of ​​God.

1. From a conversation between physicists about the relationship of natural science to religion.

The wonderful structure of the cosmos and the harmony in it can only be explained by the fact that the cosmos was created according to the plan of an omniscient and omnipotent being. Here are my first and last words.

Isaac Newton

One evening, during the Solvay Congress, several young participants of the congress were sitting in the foyer, among them Wolfgang Pauli and Paul Dirac. Someone asked the question: “Einstein talks so much about the Lord God, what could that mean? After all, strictly speaking, it is impossible to imagine that such a scientist as Einstein was so attached to a religious tradition.” “Einstein, probably not, but Max Planck, probably yes,” they answered him. “There are statements by Planck about the relationship between religion and natural science, in which he takes the position that there is no contradiction between them, that religion and natural science are in perfect agreement with each other.”

For Planck, religion is compatible with natural science because, in his opinion, they belong to completely different areas of reality. Natural science deals with the objective material world, religion deals with the world of values. She talks about what should be, what we should do, and not about what is. In natural science we are talking about true and untrue, in religion - about good and evil, about valuable and valueless. Natural science is the basis of technically feasible action, religion is the basis of ethics. From this point of view, the conflict between both spheres, which began in the 18th century, is based on a misunderstanding that arises when we interpret the images and symbols of religion as statements of natural science, which, of course, is meaningless. Natural science is the way in which we approach the objective side of reality, the way in which we analyze it. On the contrary, religious faith is an expression

personal choice, when we set values ​​for ourselves in accordance with

with which we organize our life behavior. As a rule, we make this choice in accordance with the community to which we belong, be it a family, a nation or our cultural circle. Our choices are greatly influenced by our upbringing and environment. However, it is ultimately subjective and therefore not subject to the criterion of “true or false.” If I understand Max Planck correctly, he used his freedom of choice by unequivocally deciding in favor of the Christian tradition. His way of thinking and actions, including especially his relationships with people, are certainly in line with this tradition, and no one can deny him respect.

1. Two myths about the struggle between religion and physicists.

There are two myths about the struggle between religion and physicists. The first concerned the theory of Copernicus.

An important stage in the development of relations between science and religion is associated with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus “Commentaries” (1515) and the pamphlet “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (1540). Copernicus served as a priest in Frombork. When the Lateran Council organized a commission to reform the calendar, Copernicus was invited to Rome to take part in its work. He argued that such a reform was premature, since the length of the year was not yet known accurately enough.

The creation of the heliocentric system of the world was the result of many years of work by Copernicus. The tables compiled by him are much more accurate than the tables of Ptolemy, which was of great importance for the rapidly developing navigation of that time. However, as a physical description, Copernicus' theory seemed to many contemporaries to be too contradictory to obvious scientific data. That is why one of the first to speak out against Copernicus was the famous and most authoritative astronomer of that time, Tycho Brahe. In other words, there was a conflict between the science of yesterday and the science of today. Academician V.I. Vernadsky remarked on this matter: “... it would be a major mistake to consider the struggle of the Copernican-Newtonian system with Ptolemy as a struggle of two worldviews, scientific and alien to science; this is an internal struggle between representatives of the same scientific worldview.”

The second myth concerns the concepts of Bruno and Galileo. Usually, as the clearest example of how the Church destroyed science, they cite the example of the burning of Giordano Bruno in the Piazza des Flowers in Rome on February 17, 1600. Bruno explained the ideas of Copernicus, putting his thoughts into a certain poetic form. He argued that the Universe is infinite and exists forever, that there are countless people in it

worlds, each of which in its structure resembles the Copernican solar system. It should be noted that this idea influences philosophical thought to this day. Bruno's scientific works are not known to the public. Therefore, the sad example of his fate should be excluded from consideration of the struggle between religion and science; on the contrary, this episode should be attributed to the struggle of worldviews.

Let's move on to consider the case of Galileo Galilei. The poems of the poet Sergei Danilov vividly illustrate what is happening:

Low stone vault... Hooks... Chains... Vise...

There is a glow from the brazier with coals...

His temples were twisted with a hot iron.

Renunciations... Waiting for renunciations...

However, Galileo was not a martyr. Galileo personally knew many prominent hierarchs of the Catholic Church, and, moreover, was on excellent terms with them. In a number of cases, the Catholic Church turned out to be much more tolerant of the scientist’s activities than most of his colleagues. Unlike university professors who refused to admit, for example, the existence of moons of Jupiter and did not even bother to look through a telescope, dad paid great attention to his work. When Galileo first openly tried to draw attention to the ideas of Copernicus in 1616, it was pointed out to him that although this theory could be considered an interesting mathematical hypothesis, it should not be involved in a physical explanation of the world. The inquisitors saw a contradiction with the Holy Scriptures in Copernicus' conclusions. Therefore, Galileo’s opponents did not “descend” to consider the actual scientific argumentation, being confident that such was simply impossible.

Galileo did not intend to conflict with the Church. He believed that the condemnation of Copernicus was a mistake, based on an incorrect distinction between the spheres of competence of religion and science. And here, of course, his position was much more correct than the position of the Roman throne. “I think,” Galileo wrote in one of his letters, “that the authority of Holy Scripture serves to convince people of those truths and provisions that are necessary for the salvation of their souls; and since these truths exceed the boundaries of human understanding, no science or other means, except the speaking mouth of the Holy Spirit himself, can force people to believe in them. But I do not think it is so necessary to believe that God himself, who gave us feelings, understanding and reason, wanted us to seek scientific truths only in the text of Scripture, and not with the help of itself.

Sciences; Moreover, its text says too little and fragmentarily about this kind of truth.”

The “Galileo Affair” can be seen as an attempt to delimit the spheres of influence between religion and science - these two different ways of understanding the world and man. Both the Roman throne and the Florentine scientist recognized the difference between these methods. At the same time, neither the pope nor Galileo faced a choice: either religion or science. Each has its own tasks.

1. Conclusion

This work examined the history of the relationship between religion and science, the analysis of which showed that there was no war between them, but at the same time there were a number of conflicts associated with the formation of science and the excesses inherent in this process. However, both science and religion exist to this day, each occupying its own niche.

This confrontation is possible only in the humanities or mixed (natural and humanities) sciences due to the need to involve a subjective assessment of evidence. A large number of eminent scientists believe in God, a large number are atheists. This is probably due to the fact that science involves doubt as opposed to faith. On the other hand, the observed orderliness and aesthetics of the surrounding world evoke admiration, which leads to faith. As a result, we can conclude about the dialectical nature of the relationship between science and religion, which is characterized by the presence of harmony and tension at the same time. In the modern world, multipolarity of beliefs is necessary, which entails the harmonious development of both the system of natural science knowledge and society as a whole. The rector of the Holy Protection Church, Father Eugene, shares the same point of view.

Stepnogorsk k. No. 2 kurylys-technical colleges KMM

KSU Stepnogorsk Construction and Technical College No. 2

Oku-zerteu zhumysy

Educational - research

Takyryby: “Madeniet zhane din”

Topic: “Culture and Religion”

Sections of tariffs, economics

Section of History, Economics and Law

Oryndaushy: 2-Auto electrician tobyn students Anatoly Abdulaev

Zhetekshi: tarikh paninin okytushysy Rakishev A.B.

Head: history teacher Rakishev A B.

city ​​of Stepnogorsk 2015

Content

Introduction - 3

Chapter 1. Main part - 6

1.1.The concept of culture - 6

1.2.Development of culture - 7

1.3.Culture as a sphere of religion - 9

1.4. Man before God - 13

1.5. Cultural interaction between science and religion - 15

Chapter 2. Research part - 17

2.1. Social factors of the spread of destructive non-traditional religious movements in Kazakhstan - 17

2.2. Destructive activities of non-traditional religious movements in modern Kazakhstan: general content and orientation - 18

2.3. Ensuring Spiritual Security Kazakh society as a condition for countering the destructive activities of non-traditional religious movements - 19

3. Conclusion - 21

4. List of used literature - 26

5. Appendix - 27

6. Feedback from the manager - 30

Introduction

Religion has existed for many centuries, apparently as long as humanity has existed. During this time, it developed many varieties of religion. Peculiar religions existed in the Ancient World among the Egyptians and Greeks, Babylonians and Jews. Currently, the so-called world religions are widespread: Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. In addition to them, national religions continue to exist (Confucianism, Judaism, Shintoism, etc.).

We live in an era of highly developed material civilization and progress. But with regard to moral values, humanity has faced new problems that are mainly of a spiritual nature. These problems are the result of a person’s loss of the idea of ​​who he is in relation to himself, to other people and, above all, to the Almighty. And until a person can find meaningful and correct answers to these pressing questions and ways to solve his problems, compatible with the fundamentals of existence and his own nature, he will live without ground under his feet, see the world in a distorted light, in the form of fragmentary parts, and not a single whole.

I set myself: to reflect the relevance of this topic and defined goals and objectives for myself

Purpose of the study: determine the causes and nature of the manifestation of destructive non-traditional religious movements in the spiritual sphere of modern Kazakhstani society, as well as the main ways to overcome their destructive activities and ensure spiritual security.

Hypothesis: Noting the dialectical necessity of the emergence of such non-traditional religious movements, one cannot fail to take into account the fact that many of them are destructive and pose a threat to the spiritual security of Kazakh society.

Stages of the research procedure: definition of the object and subject of research, goals of research, formulation of a hypothesis, collection of material, selection of research methods, general characteristics of basic concepts, factors influencing the subject of research.

Experimental methods: observation, survey, analysis, comparison.

Novelty of the study: independent work with documents, conclusions.

In my work I touched on the following issues that are relevant today. Problems of religion have always worried humanity. Against the backdrop of profound changes in the economic, political and spiritual spheres of society taking place in our country, interest in religion has increased sharply. Satisfying this social need, schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, and universities have introduced courses in such disciplines as “Fundamentals of Religious Studies,” “History of World Religions,” “Religion in the System of World Culture,” etc. Mastering these disciplines is an integral part humanitarization of education. It helps students master one of the most important areas of world and domestic culture, realize free and conscious self-determination in ideological position, spiritual interests and values, learn to competently conduct ideological dialogue, and master the art of understanding other people whose way of thinking and acting is different. This will help him avoid, on the one hand, dogmatism and authoritarianism, and on the other, relativism and nihilism. Ultimately, this study will contribute to the establishment of a spiritual climate of mutual understanding, harmonization of interpersonal relations between representatives of different religious and non-religious worldviews, the establishment of civil harmony and social stability in society. However, when studying these disciplines, pupils and students feel the need for a textbook that would cover key issues of culture and religion in an accessible form, impartially, and objectively.

As the author of this work, I have set myself the task of introducing you to various approaches and concepts of religion: theological, philosophical and scientific. At the same time, I sought, on the one hand, to overcome the dominant assessment of religion in Marxist religious studies as a form of self-realization inadequate to the true existence of man, which is temporary and must be overcome by humanity at a higher stage of its development; on the other hand, I did not set before is the task of substantiating the theological interpretation of religion as a supernatural, non-historical formation. My task as a researcher is to present to your judgment various positions and at the same time, without entering into polemics with representatives of theology and atheism, on the basis of scientific methods and a large amount of factual material, to reveal the content of religion, its structure and function in the life of everyone person and society. This work also covers the problems of the origin and evolution of religion, doctrine, cult and organization of modern world and non-traditional religions, discusses the problems of dialogue between believers and non-believers on key ideological issues, the legal status of religious organizations in modern Kazakhstan.

Chapter 1. Main part

1.1. The concept of culture.

The term “culture” is of Latin origin and originally meant the cultivation of the soil, its “cultivation,” that is, a change in nature under the influence of man and his activities, in contrast to those changes caused by natural causes. Already in this initial content of the term, the language expressed a very important feature of culture - the human principle inherent in it, focusing on the unity of culture, man and his activities.

Later, the word “culture” acquired a more generalized meaning and began to be used to refer to everything created by man. This understanding of culture truly reflects its essential features. Culture appears as a “second nature” created by man, built on top of natural nature, as a world created by man, in contrast to virgin nature. When defining the essence of culture, one must proceed from the fact that any external expression of culture is a manifestation of the degree of development of the person himself. Man himself shapes himself in the process of his activities as a cultural and historical being. His human qualities are the result of his mastering the language, familiarizing himself with the values ​​and traditions existing in society, and mastering the techniques and skills of activity inherent in a given culture. It is given by God that man has his own material body, which is endowed, through its organs, with the ability for practical and conscious activity necessary for his life. It will not be an exaggeration to say that culture represents the measure of humanity in a person, a characteristic of the development of man as a social being. Consequently, culture exists in constant interaction of its external materialized expression with the person himself. This interaction consists in the fact that a person assimilates a previously created culture, deobjectifies it, thereby making it a prerequisite for his activity, and creates culture, creating something new.

