It is hardly possible to say exactly how many people in the world speak English. For some it is their native language and the official language of their country, for others it is a second or foreign language. If we combine all the speakers of English, then we can safely talk about the most common spoken language in the world.
The countries with the largest populations with English as their first language are the United States of America (215 million), the United Kingdom (61 million), Canada (18.2 million), Australia (15.5 million), South Africa (3.7 million) and New Zealand (3.6 million). Consider the culture and language of each country separately.
United Kingdom
United Kingdom full official form - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (eng. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), in English it is usually shortened to "United Kingdom" - an island nation in the northwest of Europe. Great Britain is one of the largest states in Europe, a permanent member of the UN Security Council. The form of government is a parliamentary monarchy. The state consists of four "historical provinces": England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The capital is the city of London, one of the largest cities in Europe and the most important world financial and economic center. The official language is English.
The official language of Great Britain is English - a West Germanic language that emerged from Old English, which had a large number of borrowings from Old Norse, Norman, French and Latin. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, English has spread throughout the world and has become the international language of business and the most widely spoken second language.
Scots, which emerged from Early Northern Middle English, is conspicuous at the European level, as is its dialect in the northern counties of Ireland, Ulster-Scots. Four other Celtic languages are used in Great Britain: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish.
In the UK as a whole, schoolchildren are required to learn a second language up to a certain point: up to 14 in England, and up to 16 in Scotland. French and German are the two most studied second languages in these two regions. In Wales, students under 16 are either taught in Welsh or taught Welsh as a second language.
Culture, traditions and customs.
Great Britain is a great state with a rich history and centuries-old traditions. Ancient ancestral castles with ghosts wandering there, ancient universities, the most famous English pubs, as well as the royal family, which is considered the subject of partial interest and pride of the British - all this is England. According to the English-language Oxford Dictionary, the first use of the name "England", as a reference to the southern part of Great Britain, was dated 897. Many people use the name England incorrectly, meaning the whole of Great Britain, which is divided into 4 parts - Wales, Scotland, Ireland and England.
One of the most popular hobbies in England is gardening. A real Englishman cannot imagine a house without a neat garden nearby. This is a special custom in England, it is revered and respected by all. To find the best garden near the houses, special competitions are held. An Englishman who wins such a competition can rightfully be proud of himself and be happy.
Authentic British cuisine can be recognized by its quality and high cost. Simple English food is inexpensive and a must-have on every café's menu. According to a long tradition, scrambled eggs, juice, toast and coffee are served at the table for breakfast. The oldest and most famous tradition in England is tea drinking, which is treated with great reverence. The British drink Indian tea, but Chinese is also considered thin and refined. Englishmen who respect themselves always take their national, in a special way mixed tea, with them on a trip. Tea in England is drunk everywhere and by everyone, but not always. They drink tea for breakfast, they drink tea at work, when they come home - tea, but after dinner it is not customary to drink tea.
The age of people, trees, objects is not the only thing that the British respect. They honor the age of their feelings no less. Here people are in no hurry to get married, but despite this, young couples start living together quite early. Their feelings and beliefs mature slowly, but at the moment when they finally take shape, they are no longer easy to shake. The Englishman tries to use the slightest chance in order to save the family, avoid divorce and, of course, not to lose the established traditions.
Guards in the famous Tower are still dressed as they were during the reign of the Tudor dynasty, students at Oxford and Cambridge wear robes of the 17th century, and lawyers and judges are forced to chew on wigs of the 18th century. Of all the existing voluntary societies in England, those that protect any things or buildings from destruction and disappearance enjoy special respect and honor. All this speaks of the unique uniqueness of this people, whose traditions will last for a good hundred years to come.
The British are a very reserved people. Their customs carry dryness in their own reasoning when talking with an interlocutor. It is from here that the desire to move away from the use of final formulations and denials appeared. The expression of extreme praise among the British is denoted by the word "not bad", for Russians, for example, it can look quite stern and pompous. The British try not to show their feelings to everyone around, but despite this, they are very sociable people.
The average person will be very surprised to learn with what incredible tenacity these people try to adhere to the customs of two hundred or three hundred years ago and follow them from generation to generation. The word "old" for an Englishman is equivalent to reliability, it is considered a virtue that can compensate for absolutely all the disadvantages that accompany "old age". New ideas for the inhabitants of England seem deliberately suspicious, and the latest technologies are completely unreliable, new houses have absolutely no soul, and the newly formed rich are just upstarts.