A person, of course, perceives culture selectively under the influence of preferences determined by many circumstances. And only on the basis of this culture assimilated by him is he able to develop further. As a creator of culture, he brings something new into it.

1.2. Development of culture.

The development of culture is associated with cultural tradition. It is a stable side of culture, thanks to which human experience accumulates in history, and each new generation of people can use this experience, relying in their activities on what was created by previous generations.

Culture reflects differences in worldview, value systems, and ideological attitudes, so it is legitimate to talk about reactionary and progressive tendencies in culture. But it does not follow from this that one can completely discard the previous culture. It is impossible to create a new, higher culture from scratch. The social atmosphere of the period of the cult of personality, with its rejection of freedom of creativity, the inculcation of fear and arbitrariness, causes serious damage to culture. Stalin's repressions led to the death of many prominent members of the intelligentsia.

The problem of cultural tradition arose in an acute form in China in the 60s, when the so-called “great cultural revolution” was proclaimed, which brought great troubles to the country. Studies in schools and the work of higher educational institutions were interrupted, libraries and museums were closed, the creative intelligentsia was persecuted, fanaticism was instilled, the works of the great humanists of the past were declared “reactionary,” and cultural values ​​were destroyed. After the death of Mao Zedong, the Chinese Communist Party condemned this alleged “cultural revolution” and its leaders for extremism, which harmed the country’s socialist development. All this indicates that the problem of attitude to cultural heritage in certain situations, and especially at turning points in the development of society and culture, acquires an acute political character.

It is obvious that the question of tradition in culture and the attitude towards cultural heritage concerns not only the preservation, but also the development of culture, that is, the creation of something new, the increase in cultural wealth in the process of creativity.

Thus, the development of culture is also connected with its developing side - in the process of labor activity with the development of technical progress and methods of production. The creation of something new simultaneously becomes the creation of cultural values ​​when it carries a universal content, acquires social significance, and receives an echo from other people.

Replicating in one form or another what is already known, has already been created earlier is dissemination, not the creation of culture. But it is also necessary, since it involves a wide range of people in the process of the functioning of culture in society, and the creativity of culture necessarily involves the inclusion of something new in the process of historical development. Culture-creating human activity, therefore, is a source of innovation.

1.3. Culture as a sphere of religion.

Religious consciousness, unlike other worldview systems, includes in the “world-man” system an additional mediating formation - the sacred world, correlating with this world its ideas about existence as a whole and the goals of human existence.

However, the function of a religious worldview is not only to show a person a certain truth of the created world, but, first of all, so that thanks to this truth he is able to find the meaning of his life. That is why the ideological function of religion is called the meaning-making or “meaning” function. Without the Divine breath, a person becomes weak, helpless, at a loss, if he feels emptiness, loses understanding of the meaning of what is happening to him. On the contrary, knowing a person, why he lives, what is the meaning of the events that take place, makes him strong, helps him overcome life’s hardships, suffering, and even face death with dignity, since this suffering and death are filled with a certain meaning for a religious person.

The legitimizing (legalizing) function is closely related to the ideological function of religion. The theoretical justification of this function of religion was carried out by the largest American sociologist . In his opinion, a sociocultural community is not able to exist unless a certain limitation of the actions of its members is ensured, placing them within a certain framework (limitation), observing and following certain legalized patterns of behavior. Specific patterns, values ​​and norms of behavior are developed by moral, legal and aesthetic systems. Religion carries out legitimization, that is, justification and legitimation of the existence of the value-normative order itself. It is religion that provides the answer to the main question of all value-normative systems: are they a product of social development and, therefore, have a relative nature, can change in different socio-cultural environments, or do they have a supra-social, supra-human nature, “rooted”, based on something? something imperishable, absolute, eternal. The religious answer to this question determines the transformation of religion into the basic basis not of individual values, norms and patterns of behavior, but of the entire sociocultural order.

Thus, religion is an important aspect in giving the norms, values ​​and patterns of mastery an absolute, unchangeable character, independent of the conjuncture of the spatio-temporal coordinates of human existence, social institutions, and the rooting of human culture in the transcendental. This function is realized through the formation of a person’s spiritual life. Spirituality is the area of ​​human connection with God. This connection is formalized by religion. It has a universal dimension. The emergence and functioning of religion is a person’s response to the need for balance and harmony with the world, as well as in connection with the Creator and his mercy. Religion gives a person a sense of independence and self-confidence. A believer, through his faith in God, overcomes the feeling of helplessness and uncertainty in relation to nature and society. From the standpoint of religious spirituality, it is argued that the forces that control the world cannot completely determine a person; on the contrary, a person can become free from the forced influence of the forces of nature and society. It contains a transcendental principle in relation to these forces, which allows a person to free himself from the tyranny of all these impersonal or transpersonal forces. Thus, religion asserts the priority of spirituality over social, aesthetic and other value orientations and regulators, contrasting them with the worldly, social orientation of values,faith, hope, love .

Along with these fundamental functions of religion, integrative and disintegrative functions are noted. Famous French sociologist compared religion as an integrator in a strong way of sociocultural systems with glue, since it is religion that helps people understand themselves as a spiritual community, held together by common values ​​and common goals. Religion gives a person the opportunity to self-determinate in the sociocultural system and thereby unite with people who are related in customs, views, values, and beliefs. E. Durkheim attached especially great importance to joint participation in religious activities in the integrative function of religion. It is through cult that religion constitutes society as a sociocultural system: it prepares the individual for social life, trains obedience, strengthens social unity, supports traditions, and arouses a sense of satisfaction.

The reverse side of the integrating function of religion is the disintegrating function. Acting as a source of sociocultural unity on the basis of certain values, normative guidelines, doctrine, cult and organization, religion simultaneously contrasts these communities with other communities formed on the basis of a different value-normative system, doctrine, cult and organization. This opposition can serve as a source of conflict between Christians and Muslims, between Orthodox Christians and Catholics, etc. Moreover, these conflicts are often deliberately inflated by representatives of certain associations, since conflict with “foreign” religious organizations promotes intra-group integration, and enmity with “outsiders” creates a sense of community encourages one to seek support only from representatives of one’s own faith.

The basis of religion is the Divinely created system. Therefore, the formation of religion as a social institution should be presented as a process of institutionalization of religious cult systems.

One of the stages in the process of institutionalization is associated with the emergence of a system of social organization, in which community leaders, tribal elders and other figures exercising management functions in them simultaneously played a leading role in the religious life of the community. As noted by the German historian I.G. Bakhoven. in ancient pagan Greece, at the stage of decomposition of the clan system, the military leader was also the high priest. This is due to the fact that all public life was sacralized. All the most important events of intra-community life and inter-community relations were accompanied by the performance of cultic acts. However, there is still a coincidence of religious and social community.

The formation of an early class society leads to a significant understanding of social life, including religious ideas, as well as to a change in the social functions of religion. As social relations and ideas become more complex, the entire social system transforms and becomes more complex. In connection with the increasingly strong degradation-moral aspect of human activity, as well as the falling away from God, religion is self-determined and cannot sufficiently influence the social institutions of humanity.

The most important goal of religious organizations is to influence various sectors of society in order to convey religious teachings and also to improve the moral and ethical order in society. In their developed form, religious organizations represent a complex centralized and hierarchical system. The internal structure of such an institution is an organizationally formalized interaction of various systems, the functioning of each of which is associated with the formation of social organizations and institutions, which also have the status of social institutions. In particular, at the system level, the control and managed systems are already clearly separated. The first system includes a group involved in preserving religious information, coordinating religious activities and relationships themselves, and controlling behavior, including the application of sanctions. The second, controlled, subsystem includes believers. Between these subsystems there is a system of normatively formalized, hierarchically maintained relationships that make it possible to manage religious activities. The regulation of these relations is carried out using so-called organizational and institutional norms. These norms are contained in the charters and regulations of religious organizations. They determine the structure of these organizations, the nature of the relationship between believers, clergy, between clergy of different hierarchies, between the governing bodies of organizations and their structural divisions, and outline their activities, rights and responsibilities.

1.4. Man before God.

It is difficult to find a factor in a person’s spiritual life that plays a more important role than religion. In the search for God, humanity has traveled many roads, going from world-denying mysticism to God-denying materialism. The famous physicist Max Born, speaking about the abyss into which civilization is sliding, emphasized that only religious ideas can restore health to society. “At the present time,” he wrote, “only fear forces people to maintain peace. However, this situation is unsustainable and must be replaced by something better. There is no need to look far away for a principle which might provide a more solid basis for the organization of our affairs... In our part of the world this principle is contained in Christian doctrine.”

Since ancient times, man has tried to comprehend his life and find harmony between his own existence and the world around him. He tried to establish a connection between the phenomena of nature around him and his self-knowledge. Such a connection was the interpretation of the idea of ​​God as a Supreme Being, as a kind of Absolute, which could explain the existence of man himself and the world around him. The human mind, as its knowledge of the nature of man and the nature of the world around him developed, could not fully establish or answer all the vital questions of existence. And therefore he was forced to form the very concept of the divine principle as a kind of first cause, encompassing the entire totality of knowledge about being itself, inaccessible to him at the present moment; from which would follow, logically, an explanation of those consequences of actual reality that he himself could not yet explain. This is the concept of God and Divine Reality for an unbeliever. But a completely different meaning is invested in the concept of God and self-knowledge of a person by himself and the world around him by a believer. He is firmly convinced that he himself and the entire world around him are only a part of the Divine Reality, where the creator of all things is the living God, who cannot be comprehended by man himself, since he immeasurably exceeds the thinking ability of man himself. And therefore, God reveals Himself to a believer in His Revelation, imparting to man knowledge about Him, as well as about man himself and the world around him. The Holy Spirit enlightens the mind of a Christian person. The Divine Reality remains hidden and does not suppress a person with the necessary evidence, and this preserves our freedom before God. Comprehension of Him is accomplished gradually, in strict accordance with a person’s readiness for the Meeting. God is, as it were, hidden from direct perception. Step by step He enters the consciousness of people through nature, love, a sense of mystery and the experience of the Sacred.

1.5. Cultural interaction between science and religion

One of the significant problems in the philosophy of culture is the problem of interaction between the cultural spheres of science and religion. In the course of the cultural development of mankind, religion interacted with science, not only suppressing and limiting the problematic field of growth of scientific knowledge, but also contributed to the increase in scientific potential. Throughout the entire period of time, monasteries have been and remain the foundations of culture and morality, preserving ancient wisdom.

The question of the relationship between science and religion indirectly reflects the contradictions between idealistic and materialistic philosophies. Science is one of the components of social life. Its influence on the development of technology, production, and through them, on the social structure of society, healthcare, education, everyday life, etc., has already been said. But there is another aspect of science and scientific activity - worldview. Science has always considered its main task to be the discovery of truth and knowledge of the world. Most of the world's scientists of all times, discovering the secrets of nature before their eyes, could not help but notice that such a miracle undoubtedly had a wise Creator.

In 1965, the Second Vatican Council adopted a resolution addressed “to thinkers and scientists,” which stated, in part: “Today the possibility of a deep connection between true science and true faith, which are both faith and science, has become clear. “serve a common purpose.” In accordance with this thesis, many modern theologians recognize the right of science to study the material world with the caveat that along with it there is another, higher world - the world of the supernatural, which occupies a dominant position in human existence.

The relationship between science and religion, of course, is not reduced to mutual conflict. These relationships are deeper and more complex. Many scientists were believers, which did not stop them from making outstanding discoveries. From the very beginning, natural science sought to limit itself to the study of facts and not to enter into disputes about “final causes” - about the creation of the world and the immortality of the soul. But now scientists are increasingly turning to the “big questions”: the origin of the Universe, life and mind. And more and more often they conclude that “the objectively existing World is not exhausted by the world of material empirical reality, the world perceived by our senses, even greatly enhanced by modern devices... The material world is only the “lowest” layer of Being... It is necessary to recognize the existence another, much more information-capacious world - the World of higher reality, the shadow of which (in the Platonic sense) is our visible Universe."

Now there is a rapid expansion of our knowledge about the world, and science plays a leading role in this process. But there were and remain areas that cannot be fully rationalized. Man is a free being. There will always be religion, philosophy and art in his life.

Chapter 2. Research part.Modern destructive practice of non-traditional religious movements in Kazakhstan and ways to neutralize it in the context of ensuring spiritual security.

2.1 Social factors of the spread of destructive non-traditional religious movements in Kazakhstan.

Relevance of the research topic. In modern Kazakh society, religious issues are becoming increasingly important. It becomes clear that the religious factor is one of the most important in the life of society, influencing both individual and public mentality, forming, directly or indirectly, ideological dominants, moral and legal norms, and social institutions. Increasing attention is being paid to the development of the religious sphere of society by the state, which is aware of its importance in political, ideological, moral, educational and many other areas of public life.