Holidays and Traditions in Russia and English-speaking Countries
Every country has its national holidays, but there are also holidays that are common for many countries. New Year's Day is the first holiday of each new year. In Russia it is the most popular holiday, but in Europe and America people pay more attention to Christmas. The celebration begins on New Year's Eve, that is, on the 31st of December. At home we all stay up until midnight and much later. We light colored lamps on our New Year Tree and have a late dinner with cake and champagne. Sometimes we just watch TV, but we also go out for a late walk. Everybody gets presents.
New Year's Day is a family event. But in Russia we also have holidays commemorating some important events in our history, for example, Victory Day or Constitution Day. There are also holidays like May Day and Women's Day which started as political events but over the years have become family holidays.
Recently Russian people have begun to celebrate religious holidays again. The most important religious holidays are Christmas and Easter. In Russia, Christmas is celebrated on January 7th, and in Europe and in the USA on December 25th.
In Great Britain there are also many holidays, some of them are the same as in our country, and some different. Bank Holidays, the peculiar English holidays, were appointed by Act of Parliament in 1871. They happen four times a year: Easter Monday, Whit Monday, the first Monday in August and December 26th. December 26th is Boxing Day. The "boxing" refers to the boxes of Christmas presents which are usually given on that day. Other public holidays are: Christmas Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday and May Day. On these days all banks and all places of business are closed and nearly everyone takes a holiday.
But besides public holidays, the British people observe certain traditions on such days as Pancake Day, Shrove Tuesday, Guy Fawkes" Night, St. Valentine's Day, April Fool's Day, which, unless they fall on Sunday, are ordinary working days.
In the USA constitution there is no provision for national holidays. Each state has the right to decide which holiday to observe. Many states have holidays of their own, but there are also major holidays observed in nearly all the states.
The main holiday in the USA is Independence Day, celebrating on the fourth of July. On that day in 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. It is a patriotic holiday, celebrating with the firing of guns, and fireworks, parades and open-air meetings.
Another traditional American holiday is Thanksgiving Day which falls on the fourth Thursday of November. It has been a national holiday since the 17th century, when the English colonists decided to celebrate the end of their first year in America and to give thanks to God. It is a family holiday with a large traditional dinner including turkey and pumpkin pie.
There are other holidays in the USA besides Christmas, New Year and Easter, which are popular all round the world. 34 of the 50 states observe Columbus Day on October 12. It commemorates the discovery of America. Labor Day on the first Monday of September marks the end of the summer and of the vacations. There is also Memorial Day or Decoration Day observed on the 30th of May when Americans honor the servicemen who gave their lives in all the past wars and hold memorial services. Veterans" Day on the 11th November is dedicated to the end of the First World War. This Day is observed not only in the USA and the UK but all over Europe and today is dedicated to war veterans and those who died in all wars. In Britain it is called the Remembrance Day and its symbol is a red poppy.
Holidays and traditions in Russia and English-speaking countries
Each country has its own national holidays, but there are also holidays that are common to many countries. The first holiday in each year is the New Year. In Russia it is the most popular holiday, but in Europe and America people pay more attention to Christmas. The celebration begins on New Year's Eve, that is, December 31st. At home, we all do not go to bed until after midnight. We light colored lights on the Christmas tree and have dinner late with champagne and cake. Sometimes we just watch TV, but we also go out at night for a walk. Everyone gets gifts.
New Year is a family event. But in Russia there are also holidays that celebrate some important events in our history, such as Victory Day or Constitution Day. There are also holidays like May 1st and Women's Day, which began as political events but have evolved into family holidays over the years.
Recently, Russians have begun to celebrate religious holidays again. The most important religious holidays are Christmas and Easter. In Russia, Christmas is celebrated on January 7th, and in Europe and the USA on December 25th.
There are also many holidays in the UK, some of them are the same as in our country, and some are different. Specifically English Bank Holidays were introduced by an Act of Parliament in 1871. They are celebrated four times a year: on Easter Monday, on Spirits Day, on the first Monday of August and on December 26th. December 26th is Boxing Day. A "box" is a box of Christmas gifts usually given on this day. Christmas, New Year, Good Friday and May Day are also celebrated. These days, all banks and institutions are closed, and almost everyone has days off.
But in addition to public holidays, the British observe certain traditions on such days as Pancake Day (Fat Tuesday), Guy Fawkes Night, Valentine's Day, April Fool's Day. If these holidays do not fall on a Sunday, then they are regular business days.