An appeal to the spiritual heritage of traditional religions seems to be a completely natural logical result of the entire historical development of Kazakhstan as a civilizational and cultural community and state, since it reflects, first of all, continuity in this development. However, along with the growing role of traditional religions in public life, today there is also an increased interest on the part of many Kazakh citizens and even political structures in religions of non-traditional orientation, which are more legitimately called non-traditional religious movements due to the inconclusive definition of their dogma and the short period of historical life. Noting the dialectical necessity of the emergence of such movements, one cannot fail to take into account the fact that many of them are destructive and pose a threat to the spiritual security of Kazakhstani society.

In the last two decades, many non-traditional, new religious associations and cults have actively manifested themselves in Kazakhstan, posing a threat to both the individual and society and the state as a whole. The most important feature of these religious movements is their isolation from the historical context, a negative attitude towards Kazakh culture, towards traditional institutions - both religious and secular, towards the specific spiritual sphere of life of our society that has been formed over centuries.

The activities carried out by non-traditional religious movements are gradually beginning to be recognized as socially dangerous. However, government agencies that control these activities and society still have difficulty assessing the nature of these movements, which, in turn, entails ineffective government and social control, as well as the underdevelopment of its means and methods.

2.2 Destructive activities of non-traditional religious movements in modern Kazakhstan: general content and focus

Destructive non-traditional movements pose threats to both individuals and the entire Kazakh society. Not only adequate counteraction to these threats, but also their prevention become important tasks in ensuring the spiritual security of the citizens of our country, and these tasks can be solved by the joint efforts of the state, public organizations, traditional faiths and individuals who are not indifferent to the future of Kazakhstan.

It is possible to overcome the spiritual differentiation of Kazakhstani society, which threatens its very existence, only by filling “ ideological vacuum ”, formulating a clear development strategy based on value-target settings immanent in the culture and mentality of the people of Kazakhstan, and therefore, to a certain extent determined by traditional religious ideas. In this regard, the problem of finding effective tactical ways to counter the destructive influence of non-traditional religious movements on public life, which will help ensure its spiritual security, becomes urgent.

2.3 Ensuring spiritual safety Kazakhsociety as a condition for counteracting destructive activities

Today, in the religious sphere of public consciousness, in fact, there is an open confrontation between traditional types of worldview and non-traditional, often foreign ones. There is a struggle for the minds and souls of people, and it especially affects young people. And the state should not remain indifferent in this struggle, since on the agenda is the issue - neither more nor less - of protecting the Kazakh spiritual space. Much will depend on the fate of our country on who will win in this space. The problem of ensuring the spiritual security of Kazakhstani society from destructive actionsnon-traditional religious movements does not come down entirely to neutralizing this action; it is necessary to implement preventive measures and, what is apparently much more important, to cultivate traditional spiritual and religious values. Spiritual security as one of the most important parts of national security, of course, deserves to attract much more attention from both the authorities and the scientific community. As for the latter, it should be noted that its clearly expressed inertia in solving spiritual problems is associated with the historical “ scientific " legacy of the Soviet period, according to which it is still customary to consider everything spiritual as " add-ons "above the material" basis ”, and therefore there is a persistent misconception, according to which the solution of material, primarily economic problems, will automatically entail the solution of problems of a spiritual nature. There is also an opposite position, based on the determination of the material by the spiritual, since the connection between the material and spiritual in public life should not be considered one-sidedly. These are aspects of social reality that are interconnected and therefore mutually determine each other. Therefore, to ensure spiritual security, it is, of course, important to address the problem of daily bread, but no less important is the organization “ spectacles " Destructive actionsnon-traditional religious movements tend to increase, and therefore the strategy and tactics for ensuring spiritual security in this aspect (and in all others) must be adequate to the times.

3. Conclusion

Summing up the results of the analytical work carried out, based on the historical facts of the relationship between religion and culture after the separation of the latter, we can argue that culture is a natural - fallen branch of religion, which is constantly moving steadily with the help of the creative abilities of humanity. At the moment, modern culture is falling steadily into a morally ugly abyss. We can often notice the following: what was unacceptable, say, in 60-80 years, is now acceptable and it would be wrong not to notice that even what was unacceptable has become more terrible "FILTHY " character. In this regard, religion has its duty in every possible way to instruct and protect humanity from such “MUD" And " ABOMINATIONS "which covers more and more human souls. It would also be unacceptable not to say that even under the force of such degradation of humanity there are still untouched islands of culture that are trying in every possible way to preserve their ideals, but time passes...

Religion and culture are the subject of knowledge separately, and in their interrelation - forms of social consciousness, real and, above all, modern society, as its integral parts, complementary to each other.

The separation of culture from its religious foundations cannot remain without fatal consequences. True cultural flourishing is unthinkable without intense spiritual life.

Throughout the development of the history of man and society, we see the simultaneous reflection here of cultural forms with their religious content. This is expressed in painting from rock paintings to icon painting; in music from pagan chants to church singing; in architecture from city walls to temple construction.

The concepts of “traditional” and “non-traditional” » religions have different socio-philosophical loads. Thus, traditional religion is understood as a religion that has been widespread in a certain territory for quite a long time, is generally recognized and has deep historical roots in the material and spiritual culture of society. Non-traditional religions have a number of common features, as well as specific features that are widespread among NSD that have emerged in recent decades. In general, the activities of modern NSDs are characterized by the fact that they set as their goal a qualitative modification or deconstruction previous tradition; act as a product of syncretization of the old tradition with other religious traditions; tend to blur the boundaries between religion, science and philosophy; can abandon belief in the supernatural as the basic principle of religious systems and move into the realm of a secular worldview, thereby going beyond the scope of religious content. There are objective factors that make it possible to use the concept “ non-traditional religious movements" for descriptive purposes, without attaching a political-legal and constructive-destructive dimension to any religions. It also makes sense to consolidate within the concept of NSD such categories as"sect", "totalitarian sect", "denomination", "cult" and "new religion" ”, acting as its separate varieties, without any content-semantic damage to them.

Destructive NRMs should be understood as social religious institutions that are diverse in their practices, rituals, beliefs, methods of involving adherents, which are in opposition to traditional religiosity, and often to the world as a whole, and to varying degrees, but have a destructive effect on the natural harmonious state individuals and the entire society, negatively compete with creative traditions and norms, established social structures, state and culture. The essence of the destructive activities of NRMs lies in their encroachment on a personal religious worldview, formed in a traditional religion, with the goal of discrediting the latter, while there are often attempts to take advantage of a person’s inexperience, his trust or need for selfish, criminal purposes. Moreover, the scope of encroachment in the modern world is not limited to specific religions, extending to ideological integrity. Among the main signs of destructive NRMs are charismatic leadership, supra-confessional truth, intolerant attitude towards other religions, obsessive missionary work, restriction of freedom, total control over the individual, ban on communication with the outside world, mental violence, rigid organizational structure, illegal actions, etc. These signs are subject to wide modification, but their identification is necessary in order to ensure the spiritual security of the entire society.

The problem of the influence of destructive NRMs on the processes of safe functioning of the spiritual sphere of society's life was actualized at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries. This is explained by the active use by destructive NRMs of modern means and methods, methodology and methods of manipulating the consciousness of people, destabilizing or completely destroying the spirituality of an individual, erasing the uniquely personal and unique from his consciousness and worldview. All this speaks of destructive NRMs as a dangerous form of external and internal threats to the spiritual sphere of the individual and society, the manifestation of which is determined by a number of social factors. The entire set of such factors can be divided into macro- and microsocial, internal and external social. On the one hand, they are associated with the processes of transformation of the socio-political and spiritual-ideological life of society, and on the other hand, they reflect the religious quest and psychological characteristics of NRM adherents. Both are the fruit of the destruction of the traditional worldview of the individual and society, who find themselves in a state of ideological vacuum ”, which led to the manifestation of social anomie (the process of collapse of sociocultural values ​​and norms and opened the way for the cultural and spiritual expansion of the NRM in total, structural or ideological forms).

Today, religious movements that can be classified as destructive NRMs are actively manifesting themselves in Kazakhstan’s social reality. Representatives of destructive NRMs, carrying out their illegal and asocial activities in Kazakhstan, are actively trying to penetrate and infiltrate educational and healthcare institutions, government and administrative bodies, industrial and commercial structures.

To effectively prevent and counter the destructive activities of NSDs in Kazakh society, it is necessary to ensure appropriate state and social control. Its basis should be to ensure the spiritual security of Russian society, taking into account both the nature of destructive NRMs and the need to overcome the identity crisis and spiritual-ideological vacuum.

In the context of measures to ensure spiritual security, the most important direction is the prompt selection of a spiritual and ideological project that can not only effectively resist the destructive activities of the NRM, but also unite the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional Russian society. The Eurasian (neo-Eurasian) concept, which has high potential and consolidating ability, can be considered as such a project. Prevention and counteraction to the destructive activities of the NRM will be effective only if spiritual security is ensured, for which ideological support is necessary.

Thus, we can say that culture is inseparable from religion in its historical development. An important historical mission of culture and religion, which is acquiring unprecedented relevance in the modern world, has been and continues to be the formation of consciousness of the unity of the human race, the significance of universal moral norms, and enduring values.

4. List of used literature

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Dobrenkov V.I., Radugin A.A. Christian theology and revolution. - M., 1990.

Inozemtsev. A fractured civilization. M. 1999.

History of philosophy in brief. Per. from Czech I.I. Boguta.-M.: Mysl, 1995-590 p.

Kokhanovsky V.P., Zolotukhina E.V., Leshkevich T.G., Fathi T.B. Philosophy for graduate students: Textbook. Ed. 2nd - Rostov n/d: "Phoenix", 2003. - 448 p.

Kulakov Yu. Zh. Synthesis of science and religion//Questions of Philosophy. 1999. - No. 2. - P. 75.

Spirkin A.S. Philosophy. M., 2001

9. Macarius (Bulgakov), Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna. Orthodox dogmatic theology. In 2 vols. T. 1. - M.: “Young Guard”, 1999.

10. Saint John of Damascus. An accurate exposition of the Orthodox faith. - M.: “Ladya”, 2000. Reprint of the St. Petersburg edition, 1894.

11. Saint Luke (Voino-Yasenetsky). Science and religion. Spirit, soul and body. Trinity word. Phoenix. 2001.

12. Lossky V.N. Essay on the mystical theology of the Eastern Church. Dogmatic theology. - M.: Center “SEI”, supplement to the magazine “Tribune”. Religious and philosophical series. Issue 1. 1991.

13. Orthodox understanding of the creation of the world: collection. reports/ 13th International Christmas Educational Readings; comp. priest K. Bufeev. – M.: Publishing house. Missionary and Educational Center "SHESTODNEV", 2005.

14. Explanatory Bible or commentary on all books of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments by A.P. Lopukhin. Electronic version. Website address:

http://www.lopbible.narod.ru/index.htm.

15. Lopukhin A.P. Biblical history of the Old Testament. - Society of lovers of Orthodox literature. Publishing house named after St. Leo, Pope of Rome, Kyiv, 2005.

16. Grigory Dyachenko, archpriest. Faith Hope Love. Catechetical teachings. In 3 vols. T. 1 - M.: Donskoy Monastery; ARP Int. Ko, 1993.

Research project “Traditions of hospitality in the culture of world religions”

In every world religion there are many holiday rituals associated with those days that are celebrated by believers of a given religion in memory of some of the most important events for them or some saint. On holidays, people communicate a lot in sacred buildings and come to visit each other. And since there are many holidays and each of them carries its own ritual (special gifts, treats, topics for conversation), traditions of receiving guests have developed in the culture of world religions.
The purpose of the project: to study the traditions of hospitality in the culture of world religions.
Task: find in information sources the features of receiving guests in Judaism and world religions.

Jewish Hospitality

The rules of hospitality described in the Torah about 4 thousand years ago are still followed by Jews. The example of every Jew is Abraham's reception of the desert wanderers.
1. Wanting to show hospitality to strangers, Abraham pitched a tent at the intersection of trade routes. He did not wait for guests, but literally looked for them, looked out for them and came out to meet them from the cool shadow of the tent. We must strive to greet guests warmly and willingly.
2. He gave the guests water and said: “Wash your feet.” This was exactly what they needed after a long walk along the dusty road.
3.Abraham invited them to sit under a tree while he prepared a meal for them. We must also first show the guests where they will sleep or offer them a chair so that they can relax as much as possible before eating, take a break.
4. He promised to feed them only a “loaf of bread,” but he arranged a lavish meal, serving all the best he had on the table, “while he himself stood next to them,” serving the guests. Lesson for us: talk less and do more.
5.Abraham not only personally served the guests, trying to fulfill their every desire, but also included his relatives in the reception.
6. When the guests had eaten, he, true to his word, did not detain them. Some people, having fed their guests, demand “payment” from them in the form of a heart-to-heart conversation: “Where are you rushing? Let’s talk, I don’t own a restaurant.” Hospitality should be selfless.
7. Finally, when the strangers arose and went to the threshold, “Abraham went to see them off.” This is very important - the guest should be escorted not to the front door, but further to the bus stop, taxi rank, or at least to the elevator.

Hospitality in a Christian way

Hospitality is one of the most revered Christian virtues, which can be represented as a combination of good nature, nobility and respect for people. This is generosity not only in the material, but also in the spiritual sense. Hospitality is a generous and sincere reception of guests; since ancient times it has been a distinctive feature of the saints of God.
A good-natured host will listen to the guest, give him advice, encourage and console him. The house of such a person is never empty, and the owner himself cannot be lonely. The kindness of hospitable hosts illuminates their home with the light of love, which warms everyone around them. The Lord said that you should invite, first of all, those who need your protection; you should invite the hungry, the homeless, and the disadvantaged. Hospitality allows us to show our best spiritual qualities, gives us freedom from boredom and loneliness. The joy of receiving guests warms the soul of the owner.
This is an excellent test of humanity. Anyone who passes it will receive not only human gratitude, but also God's blessing.
Since ancient times in Rus', hospitality has been accepted - welcoming pilgrims and wanderers into one's home. Giving such people a place to stay and feeding them is a sign of pleasing God.
The concept of “wanderer” was sometimes distinguished from the concept of “pagan” in everyday life and in written texts, and sometimes they were identified. The difference was as follows: a wanderer is a person who devoted his entire life only to visiting holy places; and the pilgrim goes on a pilgrimage, after which he returns to his normal life.
People who had the fear of God understood that wanderers and pilgrims should not be denied food and lodging for the night, since this is a sin. “And if anyone will not receive you and will not listen to you, then when you go out from there, shake off the dust from your feet as a testimony against them... It will be more bearable for Sodom and Gomorrah on the day of judgment than for that city” (Mark 6:11 ). As a rule, the hosts treated such guests especially cordially, asking pilgrims to pray for them in the holy places they were going to.
Speaking about hospitality, one cannot fail to mention hospitality. This is, first of all, cordiality and generosity when treating. Hospitable hosts try to treat their guest to the most delicious food available in the house and will never let him go hungry. Even if guests appear unexpectedly, the hospitable hosts will set the table and invite those who come to it.

Islamic hospitality

The Islamic religion places great importance on hospitality. A guest in Islam is a dear person, and how could he not be dear if the hadith from the Prophet Muhammad says: “The guest is a guide to the Gardens of Eden.”
The guest's position is so high that Muslims perceive it as a heavenly gift. The Messenger of Allah once said to his companions: “When Allah desires good for a group of people, He sends them a valuable gift.” The Companions asked: “O Messenger of Allah, what is this valuable gift?” The Prophet answered them: “Guest. A guest is a valuable gift, because he brings benefits with him and becomes the reason for the forgiveness of the sins of the inhabitants of the house.” Therefore, you need to value him as the most dear person and show him the best respect and veneration. It is necessary to meet him well, serve him well and also send him off well. Imam Ali reported the words of the Messenger of Allah: “One of the rights of a guest is that the owner escort him to the door of his house.”
Sometimes the guests who come are modest and shy people who are embarrassed to express their needs. For this reason, the host must himself offer the guests everything that they may need. For example, without asking the guests, the owner of the house should prepare food and place it in front of them. Just as the host has responsibilities towards the guest, so the guest has them towards the owner of the house. In addition to what was listed earlier, the guest has the responsibility to accept the suggestions and wishes of the owner of the house and not contradict him. For example, if the owner of the house invites him to sit in a certain place, then he should sit there.

Peculiarities of receiving guests from Buddhists (tea ceremony)

The tradition of the tea ceremony spread widely throughout China during the Tang era (618 - 907). This was the heyday of the doctrine of the original nature of man, when many spiritual aspects of the daily life of Chan monks became the property of the wider world. In the same way, the monastic tea ceremony with its already established special ritual was given the opportunity to take root in the social environment. This happened during the reign of Emperor Xuan Zong, a former Buddhist novice of several Chan monasteries.
The emperor himself continued the diligent practice of contemplation in his palace and in every possible way contributed to both the growth of Buddhist monasteries and the introduction of many norms of the monastic way of life into the daily life of the population of the Celestial Empire. In the unified monastic charter of the Chan communities, the collection, preparation and consumption of tea were classified as the main activities of the followers of the Dharma.
The harmonizing effect of tea could balance the hearts of people unsure of their future. In addition, it was able to unite various social strata within a single aesthetic and spiritual culture, even stronger than Taoism or Buddhism. That is why, through the efforts of the emperor in the eighth century, drinking tea became a truly all-Chinese tradition, connecting the north and south of the country.
The art of tea drinking expanded the contemplative activities of the Buddha's followers so much that the famous statement arose: “Chan and tea have the same taste.” The tea ceremony itself required a necessary combination of four rules: simplicity, peace, purity and freedom from thoughts (harmony).
simplicity (jian): Tea loves simplicity and modesty, therefore moderation and simple-minded naturalness are very important during tea drinking;
purity (qing): Tea highly values ​​cleanliness, and not only external neatness plays a role here, the tea act should be based on a sense of justice, honesty and selflessness;
harmony (he): Tea points the way to harmony, so we strive for a peaceful life and friendly agreement;
peace (jing): Tea gives a serene calm, thanks to it we can plunge into motionless silence and become equanimous.
These qualities were supposed to bring the handling of tea drink, utensils and the entire environment into the realm of sacred rites. The ritual, as a rule, was preceded by a sermon “On the nine principles of concentration and concentration of Damo and the thirty-six secrets of mastering the techniques of contemplation.”
Tibetans considered tea to be the miracle of the great Buddha. The monasteries gave tea to the common people as a blessing from God and Buddha.

1. Tea drinking - as a ritual during the reception of guests in Buddhism, Islam and partially Orthodoxy, has become a ceremony (in the “tea ceremony”, for example, not only the necessary utensils and the time for brewing tea are prescribed, but there are also requirements for the behavior and train of thought of the host and guest at this moment; in Islamic countries, special places for communication during tea drinking were created and still exist - teahouses; and in Orthodox families in Russia, the samovar was a sign of wealth and well-being of the owners of the house; its size was used to judge the hospitality of the family).
2. The culture of religions makes a huge contribution to the development of each country (to the family structure) and becomes a tradition, which is expressed in the behavior, thoughts and creativity of people. Children, growing up and imitating adults, absorb the foundations of the family and become successors of the traditional values ​​of not only relatives and friends, but also the state as a whole. We need to know traditions in order to observe and increase them.

Essay

in general history

World religion Christianity:

From origins to the present day.

(analysis provided by Levada Center)

Introduction.

A huge number of books, articles and other publications have been written about the origins of Christianity. Christian authors, enlightenment philosophers, representatives of biblical criticism, and atheist authors worked in this field. This is understandable, since we are talking about a historical phenomenon - Christianity, which created numerous churches, has millions of followers, occupied and still occupies a large place in the world, in the ideological, economic and political life of peoples and states.

I chose this topic because it turned out to be closest to my personal interests among the other exam paper topics offered to choose from. I began to think about religious issues a long time ago. I am interested in observing and analyzing the processes that are happening in the world and in our country and are related to religion. After all, it’s no secret that just a few years ago religion in our country was practically banned: those who went to church, baptized children, etc. were condemned. “Religion is the opium of the people,” proclaimed the well-known historical figure, Karl Marx, and V.I. Lenin later declared: “Every religious idea, every idea about every god... is an unspeakable abomination.” This was enough for believers to endure persecution, both moral and physical, for many years. “During the reign of Joseph Stalin, in the late 20s and 30s,” says the Encyclopedia Britannica, “the church suffered severe persecution that claimed thousands of lives. By 1939 there were only three or four officially appointed bishops and about a hundred active churches in the country.” However, Russia is a lover of extremes. When the USSR unexpectedly collapsed, people began to think about the question of why the Soviet government fought so hard against religion. Many of those who had been raised to be atheists for decades began to become interested in religion. Not only has it become honorable to baptize children and go to church, but it has also become fashionable to fast, consecrate buildings, cars, etc. Religion in our country has turned into a kind of commerce and has become very friendly with politics, which, in principle, contradicts Christian canons. At the moment, the Christian Church is developing at an accelerated pace. There are conflicting rumors about this in society. Opinions are heard that the church even seeks to extend influence over government. To understand, it is necessary to understand the issue and study the history of Christianity from the very beginning.

Besides, I consider myself a Christian. What is new in this concept is not the rituals of going to church and wearing a cross, but the desire to live according to Christian canons, to observe Christian commandments, i.e., those written in the Bible. And for this you also need to know and study issues related to religion, Christianity, and the Bible. In this regard, I focused on this topic, choosing it to write this research work.

This research work will examine the following issues: the origins and socio-historical conditions for the emergence and spread of Christianity, the development and spread of Christianity around the world, the divergence between the Western and Eastern churches in the 6th century, varieties of Christianity and a sociological study of the current position of religion in Russian society , which is provided by Levada Center. So, let's begin to study the above-mentioned questions.

Origins and socio-historical conditions of the emergence and spread of Christianity.

Until the eighteenth century, research into the origins of Christianity was prohibited. Excessive curiosity, the desire to learn more than the New Testament and church tradition tell us, seemed to devout Christians to be highly reprehensible, bordering on heresy. Many scientists did not dare to publish the results of their research. These works were published only after their death. Only thanks to the enlighteners of the eighteenth century did scientific research into the origins of Christianity become possible. A wide variety of sources were studied: the works of ancient writers who mentioned Christians, the works of Christian theologians and their opponents, as well as, of course, those books that Christians themselves consider sacred and divinely inspired, which set out the main dogmas of the Christian religion, legends about the life of its founder - Jesus Christ, his words and teachings are given.

Like any new religion, Christianity did not arise out of nowhere. That is why it is necessary to consider the phenomena that influenced the origin, development, formation of the Christian religion and, consequently, its main ideas. Such phenomena are usually divided into social and ideological. Let's look briefly at each of these sources.

By the social origins of Christianity (and this concept is quite ambiguous), we understand social phenomena (spiritual and material) that contributed to the wide and fairly rapid spread of this religion. The social origins should also include the socio-political situation of the historical period in which Christianity was born. As is known, Christianity arose in Palestine in the 1st century. AD, which, like the entire Mediterranean, was part of the Roman Empire. At that time, this huge empire was torn apart by the deepest socio-political antagonisms, and Christianity acted first as the religion of slaves and freedmen, the poor and disenfranchised, peoples conquered and dispersed by Rome - as a movement of the oppressed.

F. Engels gave the following description of the spiritual and material state of society at that time: “The present is unbearable, the future is perhaps even more menacing. There is no way out." In a situation of this kind, the poor were ready to believe any call, as long as it promised liberation.

However, “in all classes there must be a certain number of people who, despairing of material liberation, would seek spiritual liberation , consolation in consciousness that would save them from complete despair.” As the state of despair intensified, the literal flight from the external world to the internal world intensified. And a way out of this situation of general economic, political, intellectual and moral decay was found. In that situation, this solution could only be in the field of religion. This religion turned out to be Christianity.

Having arisen, Christianity came into sharp conflict with all religions that existed before. It becomes the first possible world religion. Why? Firstly, the Christian religion denied the inherent ritualism of all others. Secondly, it becomes a supranational religion. The previous religions that existed on the territory of the empire were of a narrowly ethnic nature (a striking example is Judaism), and were unable to unite slaves and oppressed people of different ethnic origins; moreover, they separated them. Christianity was born as a religion addressed to all peoples. It corresponded to the conditions of that time, when there was a mixture of very different ethnic groups, the natural boundaries between which were destroyed by Roman conquests. That is, the unity of peoples under the shadow of Roman power contributed to the success of such a universal religion as Christianity - especially since this power found a specific representative in the person of the Roman emperor.

Early Christianity associated its social ideas with the ideas of equality of all before God, justice and mercy, with ideas about the right of all to freedom and happiness. These are the basic ideas of Christianity. It is quite natural that they were in tune with the dreams of slaves and poor free citizens. Indeed, Christianity struck a chord that was bound to resonate in countless hearts. To the generally accepted feeling that people themselves are sinful in their general depravity, Christianity gave a clear concept of the sinfulness of each individual person; at the same time, in the sacrificial death of its founder, Christianity created an easily understandable form of internal salvation from the corruption of the world, gave consolation in consciousness, for which everyone so passionately yearned. Christianity taught to love and appreciate in a person not his external attributes, not his virtues, but his soul. This was a truly new, if not revolutionary idea in that historical situation: in that world the individual mattered only as part of the clan, the state. Christianity cleansed the soul of everything accidental and showed its infinite beauty and value. This is one of the reasons for the popularity of Christianity. Despairing in the material world, any person (!), whether slave or free, could count on gaining spiritual freedom, on a special spiritual state. Thus, “Christianity was created by people who sought to find an illusory way out of the socio-psychological dead end into which ancient society and ancient ideology had reached.”