The US Constitution does not provide for national holidays. Each state has the right to decide which holidays to celebrate. Many states have their own holidays, but there are also major holidays that are celebrated in almost all states.
The main holiday in the United States is Independence Day, celebrated on July 4th. On this day in 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. This is a patriotic holiday, celebrated with salutes and fireworks, parades and festivities in nature.
Another traditionally American holiday is Thanksgiving Day on November 4th. It has been celebrated since the 17th century, when the English colonists decided to celebrate the end of the first year in America and thank God. This is a family holiday with a big traditional dinner including turkey and pumpkin pie.
In addition to such popular days around the world as Christmas, New Year and Easter, there are other holidays in the USA. On October 12, 34 of the 50 states celebrate Columbus Day. It commemorates the discovery of America. Labor Day on the first Monday in September marks the end of both summer and holidays. There is also Memorial Day, or Orders Day, celebrated on May 30, when Americans remember the soldiers who fell in all past wars and hold memorial services. Veterans Day November 11 is dedicated to the end of the First World War. This day is celebrated not only in the USA and Great Britain, but throughout Europe. Today it is dedicated to veterans and those who died in all the soldiers. In Britain it is called Remembrance Day and its symbol is the red poppy.
Vocabulary:
Boxing Day - boxing day
to adopt - accept, approve
christmas - christmas
church services - church services
discovery - discovery
easter
Eve - New Year's Eve
fireworks - fireworks
good friday - good friday
Independence Day - Independence Day
to observe, to celebrate, to commemorate - to celebrate,
note peculiar - specific, special
pumpkin pie - pumpkin pie
revival - resurrection
thanksgiving day
turkey - turkey
veteran - war veteran, former soldier
Whit monday - spirits day
Answer the questions
1. What is the main holiday in our country? And in Great Britain? And in the USA?
2. When is Christmas celebration in Russian and in Europe?
3. On what day do people honor veterans in the UK and in the USA? In Russia?
4. What is a bank holiday?
5. How do people celebrate Thanksgiving today? What is the origin of this holiday?
6. What is Boxing Day?
7. What holidays does your family celebrate?
8. What is your favorite holiday? Why?
9. Does your family have any special New Year traditions?
10. Do you cook and eat any special holiday meals?
11. Do you celebrate any religious holidays?
12. What new holidays have appeared in our life during the last few years?
13. Have you ever tried to celebrate any foreign holidays?
14. Translate the underlined expressions and use them in your own sentences.
The use of project technology helps to integrate all aspects of learning English and ensures the development of students' communication skills. It is also an activity technology, as it is focused on the final product, and the successful implementation of the project is possible only in the conditions of cooperation of all project participants. The article provides a description of the socio-cultural project. I hope it will be useful.
Download:
Preview:
Project work:
"Culture, traditions and customs
English speaking countries and
Russia."
Project type: creative and informational.
Subject-content sign: interdisciplinary project.
Target: Research on the history of the emergence of holidays, traditions, customs in English-speaking countries and Russia, elucidation of the relationship between traditions, customs and national character traits.
- stage. Tasks: presentation of a situation that allows identifying problems on the topic under discussion.
Situation: a group of "American" and "British" schoolchildren who are fond of ethnography comes to Russia in order to study its culture, traditions, customs and national traits of the Russian people. During the conversation, Russian schoolchildren also show interest in the culture, traditions, national features of the "American" and "British" peoples. The theme of the future project is determined.
- stage, task: putting forward hypotheses for solving the problem.
Students get acquainted with the vocabulary on the topic "Culture, traditions of English-speaking countries and Russia." The context, visualization, linguistic guess, similarity with the words of the native language are used. To consolidate the vocabulary are used:
1.Photos, symbols, postcards. The teacher asks to understand the calendar of holidays in England, the USA and Russia.
- I propose to listen to the song "Hot cross buns", "Jingle Bells", May carol, "Victory Day", "Happy New Year". The guys determine during which holidays these songs are performed and in which countries.
- I propose to consider the name of individual traditions and try to explain their meaning.
In addition to these tasks, I offer students exercises for substitution, transformation, restoration of phrases and texts, the implementation of these exercises leads students to put forward hypotheses. At this stage, the grammatical material is also worked out.
Creative microgroups are created, the distribution of roles within the groups begins.
- stage. Tasks: discussion of ways to search for the necessary information and refinement of the form of presentation of design results.
Students conduct research into the history of holidays in English-speaking countries and Russia. They are trying to find out what influence traditions and customs have on the national character.
Another group is compiling the program of the festival, which will present the holidays of England, America and Russia. Some of the guys are looking for recipes for traditional holiday dishes of these countries. Sources from where this information can be taken are discussed.
- stage. Task: search for the necessary information, project implementation.
Exploring the sources of information, students find the "roots" of traditions, customs, holidays in England, America, Russia. These facts help to understand certain national features of different peoples. The guys are trying to compare and analyze national characters and their relationship with the culture of these countries.
During the study of the problem between the group members, verbal interaction is constantly carried out in the form of dialogues and discussions. The other group is getting ready for the show. The guys learn the roles, come up with costumes, scenery, musical accompaniment.
During the design process, the activities of each student are constantly monitored at all stages of work. For this, self- and mutual control, various forms of encouragement, and marking are used.
- stage. Task: processing the collected material.
Studies are formalized in the form of reports for submission to
ethnological societies of their countries, wall newspapers, collages of greeting cards, festival programs, recipe books for traditional festive dishes.
- stage. Project protection.
1 group. Conversation of "ethnographers" at the round table "What influence do traditions and customs have on the national character of the people." The students did a lot of research work on this issue, studied the reference material, prepared reports, a wall newspaper and held a seminar in the form of a round table.
2 group. Holiday «Multicultural Festivals»
The students of this group studied materials about holidays in English-speaking countries and Russia. On their own, they colorfully decorated the hall and showed a costume performance.,
3rd group. Presentation of the book "Holidays Cook Book" about traditional holiday dishes. Schoolchildren found recipes for national holiday dishes, selected the most interesting from their point of view, and designed a book. Then they introduced her. and dishes prepared according to recipes from the book.
When defending projects, the following was taken into account: the quality of the material presented, the volume and depth of knowledge on the topic, erudition, culture of speech, reasoning, answers to questions, the ability to work in a group.
Designing the theme "Culture, traditions and customs of English-speaking countries and Russia" contributed to the creation of a solid language base, enrichment of vocabulary, expansion of linguistic and regional knowledge,
development of communication skills and independence of students.
When defending the project, the following was taken into account:
The quality of the material presented
The volume and depth of knowledge on the topic, erudition, interdisciplinary connections,
Culture of speech, artistry,
Answers to questions, reasoning.
Designing the theme "Culture, traditions and customs of English-speaking countries and Russia" contributed to the creation of a solid language base, enrichment of vocabulary, expansion of linguistic and regional knowledge, development of communication skills and independence of students.
Table of contents
Introduction
USA
independence day
Sport
halloween
thanksgiving
Christmas
Valentine's Day
England
Ways of Everyday Live
Everything is Other Way Round
Lunch at 1 o'clock
English Sunday
English Tea
Fireplaces
Pubs
English Habits of Politeness
Manners in Public
british institutes
Education in Britain
Cambridge
Transport in Britain
british literature
Sports in Great Britain
Conclusion
Introduction
The object of study of my work is the customs and traditions of English-speaking countries. And I want to say that the life of these countries is full of traditions and seems to be very reasonable; others are curious, sometimes funny, sometimes exist only to attract tourists. Many traditions appeared very
long ago and many centuries have passed, others have appeared relatively recently. But
some of them have long outlived themselves and become burdensome and remain only because of the well-known English conservatism. There are many traditions associated with historical events, Parliament, courts, university life, as well as traditions and customs that appear in everyday life.
Approximately one third of the world's population speaks English. For some, it is native, for others, due to historical circumstances, it has become the second after the native. In the countries where the English language was introduced, it is distorted and transformed taking into account the new “living conditions” for it, “adapts” to local customs and traditions, taking on various dialect forms.
A similar thing happened with native English traditions. In different places they acquired their own interpretation and gradually changed, and even to such an extent that, when compared, it is hardly possible to find similar features in the old English tradition and in the transformed one.
The purpose of my work is to study the generalized experience of life and traditions of English-speaking countries. For people who are going to travel the world, it is especially important to know the language, customs and traditions of the country they are going to visit. It is impossible, for example, to come to Scotland and laugh at their national dress - plaid skirts; or, for example, to be surprised that the Queen of Great Britain starts her day with breakfast - oatmeal - and this has long been a tradition for her. In order to avoid such a situation, before going to any country, you need to familiarize yourself with at least the generally accepted customs of this country.
One of the main traditions of most countries of the world is the celebration of their national holiday. In France it is Bastille Day, in the USA it is Independence Day, in Germany there are two national holidays - Liberation Day and Republic Day. In our country - Sovereignty Day.