The ideological sources of Christianity were the ideas and ideas of a number of other religions, primarily Judaism. In general, one can point to an important continuity that invariably exists between the early forms of religion - myths, with their polytheism and ritualism, and the religion itself that arises on their basis. According to V. S. Nersesyants, this continuity is of great importance in the field of political and legal views and is directly manifested, for example, in the form of doctrines about the divine nature of power and order, about divine law, etc. The connection of the new religion with Judaism was manifested in particular in the fact that the sacred scripture of Christians - the Bible - included both the actual Christian works that formed the New Testament, and the sacred books of the followers of Judaism - the Old Testament.

Christianity borrowed several basic ideas from Judaism: firstly, the idea of ​​monotheism, i.e. recognition of one god who created the world and rules it, secondly, the idea of ​​messianism, and thirdly, eschatology, i.e. the idea of ​​the death of the existing world as a result of divine intervention. It should be noted that in Christianity they were all significantly transformed: monotheism was subsequently weakened by the doctrine of the Divine Trinity, messianism from a narrow ethnic one turned into a doctrine of the salvation of all people through the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Early Christian communities did not know the dogma and cult of later Christianity. The communities did not have special places for worship, did not know the sacraments or icons. The only thing that was common to all communities and groups was the belief in a voluntary atoning sacrifice made once and for all for the sins of all people by a mediator between God and man.

In addition, the emergence of Christianity was also influenced by three philosophical schools - Stoic, Epicurean and Skeptical, collectively focused on creating bliss in personal life.

Development and spread of Christianity.

The Roman Empire during this period extended from the Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean and from North Africa to the Rhine. After the death of Herod, dissatisfied with the civil strife between his sons, in 6 AD. The Romans handed over the administration of Judea to the imperial procurator. Christianity initially spread among Jews in Palestine and the countries of the Mediterranean basin, but already in the first decades of its existence it received a large number of followers from other nations.

In the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century, Christianity represented a number of communities consisting of slaves, freedmen, and artisans. In the second half of the 2nd century, Christian writers already noted the presence of noble and wealthy people in the communities.

One of the important elements of the transition of Christianity to a fundamentally new level was its break with Judaism in the 2nd century. After this, the percentage of Jews in Christian communities began to steadily decrease. At the same time, Christians abandoned the Old Testament laws: observance of the Sabbath, circumcision, and strict dietary restrictions. The expansion of Christianity and the involvement of a large number of people of different faiths in Christian communities led to the fact that Christianity of this period was not a single church, but a huge number of trends, groupings, and theological schools. The situation was complicated by a large number of heresies, the number of which by the end of the 2nd century, the church historian of the late 4th century, Philastrius, puts at 156.

In the second half of the 3rd century, there was a process of further centralization of the church, and by the beginning of the 4th century, several metropolises emerged from the existing dioceses, each of which united a group of dioceses. Naturally, large church centers were created in the most important political centers of the empire, primarily in the capitals.

At the beginning of the 4th century, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. At this time, the church organization is strengthened and the church hierarchy is formalized, the highest and most privileged part of which is the episcopate. The emerging church organization, headed by influential bishops who constantly maintained contact with each other and gathered for their congresses (councils), grew into a major political force in the Roman Empire. The imperial power, sensing a dangerous rival in it, tried to destroy it in the context of a fierce class struggle during the crisis in the 3rd century.

Emperor Decius (249-251) began persecuting Christians. His reign is distinguished by the first widespread persecution of Christians. It surpassed in scale all the persecutions that had happened before.

Persecution continued under Valerian (253-260). He issued a decree according to which all ministers of the Christian church, without exception, were put to death. However, this decree did not provide for any punishments for persons of lower status, that is, for the bulk of believers.

The persecution intensified significantly under Diocletian (284-305). They differed from other persecutions in that they were ordered to burn the books of the Holy Scriptures. Under him, persecution took on a wide national scale.

The persecution did not break the Christian church organization, and its ineffectiveness showed that the new religion had a significant mass base. As the imperial power learned the essence of Christian ideology, the nature and significance of church activities, it became increasingly convinced that Christianity was a force that was capable of sanctifying the power of rulers and ensuring the obedience of the masses. Therefore, the empire gradually moves from attempts to break the church organization that seemed dangerous to it to a policy aimed at putting this organization into its service.

At the beginning of the 4th century, when a fierce struggle for imperial power unfolded, the importance of the Christian Church increased even more. This was taken into account by Emperor Constantine I, who switched to a policy of relying on the church. In 313, he issued an edict by which he canceled all the decrees of Diocletian against Christians. Christianity was declared an officially permitted religion, and property previously confiscated for the benefit of the treasury was returned to the church. In the same year, the union of the Christian church with the Roman state was officially announced; the church became a state organization led by the emperor. Not a single church issue was resolved without his knowledge. Thus, the beginning of the transformation of Christianity into the state religion was laid; in the world empire a world religion was established. In 325, the emperor convened the first “Ecumenical Council” (Nicaea), consisting of representatives of the church elite. This council condemned as heresy the teaching of Arius that Christ was inferior to God the Father. At the cathedral, the “Creed” was developed - a brief statement of the main dogmas of the Christian religion. At the council, the union of the church with the imperial power was formalized. The Church recognized the emperor as its head, the representative of Christ on Earth. Soon after the death of Constantine (in 337), he was distinguished by extreme cruelty, staining himself with many murders, incl. After killing his son, wife and many relatives, the church declared him a saint. During his lifetime, Constantine himself did not break with paganism.

An attempt under one of Constantine’s successors, Emperor Julian (361 - 363), who received the nickname “Apostate” from Christians, to return to paganism was not successful: the time of the ancient religions of the ancient world had irrevocably passed.

Emperor Theodosius I (379-395) ordered the closure of pagan temples. The Christian Church took up arms not only against pagan religion, but also against science, which was also declared pagan, against scientific knowledge. One of the first martyrs of science, a distant predecessor of the scientists who died at the stake of the Inquisition, was the woman scientist Hypatia, who was torn to pieces in 415 on the streets of Alexandria (Egypt). “Pagan” manuscripts were mercilessly destroyed, and many works of ancient art were destroyed.

A fierce struggle was waged with all dissenters and within the Christian church. In the II century. The “Docetes” were declared heretics, who taught that Christ only seemed to be a man, that he was not a God-man, but a god. This trend, which openly opposed the dominant trend, despite the fact that it was condemned, persisted for a long time in Christianity. It was especially dangerous to the church, because, by undermining the foundations of the cult, which was focused mainly on the events of the “earthly life” of Christ, it led to the denial of church organization. Subsequently, the teaching of the Docetes became the basis of the Monophysite heresies, which became widespread in the Coptic (Egypt) and Ethiopian churches. They were recognized as heretics in the 2nd century. and supporters of the prominent church leader Marcion, who called on the new religion to boldly break with biblical traditions. At the turn of the II-III centuries. Montanists who opposed the omnipotence of bishops were condemned; The church hierarchy that had developed by this time already firmly held power in the Christian communities; the Montanist opposition failed to change the established order. At the same time, the church finally put an end to preachers, prophets, and apostles. The bishops put forward the doctrine that only direct disciples of Christ could be called “apostles.” During this period, myths were especially in circulation and were diligently developed that the apostles transferred their power to the bishops. Nevertheless, opposition to episcopate continues to be felt for a long time in various movements called heretical (for example, among the Donatists). The democratic opposition to the church is especially clearly manifested at the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries, in the agonistic movement. Spread at the beginning of the 4th century. Manichaeism, having absorbed many elements of early Christian ideas and recognizing Christ as only one of God’s messengers on earth, was in fact already an independent religion. The Christian Church entered into a fierce struggle with this religion. All these religious movements and communities of supporters of “heretical” creeds became a refuge for those who were dissatisfied with the official church, its policies and ideology, and most importantly, the social and political system sanctified by it. This was the significance of such heretical movements.

With the separation of the “clergy” from the “laity,” the cult becomes more and more complex and develops - rituals, services performed by the clergy and serving to strengthen its power. Christian worship takes on the appearance of a modern Orthodox service. From about the 4th century, faith in various kinds of saints began to spread in Christianity, most of whom were the direct successors of the gods of ancient religions. Thus, “Saint Nicholas” actually took the place of the ancient god of the seas and navigation, and saints appeared - patrons of livestock, agriculture, etc. The Christian pantheon, which already included God the Father, Mother Goddess, God the Son and the Holy Spirit, was now replenished with numerous demigods, saints, saints, martyrs, as well as the veneration of spirits borrowed from Judaism (angels, archangels, seraphim, cherubim, etc.) .

In the 4th century, the nature of Christian asceticism changed dramatically. If earlier some people, having adopted Christianity, sought to leave the world they recognized as sinful and begin a righteous life in the lap of nature, now such settlements of Christian ascetics are increasingly acquiring economic importance: they have land, members of the church community, under the guidance of the clergy, perform various chores. The impoverished peasantry, especially in Egypt, flocks to such church communities. In the 4th century, the abbots of Egyptian monasteries, in written teachings that have reached us, developed not only cult issues, but also instructed their subordinates in various economic matters. This is how monasteries or monasteries are born. Soon monasteries appeared in Western church organizations. In the hands of church leaders, monasteries are an important means of strengthening their economic and political influence in the state.

In the 6th century, the Christian Church proposed introducing a new era of reckoning - from the emergence of a new religion. In 525, the Roman monk Dionysius the Small calculated the date of birth of Christ and proposed to establish a count of years “from the birth of Christ.” This era, however, took a long time to take root.

During the first five centuries, the Christian church experienced amazing growth. It grew numerically from 4,000 followers after the resurrection of Jesus to 43.4 million formal adherents, which at the beginning of the 6th century amounted to 22.4 percent of the world's population. Geographically, it spread from its starting point in Palestine to all corners of the Roman Empire and beyond. Although in those specific conditions there were factors that contributed to growth, there was also enormous resistance. Religious, cultural and political opposition reached its peak during periods of devastating persecution. Theological differences and legal controversies were destructive within the Christian community and confusing to people outside it. There also came periods of relaxing apathy and absorption in earthly affairs. However, growth continued. Despite resistance and setbacks, Christians continued to carry out missionary activities and helped spread the influence of the church. In various ways and for various reasons they succeeded in bringing people to Jesus Christ. The spread of Christianity in Europe everywhere entailed the development of writing, and with it some elements of ancient culture were adopted. Christianization marked the formation of feudal statehood and the intensification of the fight against tribal remnants.

Until the 5th century, the spread of Christianity occurred mainly within the geographical boundaries of the Roman Empire, as well as in its sphere of influence - Armenia, Ethiopia, and Syria. In the second half of the 1st millennium, Christianity spread among the Germanic and Slavic peoples, and later - in the 13th - 14th centuries - among the Baltic peoples. By the 14th century, Christianity had almost completely conquered Europe, and, from that time on, began to spread outside Europe, mainly due to colonial expansion and the activities of missionaries.

So, Christianity originated in the Middle East and in its earliest stages also appeared in North Africa. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a noticeable revival of the missionary movement; as a result, the Christian Church took root on all continents and exists in almost all countries. By the end of the 20th century, the number of Christian adherents worldwide exceeded one billion, of whom about half lived in Europe. More than half of Christians are Catholics, about a third are Protestants, the rest are Orthodox and adherents of other Eastern churches.

The Christian faith continues to spread, but its center of gravity is rapidly shifting from Europe and (to a lesser extent) the United States to Africa, Asia and Latin America. Due to demographic trends in these countries, some researchers predict that the 21st century church will be made up of increasingly younger, more energetic, and poorer non-white people.

The divergence between the Western and Eastern churches in VI century.

In the sixth century, a divergence began between the Western and Eastern Christian churches. It can be said that, starting from the sixth century, the Eastern Church (i.e., the four Eastern patriarchates) became mothballed in its retreat from early Christianity. Having moved away from early Christianity during the second to fifth centuries, the Eastern Church basically stopped there. But the Western Church has gone further along the path of moving away from early Christianity. The gradual transition of the entire Western clergy to celibacy (celibacy) was the first serious step towards the divergence between the Western and Eastern churches, and was a further step towards the removal of the Western Church from early Christianity.

Following the first step, other steps followed. In the Western Church, forced inducement to accept Christianity has become more and more common. Facts of forced conversion to Christianity also occurred in the Eastern Church, but they took on a particularly large scale in the Western Church. It was here that they began to treat dissidents more uncompromisingly.