What about national holidays in the UK? Being
An island state, Britain has long influenced the political and socio-economic development of other states. By pursuing a flexible policy, Britain was able to take part in most international military conflicts without allowing hostilities on its territory. All this contributed to the development of a high standard of living and well-being of the English people. The British did not feel much need for national self-affirmation and for a special day to celebrate being British. The people of the United Kingdom did not need to remind themselves and others every year that, for example, the seven-century-old British Parliament was getting a year older, or that the trade unions were the oldest trade unions in the world. True, in the last years of the existence of the British Empire, Empire Day was introduced, but it was not celebrated for long, and the day off was only for schoolchildren and teachers. It was replaced in 1958 by Commonwealth Day, which has been celebrated in June since 1966 as the monarch's official birthday. The English think something like this: "We have already made a strong statement to the world about ourselves, so as not to be repeated every year now." But a national holiday is still necessary for official purposes - for example, abroad, ambassadors are supposed to arrange receptions in honor of the day of their country, they appear on television of the country where they represent their homeland, etc.
The national holiday of the United Kingdom is the birthday of the monarch, which has already been mentioned. And now I want to dwell on something special that is typical for some English-speaking countries.
“Do you speak English?” with this phrase begins the conversation between two people, that speak different languages and want to find a common language. It's very good when you hear: “Yes I do”, and start talking. People of different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in world trade and technology as well as with each other. So it is very useful to learn foreign languages. Knowledge of foreign languages helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people. English is very popular now. It's the language of computers, science, business, sport and politics. It is the official language of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, Australia. There are more than 1 billion speakers of English of the World.
Speaking a foreign language you are read papers, magazines, and original books by great writers, watch satellite TV Programs. If you like traveling you can go anywhere without being afraid that other people will not understand you. English is very important to find a good job.
USA
independence day
On July 4 the Americans celebrate their national holiday-independence Day. The United States gained independence as a result of a gradual and painful process. By the mid 1700’s it became difficult for thirteen British colonies in the New World to be ruled by a kind 3000 miles across the. The British Empire imposed high taxes upon the colonies.
In 1774, the First Continental Congress drew up a list of grievances against the British crown. This document was the first draft of the document that would formally separate colonies from England. In 1755, the Revolutionary War began. On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress presented a second draft of the list of grievances. On July 4 the Continental Congress approved the declaration of Independence. But the War of independence lasted until 1783. After the war Independence Day became an official holiday.
On July 4, Americans have holiday from work. People have a day-long picnic with favorite foods like hot dog, hamburgers, potato salad, baked beans. Lively music is heard everywhere. People play baseball or compete three-legged races or pie-eating or water-melon-eating contests. Some cities have parades with people dressed as the original founding fathers who march to the music of high school bands. In the evening people gather to watch firework displays. Wherever Americans are around the globe they will get together to celebrate Independence Day.
Sport
Americans’ interest in sport seems excessive to many foreign visitors. Television networks spend millions of dollars arranging to telecast sport events. Publications about sports sell widely. In the US professional athletes can become national heroes.
Sports are associated with educational institutions in a way is unique. High schools have coaches as faculty members, and school teams compete with each other.
Nowhere else in the world are sports associated with colleges and universities in the way they are in the States. College sports, especially football, are conducted in an atmosphere of intense excitement and pageantry. Games between teams attract nationwide television audiences
The sport that is most popular in most of the world-soccer-is not well known in the US. The most popular sports are football and baseball, games that are not played in a large number of countries.
Spots play such an important role in American life that the sociology of sport, sport medicine, and sport psychology have become respectable specializations.
Many Americans jog every day, or play tennis or bridge two or three times a week. They go on ski trips and hunting expeditions that require weeks of planning and organizing. In Americans’ view, all these activities are worth the discomfort they may cause because they contribute to health and physical fitness. That is probably why Americans are known as a healthy nation.
Americans are very fond of sport. The most popular sports in USA are football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey.
American football derives from the English game of rugby. It started at Harvard University in the1870's. It is a game for two teams of eleven men on the field. The object of the game is to have control of the ball and to score points by carrying it across the goal-line.
Baseball is a team game derived from the English game of cricket. It is played with a bat and ball by two teams of nine players each, on a field with four bases. Baseball is the national game in the USA and it is very popular in Canada too.