Back at the end of the fourth century, the Roman Emperor Theodosius first uttered the fateful word “inquisition.” This word of Latin origin translated into Russian means “investigation.” The “Inquisitors of Faith,” established by Theodosius, were at that time investigating the affairs of the so-called Manichaean sect. In the sixth century, the word “Inquisition” in the Western Church began to appear frequently in the analysis of various internal church matters.

Until the 13th century, all bishops of the Western Church had inquisitorial powers. In the 13th century, the Inquisition became a special institution under Pope Innocent III, and then it began to appear as a special institution under subsequent popes. Many prominent scientists and thinkers, as well as many faithful servants of Christ, later became victims of the Inquisition.

Speaking about Christianity in the sixth century, one important detail should be noted. In the first centuries, all followers of Christ were called only Christians, this was their only name. “Christian communities”, “Christian church”, and other names did not exist. In the fourth century, already in some official church documents, the words “Catholic”, i.e. universal, and “Orthodox”, i.e. Orthodox (correctly glorifying God), began to be added to the name “Christian Church”. In the sixth century, as the Western patriarchate of the Christian Church expanded its borders throughout Europe, Western bishops began to place special emphasis on the name “Catholic”, thereby emphasizing the worldwide nature of the church they led. Although in the sixth century there was no official division of the church, but, speaking of the Western patriarchy of the Christian church, we can quite definitely call it the Catholic Church, since later this name became the official name of this church to this day.

The sixth century is characterized by the fact that in this century Christian churches began to be decorated with paintings and sculptures. Moreover, in the western part of the Christian Church (Catholicism), preference was given to sculptural images (statues), and in the east, preference was given to paintings (icons). Bishop Leontius of Naples in the sixth century particularly advocated the veneration of icons and sculptures as a sign of deep respect for those whom they depict. Bishop Philoxenus of Hierapolis ordered the icons and statues to be thrown out of the church so that they would not serve as a reason for idolatry. But most bishops were inclined to decorate churches with images, believing that these images would add splendor to the temples and thus attract more people to services. In addition, the clergy began to look at the images as aids that reminded the simple, illiterate people of sacred events. But it would be better, instead of these “manuals,” to speak more deep sermons. However, with sermons, things began to get very bad: the service consisted of a long ceremony, and there was almost no time left for sermons. Church teachers began to say that when a praying person looks at an image, it is easier for him to pray: the image supposedly makes prayer easier.

Already in the fourth century, Christian churches had altars in which services were performed. Only ministers had the right to enter the altar, while parishioners listened and watched the service standing outside the altar. Subsequently, the arrangement of the altar in the Western (Catholic) and Eastern churches turned out to be somewhat different. In a Catholic church, the altar is separated from the rest of the church by a barrier; in the eastern church it is separated by an iconostasis, that is, a partition hung with icons, in the middle of which there are the so-called “royal doors.” In the sixth century, altars looked simpler, but the custom had already appeared to decorate them with a cross.

By the sixth century, biographies of many of Christ’s ascetics were compiled, but, unfortunately, features were introduced into these biographies or lives of saints designed to adapt to the tastes of the time. The ascetics of Christ were endowed with such traits that were especially close to the hearts of the authors of these biographies. In a word, the authors of these biographies often put their incorrect ideas on a number of issues into the mouths and actions of those ascetics whose lives they described.

Varieties of Christianity.

As we have found out, the Christian religion is not united. It, like other religions, is divided into a number of independent areas. During its formation, Christianity split into three main branches: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Each of these branches began to form its own ideology, which practically did not coincide with the other branches. Let's look at the three most significant areas.

Catholicism . The word “Catholicism” means universal, universal. Its origins come from a small Roman Christian community, the first bishop of which, according to legend, was the Apostle Peter. The process of isolation of Catholicism in Christianity began in the 3rd - 5th centuries, when economic, political, and cultural differences between the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire grew and deepened. The division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox began with the rivalry between the Popes of Rome and the Patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. Around 867 there was a break between Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople. Catholicism, as one of the directions of the Christian religion, recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals, but has a number of features in its doctrine, cult, and organization.

Protestantism. Protestantism is one of the three main branches of Christianity that arose in Northern Europe at the beginning of the 16th century during the Reformation. In 1529, a group of heads of small state entities (mainly German states) and representatives of free cities participating in the work of the Imperial Diet in Speyer, where the majority of delegates were Catholics, issued an official protest against the Diet, aimed at suppressing movements for the reform of the Roman Empire. Catholic Church.

The essence of Protestantism is this: divine grace is bestowed without the mediation of the church. A person's salvation occurs only through his personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The laity are not separated from the clergy - the priesthood extends to all believers. Among the sacraments, baptism and communion are recognized. Believers do not obey the Pope. The service consists of sermons, congregational prayers and the singing of psalms. Protestants do not recognize the cult of the Mother of God, purgatory, and reject monasticism, the sign of the cross, sacred vestments and icons.

We will not dwell in detail on these two varieties of Christianity, since they are not particularly widespread in Russia. It is necessary to study Orthodoxy in more detail as the dominant religion in our country.

In the 11th century The Roman Catholic Church unilaterally included in the general church confession of faith (“Creed”) a fundamentally new statement about the Holy Trinity (the so-called “Filioque”), which was one of the reasons for the “Great Schism.” From that time on, the Eastern churches began to be called Orthodox, and all Western dioceses (regions) subordinate to Rome ended up in the Roman Catholic or simply Catholic Church.

Currently, there are fifteen Autocephalous (i.e., independent) churches, including the Russian one, containing the Orthodox faith common to all of them.

Orthodoxy - one of the three main directions of Christianity - has historically developed and formed as its eastern branch. It is distributed mainly in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Balkans. The name “Orthodoxy” first appears among Christian writers of the 2nd century. The theological foundations of Orthodoxy were formed in Byzantium, where it was the dominant religion in the 4th - 11th centuries. The basis of the doctrine is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and sacred tradition (the decisions of the seven Ecumenical Councils of the 4th-8th centuries, as well as the works of major church authorities, such as Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John of Damascus, John Chrysostom). It fell to these church fathers to formulate the basic tenets of the doctrine. In the Creed, adopted at the Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople, these fundamentals of doctrine are formulated in 12 parts or members:

· The first member speaks of God as the creator of the world - the first hypostasis of the Holy Trinity;

· In the second - about faith in the only begotten Son of God - Jesus Christ;

· The third is the dogma of the Incarnation, according to which Jesus Christ, while remaining God, at the same time became a man, born of the Virgin Mary;

· The fourth member of the Creed is about the suffering and death of Jesus Christ. This is the dogma of the atonement;

· Fifth - about the resurrection of Jesus Christ;

· The sixth talks about the bodily ascension of Jesus Christ to heaven;

· In the seventh - about the second, future coming of Jesus Christ to earth;

· The eighth member of the Creed is about faith in the Holy Spirit;

· In the ninth - about the attitude towards the church;

· In the tenth - about the sacrament of Baptism;

· In the eleventh - about the future general resurrection of the dead;

· In the twelfth term - about eternal life.

In the further philosophical and theoretical development of Christianity, the teaching of St. Augustine played a significant role. At the turn of the 5th century he preached the superiority of faith over knowledge. Reality, according to his teaching, is incomprehensible to the human mind, since behind its events and phenomena the will of the almighty Creator is hidden. Augustine's doctrine of predestination stated that anyone who believed in God could enter the sphere of the "elect" predestined for salvation. For faith is the criterion of predestination.

An important place in Orthodoxy is occupied by sacramental rituals, during which, according to the teachings of the church, special grace descends on believers. The Orthodox Church recognizes seven sacraments:

1. Baptism- a sacrament in which a believer, by immersing his body three times in water with the invocation of God the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, gains spiritual birth.

2. In the sacrament Confirmation the believer is given the gifts of the Holy Spirit, restoring and strengthening him in spiritual life.

3. In the sacrament communion the believer, under the guise of bread and wine, eats the very Body and Blood of Christ for Eternal Life.

4. Sacrament repentance or confession is the recognition of one’s sins before a priest, who absolves them in the name of Jesus Christ.

5. Sacrament priesthood performed through episcopal ordination when a person is elevated to the rank of clergy. The right to perform this sacrament belongs only to the bishop.

6. In the sacrament marriage, which takes place in the temple during a wedding, the marital union of the bride and groom is blessed.

7. In the sacrament anointing of oil(unction) when anointing the body with oil, the grace of God is invoked on the sick person, I heal for infirmity sewn and bodily.

Old Believers. In the middle of the 17th century, there was an urgent need to reform the Russian church, to increase its authority, to strengthen its influence on the masses, and to strengthen the alliance with the state. During the period of feudal fragmentation (17th century), the unity of church ritual and the content of liturgical books was disrupted. The establishment of religious unity was supposed to strengthen political unity. Foreign policy circumstances also forced church reform. Patriarch Nikon began to introduce new rituals, new liturgical books and other innovations into the Russian Church without the approval of the council, without permission. This was the reason for the church schism. All the innovations introduced by Patriarch Nikon seemed to the conservative-minded part of the Russian clergy to be a complete departure from the “old faith,” the principles of which were bequeathed by the Stoglavy Council (1551). She declared the new liturgical books and rituals heretical and objected to their adoption. The protests were expressed in places in a very harsh form. For example, the Moscow priest Ivan Neronov allowed himself to stop the service in the Assumption Cathedral when the triple hallelujah was sung there. And when in the Nilova Hermitage they began to serve at five prosphoras instead of seven, the parishioners were outraged by this. The sexton hit the priest on the head with a censer filled with hot coals so that the coals scattered, after which a general fight ensued in the church. The clergy of the Vyatka region also protested against Nikon’s innovations. The head of the diocese, Bishop Alexander of Vyatka and Great Perm, sent a petition to the patriarch Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1663, in which he condemned the correction of liturgical books and the creed. As a result, he was summoned to Moscow to respond to the council of 1666, where he tried to defend his position in relation to Nikon's reforms, but ultimately repented, was forgiven by the council and returned to his diocese in 1669. A notable opponent of church reforms in the Vyatka land was Hegumen Theoktist, who at one time came to Khlynov together with Bishop Alexander. He was an ardent supporter of Archpriest Avvakum, that recognized leader of the defenders of the “old faith.” Hegumen Feoktist maintained written communication from Khlynov with noblewoman F.P. Morozova, the famous patroness of the Old Believers. For his ardent and open support of Archpriest Avvakum, the abbot was arrested and sent to Moscow. Theoktist himself disappeared without a trace, but his sermons about the “old faith” had a significant impact on believers. There were a lot of such dissatisfied people in Russia and the Vyatka province at that time. These included the provincial clergy and representatives of ancient boyar families, and part of the merchants associated with domestic trade, and the urban lower classes. But the peasants had more grounds for discontent than others, for the brunt of the consequences of the final strengthening of feudal-serf relations in the country fell on them. They became the force that split Russian Orthodoxy into the so-called “old faith” and official Orthodoxy.

At the direction of the Vyatka Bishop Ioannikiy, in the first third of the 19th century, the Vyatka Spiritual Consistory attempted to determine the total number of Old Believers in the diocese. It turned out, according to the information she collected, that in 1834 there were 28,689 supporters of the “old faith” living in the province, including 16,519 people, or about 58%, in the territory included in modern Udmurtia. Subsequently, the number of Old Believers in the province increased rapidly. According to the provincial statistical committee, by the beginning of the 60s there were already 46,020 of them, in particular in the districts that formed the current Udmurtia, 28,231 people, or 61%.

The further fate of the Vyatka Old Believers was significantly influenced by the peasant reform of 1861 and the subsequent bourgeois reforms that were carried out by the tsarist government. All these phenomena in the Vyatka Old Believers were accompanied by a numerical increase in its adherents, because the need for religious consolation within the framework of the “old faith” among the peasants of the province remained due to the predatory nature of the peasant reform.

According to the provincial statistical committee, by the end of the century the number of Old Believers increased almost three times compared to the beginning of the 60s: in 1900 there were 104,523 of them in the province, and together with co-religionists - 113,322, including in the territories of the counties of which the current Udmurtia was formed - 68,422 people and 74,719, respectively.

In recent years, there has been a tendency toward a decline in the religious activity of the Old Believers. This decline was reflected in a decrease in the attendance of believers at prayer meetings and a decrease in the number of rituals performed. The Old Believers as a whole are currently experiencing a state of deep crisis. At present, we can say with certainty that the Old Believers have decreased quantitatively. Although now, according to the most optimistic estimates, Old Believers in Russia number only from one million to four.

Christianity today: a sociological study.

What is the situation of Orthodoxy, Christianity and faith in general in Russia today? What processes are taking place in this area? Let's look at this in more detail.

After many centuries, Christianity remains one of the world religions. Having undergone many changes, it lives and continues to fulfill its main function - drawing closer to God, with moral values ​​and foundations.

The crisis of communist ideology and the democratization of society caused a surge of religious sentiment among various strata. According to statistics, in the 90s in Russia, 54% of citizens considered themselves Orthodox, 5% - adherents of Islam, 4% - adherents of other religions and cults. The rest considered themselves to be non-believers.

After the fall of communism in the 90s, the restoration and construction of temples, mosques, and synagogues began throughout the country. In Moscow, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, which was blown up in the early 1930s and built in the 19th century with the money of millions of ordinary people in memory of the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, was restored in a short time. Currently, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior is one of the main shrines of Russia; Patriarch of All Rus' Alexy II himself conducts services here.

Today, the Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees every citizen “freedom of religion, including the right to profess individually or jointly with others any religion or not to profess any, to freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and act in accordance with them.” However, propaganda of “religious hatred and enmity”, as well as “religious superiority” is not allowed.

In 1997, the Federal Law “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations” was adopted, which significantly limited the activities of totalitarian sects that had penetrated into Russia from abroad (Satanists, Scientologists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, etc.). But, despite this, the problem of the spread of various sects throughout the country is very, very relevant today. People join such organizations, pawning all their property and completely devoting themselves to the sect and serving its leaders.

One of the most important events of the early 21st century can be called the reunification of the Russian Orthodox Church, which ended in 2007. All the contradictions that existed earlier were debunked.

The other day sad news came: the first hierarch of the Russian Church Abroad, Metropolitan Laurus, who was one of the main figures in the reunification of churches, died on March 16th. Elections for the new head of the Russian Church Abroad will approximately take place after Easter.

Now let's turn to a sociological study that was organized by the Levada Center earlier this year.

On January 18-22 and February 22-25, 2008, the Yuri Levada Analytical Center (Levada Center) conducted surveys representative of the country's adult population on the problem of religion (sample of 1,600 Russians). The vast majority, three out of every four, believe that religion helps people. For some, it gives primarily “oblivion, consolation, relief of emotional distress and pain.” More often than average, this is noted by those who most need oblivion: the poor and representatives of the lower social class. The atheists we interviewed recognize this role of religion as much as believers. For some, religion gives “cleansing of the soul,” but atheists no longer recognize this. More often than others, religious cleansing of the soul is celebrated by rural residents, less often by Muscovites and wealthy people. “The salvation of the soul, the path to eternal life” is obviously the central and main role of religion. Atheists deny it by definition. It receives the greatest recognition from representatives of the lower social class and older people, and the least from young people. “The meaning of life” is for those whose whole life is permeated with religion and boils down to it. Atheists recognize this role no less often than believers. It receives the greatest recognition from Muslims and representatives of small faiths. Finally, religion can help not only an individual person in his individual life, but also the people around him, in the life of people together. The most common opinion (shared by a third of all adult Russians) is that people find “moral and moral standards of everyday life” in religion. The higher the educational level and the better the financial situation, the more often this is recognized. Relatively rarely, but the normalizing role of religion is recognized by atheists, and relatively often by Orthodox Christians and representatives of small faiths.

42% of Russians, a little less than half, consider themselves religious people – “very” or “to some extent”. Recognition of one's religiosity has little to do with a person's financial situation, educational level and social status. (Increased religiosity is noticeable both among the poorest and among people with high social status. Highly educated citizens are more likely than others to find it difficult to answer the question posed). Much more important in this case are gender and age factors. Women are significantly more religiosity than men (51% versus 30%). Religiosity gradually increases with age (18-24 years old - 29%, 25-39 years old - 38%, 40-54 years old - 44%, 55 years old and older 49%). By occupation, pensioners, employees without special education and managers and management workers are characterized by increased religiosity. Religiosity is below average among workers, significantly lower among students, and the least religious people are among law enforcement officers.

Every second of those who consider themselves a religious person noted that “religion makes me think about the meaning of life, the soul, eternity,” slightly less than half (40%) noted that “religion helps me be tolerant of people and their shortcomings.” ”, every third - that “religion is simply necessary for me as a believer.” The religious feelings of the people around them and the manifestations of these feelings by religious people are most often taken seriously: “people used to hide their religious feelings, but now they have stopped hiding them” (35%), “more and more people are becoming familiar with the Faith” (32%). Only a few (14%) do not trust their manifestations: “this is all just an external fashion that does not have any deep religious feelings behind it.”

According to the results of a sociological survey, the question “What religion do you profess?” 71% of respondents answered “Orthodoxy”, 15% of citizens surveyed said that they do not profess any religion. 1% of citizens answered that they are Catholics or Protestants. Less than 1% of respondents recognize themselves as Jews and Buddhists. 5% of respondents are Muslims and atheists. About 2% of citizens found it difficult to answer, 1% chose another answer.

Thus, it can be noted that Orthodoxy still dominates in Russia.

To the question “How much influence do the church and religious organizations have on public policy in our country?” 4% of respondents claim that there is “too much”, 14% “a little more than necessary”, 45% of respondents “exactly as much as there should be”, “a little less than necessary” - 11%, 7% - “too much” not enough,” 19% “difficult to answer.”

The question was also asked: “Should a certain place be given to religious knowledge in the general education curriculum?” The results are as follows: “there should be no place for religion in school” - 20%, “at the request of students and their parents, the history of religion and the foundations of religious morality can be studied in school” - 60%, “it is necessary to restore the teaching of the Law of God in secondary school for everyone " - 12%, another answer - 1% and 8% of respondents found it difficult to answer.

Thus, we get a general picture of modern reality. Orthodoxy dominates in Russian society, the percentage of non-believers is quite high. Different faiths coexist on the same territory. Today, both rich and poor believe in God. Therefore, belief in God is not related to social status.

Religious processes are still in full swing in the church environment; the church today is connected with society and the state as a whole.

Conclusion.

The scientific study of Christianity began in the 18th century and continues to this day. Attention to religion as the most powerful ideological means of the state is unlikely to dry up as long as interstate and interethnic conflicts unleashed on religious grounds continue, as long as religion itself exists.

If you look at the result of the influence of Christian ideas on society and the state, then, perhaps, no one will doubt that the power of their action on humanity turned out to be unprecedented . This tells us that all history after Christ became qualitatively different under the influence of Christian ideas. That is, the political and legal nature of these ideas is revealed in their impact on humanity.

Does religion encourage goodness or are many of humanity's problems rooted in it? Perhaps God himself is deeply offended by religion, which incites hostility, makes the conscience insensitive, evokes fantasies that are far from reality and sows prejudices, superstitions, hatred and fear in people! There can be only one way out - to look for a true religion, one that does not contradict its commandments. Faith has the right to be called true only if it encourages one to show compassion in practice. Everyone must decide this question for themselves - in reflection, in research, in search.

We need to summarize. The church is important today. It is necessary, first of all, for instilling moral and ethical qualities in a person, it is necessary as a shelter for those tired of the vulgarity of life, it is necessary for the simplest thing, for which the church was created, for faith.

Bibliography.

1. Bible.

2. B. Russell. Why am I not a Christian - M.: Politizdat, 1978.

3. Brochure “Prayer is a conversation with God” - Kazan: New edition, 2000.

4. Brochure “Your Word is Truth” - Kazan: New edition, 2000.

5. Brochure “The Existence of God” - Kazan: New edition, 2000.

6. Brochure “The Essence of God” - Kazan: New edition, 2000.

8. Ivonin Yu.M. Christianity in Udmurtia: history and modernity. – Izhevsk: Udmurtia, 1987.- p. 30, 40, 42.

9. I.S.Sventsitskaya. Early Christianity: pages of stories - M.: Politizdat, 1987.

10. History of political doctrines, ed. Nersesyants - M.: Infra M-Kodeks, 1995.

11. History of religion - M.: Runik center, 1991.

12. History of Russia, 20th – early 21st centuries: textbook for 11th grade. / A. A. Levandovsky. – M.: Education, 2005.

13.K. Kautsky. The origin of Christianity - M.: ed. watered lit., 1990.

14. Konstantinova T. I. F. Kapterev about Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich // Calendar of the Ancient Orthodox Pomorka Church. – 2004. – p. 72.

15.F. Engels. About original Christianity - M.: ed. watered lit., 1990.

Introduction…………………………………………………………… 3 pages.

Main part……………………......................4- 13 pp.

Chapter 1. Religion of Ancient Egypt……………..4 p.

Chapter 2. Pantheon of Gods of Ancient Egypt:

image and symbolism........................................................ .5 pp.

Chapter 3. Pantheon of gods of Ancient Egypt and

relationship with the gods of other civilizations......11pp.

Family ties of the gods of Ancient Egypt......13pp.

Conclusion……………………………………………………14 p.

References……………………………… 15 pages.

Applications……………………………………… 16 - 19 pages.

Table “Pantheon of Gods of Ancient Egypt: image, symbolism, correlation”………..………………16 pp.

Introduction

Currently, interest in religion is growing, and the number of believers is growing. On television we often see services taking place in churches, the consecration of buildings, ships, and enterprises. Church music is heard on the radio and in concert halls. This is explained by the influence of religion on a person’s spiritual life, primarily on his morality.

We started doing the “Gods of Ancient Egypt” project because we were interested in the history of religion and the gods of Ancient Egypt, and the project would help us with this in the same way as other ways of obtaining information combined.

Learn as much as you can about the religion and gods of Ancient Egypt.

1.Trace the family ties of the gods of Ancient Egypt.

2. Compare the gods of Egyptian civilization with the gods of other civilizations.

Main part.

Chapter 1. Religion of Ancient Egypt.

The Egyptians, according to Herodotus, were the most pious of people. They believed that everything in the world belonged to the gods, that the gods were the source of universal prosperity, that they knew all their plans and desires and could intervene in the affairs of people at any time. Like the Greeks and Romans, the Egyptians had a huge variety of gods. The belief that the gods protect individual people gave rise to crazy ideas. Some pharaohs wanted to see the gods during their lifetime, they demanded that the divine kite would help them, when they were among the antelopes and birds of the sky, to learn a language accessible only to a select few, and to listen with its help to the command of the gods. The desires of ordinary people, rich or poor, are much more modest. Childless parents ask Imhotep to give them a child; the scribe hoped that God Thoth would help him become more skillful. Everyone believed that the gods looked after the poor. When everything turned against them, God remained their support, an incorruptible judge: he did not force witnesses to change their testimony. At the trial, the poor man, who has neither silver, nor gold for the scribes, nor clothes for their servants, suddenly sees that Amon himself took on the guise of a vizier, so that truth would triumph and the weak would prevail over the strong. If people do not please the gods, they will become angry and bring disaster to the entire country. Therefore, they tried to appease them with gifts, begging for mercy and mercy.

But the Egyptians did not only believe in gods. They believed that every creature was alive and could talk to them. Therefore, divine honors went to animals, birds, and plants. Each city worshiped its own sacred tree, but the local deity was not enough to quench the religious thirst. People built houses-temples for the gods. They carved large statues of gods from stone or made figurines from bronze or clay. The Egyptians believed that God inhabited the image and heard everything that people said and accepted their gifts. Each temple was a small city, where behind the temple fence officials, guards, artisans and farmers lived, as in an ordinary city. At the temples there were priests serving the gods. It was believed that it was the priest who knew best how to talk to God - he knew special prayers that were kept secret from other people. The pharaohs gave the temples gardens and arable land, gold and silver, and numerous slaves. Gifts were made to the gods who supposedly lived in the temples. The priests disposed of them. Believers could come to the temple to God at any time to ask for advice, complain or thank.

Chapter 2. Pantheon of gods of Ancient Egypt.

Anubis

The god Anubis in Egyptian mythology is considered the patron god of the dead, the son of the vegetation god Osiris and Nephthys, sister of Isis. He was depicted as a lying black jackal, a black wild dog Sab, or as a man with the head of a jackal or a dog. Anubis was considered the judge of the gods. One of the most important functions of Anubis was to prepare the body of the deceased for embalming and turning it into a mummy. The ancient Greeks identified Anubis with Hermes. Anubis is considered the creator of funeral rites. Anubis helped judge the dead and accompanied the righteous to the throne of Osiris. The center of the cult of Anubis is the city of the 17th nome of Kas, Greek. Kinopol is a “dog city”.

Khnum

God of fertility and creator god Khnum. The drawing depicts him with the head of a ram, as a creator god. Khnum was considered an assistant during childbirth. Especially in the southern Egyptian city of Esna, this god was revered as the creator of all creatures. Since his image combined many deities with the appearance of a ram, he sometimes had four heads, which symbolized the four main elements of the world: sky, air, earth and the underworld. His task, as guardian of the Nile source, was also to protect against annual floods, take care of rich harvests and relieve famine.

Osiris (Usir)

Osiris is the god of the vital forces of nature and fertility, the ruler of the underworld. Osiris, the firstborn of the earth god Heb and the heaven goddess Nut, was believed in mythological times to have inherited power on earth from his father. Osiris taught people good morals and customs, weaning them from cannibalism. From him, people learned how to grow cereals and grapes, bake bread, make beer and wine, build cities, heal, honor the gods, and also mine and process copper and gold ores.

Horus (Chorus)

Horus Horus (“height”, “sky”) is one of the most ancient Egyptian gods, who kept legends about those times when hunting was the dominant occupation of men. He was depicted - in later periods - as a man with the head of a falcon or a solar disk with outstretched falcon wings, the son of the fertility goddess Isis and Osiris, the god of productive forces. Its symbol is a solar disk with outstretched wings. Sometimes the images of Horus and Ra merge together. Initially, the falcon god was revered as a predatory god of the hunt, with his claws digging into his prey. According to myth, Isis conceived Horus from the dead Osiris. Secretly nurtured and raised by his mother in the swamps of the Nile Delta, Horus goes to duel with Set. Horus deprives Seth of his masculinity and feeds his eye to Osiris, from which he comes to life and recognizes Horus as his plenipotentiary (in Egyptian, “right-minded”) heir and leaves to rule. to the kingdom of the dead, giving Horus the kingdom of the living.

Geb, in Egyptian mythology, the god of the earth, the son of the god of air Shu and the goddess of moisture Tefnut. Geb quarreled with his sister and wife Nut ("sky"), because she daily ate her children - the heavenly bodies, and then gave birth to them again. Shu separated the spouses. He left Geb at the bottom, and raised Nut up. The children of Geb were Osiris, Set, Isis, Nephthys. The soul (Ba) of Hebe was embodied in the god of fertility Khnum. The ancients believed that Geb was good: he protected the living and the dead from snakes living in the earth, plants that people needed grew on him, which is why he was sometimes depicted with a green face. The ancient Greeks identified Hebe with Kronos.

He differs from most gods in that he is the least contradictory. He is the god of wisdom, knowledge, counting and writing, magic and sorcery, and also in some incarnations - the god of the Moon, the “silver Aten”. Thoth was called "the scribe of the gods", "the lord of writing", "the lord of papyrus", "the inventor of the palette and inkwell", "the lord of divine words" or "words of power". Thoth's wife was the goddess of truth and order, Maat. Sometimes he was called the son of Ra. Being the god of the Moon, Thoth, through the phases of this celestial body, was associated with any astronomical or astrological observations, which ultimately caused Thoth to become the god of wisdom and magic.

Ptah (Ptah)

He is one of the most ancient gods and was the supreme patron of the city of Memphis. Thanks to the divine word, the life force of gods and people was created. It was said about Bird: “He who created all things and recreated the gods.” Thus it was established and recognized that his power surpasses the powers of other gods. He was depicted in the strange form of a traveler, covered with clothes, except for the hands of the rute, holding the staff "was". This made him different from all other gods. Ptah, Ptah is one of the most ancient gods of the Egyptian pantheon, the god of arts and crafts. Ptah created the world “with his heart and tongue”: he named the names of all objects, and they appeared. The ancient Egyptian city of Memphis was one of the centers of artistic creativity, which was patronized by the priests of the Temple of Ptah. In Ancient Greece he was identified with Hephaestus. Ptah's wife was Sekhmet, his son was Nefertum. The wives of Ptah were also sometimes called Maat, Bast, Tefnut, Hathor.

Ra (Re)

It was not immediately that Ra was given primacy in the heavenly pantheon. Mythology was influenced by the strengthening of a single power, for which not only agriculture was of great importance, but also movement along the mighty water artery that held the country together - the Nile. It is no coincidence that Ra moved along the celestial ocean (or celestial river) on a divine boat. The center of the cult of Ra was the city of Iunu (in Greek - Heliopolis, “City of the Sun”) Ra - the ancient Egyptian god of the sun. There are creation myths according to which Ra was born from an egg laid by the goose Great Gogotun; according to another, Ra appeared from the east in the form of Khepri - a scarab beetle rolling the Sun in front of him; Another version of this myth tells that Ra in the form of a falcon (or falcon) descended to Earth, giving rise to dry land.

Maat

The wife of the god of wisdom Thoth was the goddess of truth, order and justice - Maat. The symbol of Maat was an ostrich feather (it was also called “maat”). Perhaps it served as the smallest measure of weight, for in the afterlife the heart of the deceased was placed on one scale, and a feather or figurine of Maat on the other. As the goddess of order, Maat was the personification of not only social justice, but also political stability in the state (the deviation of a pharaoh or nobleman from the truth was considered a crime against the goddess), universal harmony, and ethical norms, the laws of nature and the gods. The daughter of the sun god Ra, a participant in the creation of the world, she played a prominent role in the afterlife court of Osiris.

In almost all religions of the world, the light and good principle is opposed to the dark and evil. In Egyptian mythology, this role is assigned to Set (Sethu, Sutekh). Seth is endowed with human negative qualities, in particular, cunning, cruelty, envy, and most often appears in human form. According to his pedigree, Seth belonged to the highest caste of gods: he was the third child (after Osiris and Isis) of Geb and Nut. Nephthys, according to some myths, was his wife. The main sacred animals of Seth were considered to be the donkey and the pig (“disgust for the gods”), as well as the antelope and giraffe. Set - in the mythology of the ancient Egyptians, the god of the desert, the personification of evil, the killer of Osiris. He invented weapons, taught people how to use them, and thereby acquired the title of god of war. Depicted as a man with the head of a donkey.

Nut is a Celestial Cow, especially revered in Egypt as the personification of the sky, or more precisely, the cosmos, because her body was depicted strewn with stars. Nut in Egyptian mythology is the goddess of the sky, the daughter of the air god Shu and the goddess of moisture Tefnut, the twin sister of the earth god Geb. Against the wishes of Ra, she married her brother. Ra became so angry that he ordered Shu to separate the twins. Shu raised Nut up - this is how the sky was formed, and Hebe left it below - this is how the earth was formed. Ra's rage was great, and he commanded that Nut could not conceive a child in any month of the year. God Thoth took pity on her. He invited the moon to play checkers with him, won and took moonlight as a prize to create five new days. On each of these days, Nut conceived a child: Osiris, Set, Isis, Nephthys. Another myth tells how Nut helped Ra move away from people when he became disillusioned with their actions.

Isis

This goddess was called “she who has a thousand names.” Indeed, she was considered the goddess of motherhood, family, water and wind, navigation, magic, fertility, a symbol of femininity and marital fidelity. Her cult spread far beyond Egypt. The word “Isis” (“iset”) translated means “throne”, “throne”. Apparently, a goddess with that name was associated with royal dignity and power; Moreover, her power extended not only over people, but also over the gods, even over Ra. In this she differed from her younger sister Nephthys (Nephthys), Nebethet. Isis mastered the art of magic. Isis is the daughter of Geb and Nut, the sister and wife of Osiris.

Hathor (Hathor)

In ancient times, she was primarily the goddess of the sky, depicting a woman with the head of a cow, between whose horns the solar disk was placed. She was called the daughter of Ra. Most often, Hathor (like her two other images) was revered as a woman with a lion's head. Hathor also played an important role in the kingdom of the dead, meeting the souls of the dead and endowing them with life-giving moisture. Her attribute was a musical instrument, images of which made of carnelian, red stone or faience were worn as an amulet that brought good luck. The ancient Greeks identified her with Aphrodite, with the Mesopotamian Ishtar. Hathor was considered the goddess of love, femininity and beauty, as well as the consort of Horus.

Bast (Bastet)

Bast, Bastet, in Egyptian mythology, the goddess of joy and fun, whose sacred animal was the cat. Most often, Bast was depicted as a woman with the head of a cat or in the guise of a cat. Sometimes Bast was considered the wife of the creator god Ptah or identified with the sky goddess Nut. "Father of History" Herodotus reports on the annual magnificent celebrations in honor of the goddess Bast, which were accompanied by singing and dancing. The ancient Greeks identified Bast with Artemis.

Aten

Aten in Egyptian mythology, the god is the personification of the solar disk. Aten was depicted as a solar disk with rays that ended in hands holding the sign of life ankh, a symbol of the fact that life was given to people, animals and plants by Aten. It was believed that the sun god was present in every object and living creature.

A pis

Apis or Hapis is a sacred bull in ancient Egyptian mythology, which had its own temple in Memphis. Apis was considered dedicated to Ptah or Osiris, or acted as a separate deity revered in the Memphis area. Apis was supposed to exist in the body of a really existing bull, and after his death move into the body of a new bull.

Nun (in Egyptian “water”), in Egyptian mythology, the embodiment of the grandiose water element, which existed at the dawn of time and contained all life force. It was believed that Nun headed the council of gods, where the lioness goddess Hathor-Sekhmet was tasked with punishing people who plotted evil against the solar god Ra.

Nekhbet

Nekhbet, in Egyptian mythology, the goddess of royal power. Since Nekhbet's sacred animal was a kite, she was depicted as a woman with a tuft on her head or as a snake-headed kite wearing a white crown in Upper Egypt. Nekhbet was revered as the personification of the power of the pharaoh and it was believed that she ensured his victory over his enemies. The goddess was also the mistress of the eastern desert, the patroness of gold and silver mining, and helped during childbirth.

Aker

Aker is an insignificant god of the earth and the patron of the dead in Egyptian mythology, one of the most ancient deities. Aker was considered one of Ra's assistants in his daily battle with Apep. Sometimes depicted as a two-headed lion (less commonly, a sphinx).

Sobek

Sobek, Sebek, in Egyptian mythology, the god of water and the flood of the Nile, whose sacred animal was the crocodile. He was depicted as a crocodile or as a man with the head of a crocodile. The center of his cult is the city of Khatnecher-Sobek (Greek: Crocodilopolis), the capital of the Fayum. According to some myths, the god of evil Set took refuge in the body of Sobek to avoid punishment for the murder of Osiris. Sobek is sometimes considered the son of Neith, the great mother of the gods, the goddess of war, hunting, water and sea, who is also credited with the birth of the terrible serpent Apophis.

Sekhmet

Sekhmet (Sokhmet) - patron goddess of Memphis, wife of Ptah. Depicted with the head of a lion. She was the personification of solar heat and the destructive energy of the Sun, which is why a disk was depicted on her head. As the goddess of heat, Sekhmet seemed quite severe. Sekhmet was considered the destroyer of the enemies of the gods. During the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs, as protectors of Egypt from enemies, were often compared to Sekhmet; therefore, the goddess was sometimes depicted with a sword in her hands.

WITH eat

Seshat is the goddess of writing, knowledge, counting, chronicle and chronology in ancient Egyptian mythology. Seshat was originally the goddess of Sais. She was considered the daughter (less often, the wife) of Thoth. Seshat was depicted as a woman with a seven-pointed star on her head

Chapter 3. Pantheon of gods of Ancient Egypt and relationship with the gods of other civilizations

In the course of our work, the gods of the Egyptian civilization were correlated with the gods of other civilizations (Greek, Slavic and Mesopotamian), based on the similarity of functions.

Chapter 4. Family ties of the gods of Ancient Egypt

Religion is a reflection of people’s lives: like people, gods can be capricious, cruel, insidious and vengeful, sometimes quarrel among themselves, and live in families. It was possible to trace family ties between individual representatives of the pantheon of Egyptian gods. It is not possible to imagine the family ties of all the gods.

Conclusion.

As a result of the work done, we learned more about the religion and gods of Ancient Egypt, and were able to trace family ties between individual representatives of the pantheon of Egyptian gods. It is not possible to imagine the family ties of all the gods. And they were able to correlate the gods of the Egyptian civilization with the gods of other civilizations. Based on the comparative characteristics of the gods, it was possible to establish a correlation mainly with the pantheon of pagan gods of Ancient Greece, the pantheon of Slavic gods and Mesopotamian gods. The correlation was carried out on the basis of what the gods symbolized.

Bibliography:

Vigasin A.A., Goder G.I., Sventsitskaya I.S. “History of the Ancient World” Textbook for 5th grade in general education institutions. Moscow, Education 2002

Danilov A. A., Kosulina L. G. “History of the state and peoples of Russia” Textbook for the 6th grade of general education institutions. Moscow, Bustard. 2002

Matveev K.P., Sazonov A.A. “The Land of Ancient Mesopotamia” (Myths, legends, legends and discoveries). Moscow, Young Guard, 1986.

Monte Pierre “Egypt of Ramesses” Moscow, Nauka, 1998.

Nemirovsky A.I. “Myths of Ancient Hellas” Moscow, Enlightenment 1992.

Rybakov B. A. “Paganism of Ancient Rus'” Moscow, Science 1988

Applications.

Table “Pantheon of Gods of Ancient Egypt: image, symbolism, correlation”