Basketball is a game which nowadays is popular all over the world. It was invented in 1891. During the ‘20s the first US league championship was organized. In the '70s the American Championship was divided into two leagues: the ABA (American Basketball Association), which does not exist any longer and which played with a blue, red and white ball and NBA (National Basketball Association).
The NBA is a professional league which still plays.
There are more activities which Americans take part in such as golf, swimming, tennis, aerobics, wrestling, etc.
H 
alloween
Halloween is a festival that takes place on October 31. In the us children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many of them carve jack-o'-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling about ghosts and witches are popular activities.
Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the dead. Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints' Day so that people could continue to celebrate their festivals. The Mass said on All Saints' Day was called Allhallowmass. The day before All Saints Day was known all hallows Eve or Halloween.
The main Halloween activity for children is trick-or-treating. Children dress in costumes and masks and go from door to door saying “trick or treat”. The neighbors give children such treats as candy, fruit and pennies so that children do not play tricks on them.
Jack-o'-lanterns are hallowed-out pumpkins with face carved into one side. Most jack-o-lanterns contain a cantle inside. An Irish legend says that jack-o'-lanterns are named after the man called jack. He could not enter heaven because he was a miser, and he could not enter hell because he had played jokes on devil. As a result, Jack has to walk on the earth with his lantern until Judgment Day.
Fortunetelling an important part of Halloween. For example, a coin, a ring, and thimble were baked into a cake. It was believed that the person who found the ring would marry soon. And the person who found the thimble would never get married. Today people practice cardreading or palmistry.
People once believed that there were many ghosts and witches on the Earth and that they met on October 31 to worship the devil. Today, people do not believe in ghosts and witches but they like to tell stories about them on Halloween.
thanksgiving
Almost in every culture in the world there is a celebration of thanks for rich harvest. The American Thanksgiving began as a feast of thanksgiving almost four hundred years ago.
In 1620, a religious community sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to settle in the New World. They settled in what is now known as the state of Massachusettes. Their first winter in America was difficult. They arrived too late to grow a rich harvest. Moreover, half the colony died from disease. The following spring the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow corn. Indians showed them also how to grow other crops and how to hunt and fish.
In the autumn of 1621 they got a beautiful harvest of corn, barley, beans and pumpkins. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so they planned a feast. Local Indian chief and ninety Indians were present. The colonists learned from Indians how to cook cranberries and dishes of corn and pumpkins.
In the following years many of the colonists celebrated the harvest with a feast of thanks. After the United States gained independence, Congress recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole country. Later George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Than, after the civil war, Abraham Lincoln suggested the last Thursday in November to be the day of thanksgiving.
On Thanksgiving Day, family members gather at the house of an older relative, even if they are far away. All give thanks for everything good theyhave. Charitable organizations offer traditional meal to homeless.
Foods, eaten at the first thanksgiving, have become traditional. The traditional thanksgiving meal consists of roast turkey stuffed with herb- flavored bread, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, pumpkin pie. Other dishes may vary as to region: ham, sweet potatoes, creamed corn.
Christmas
Christmas is a Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. For millions of Christmas throughout the world it is the happiest and the busiest time of the year. No one knows the exact date of Christ’s birth but most Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25. The world Christmas comes from Christes maesse, an early English phrase that means Mass of Christ.
People of different countries celebrate Christmas in various ways. People in the United States and Canada decorate their homes with Christmas trees, wreaths and ornaments. City streets are filled with colored lights; the sound of bells and Christmas carols can be heard everywhere.
Children write letters to Santa Claus and tell him what presents they would like to get. Many department stores hire people to a Santa Claus costume and listen to children’s requests. People send Christmas cards torelatives and friends. Many companies give gifts to their employees.
A Christmas tree is one of the main symbols of Christmas in most homes. Relatives and friends may join in trimming the tree with lights, tinsel, and colorful ornaments. Presents are placed under the tree. On Christmas Eve or Christmas morning, families open their presents. Many children believe that Santa Claus arrives on Christmas Eve in a sleigh pulled by reindeer and brings present. Some children hang up stockings so Santa Claus can fill them with candy, fruits and other small gifts.
In many parts of the United States and Canada groups of people walk from house to house and sing Christmas carols. Some people give singers money or small gifts or invite them for a warm drink. Many people attend church services on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning. They listen to readings from Bible and singing Christmas carols.
A traditional Christmas dinner consists of stuffed turkey, mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce a variety of other dishes. Some families have ham or roast goose instead of turkey. Pumpkin pie, plum pudding, and fruitcakeare favorite desserts.
Valentine's Day
There are several legends about St. Valentine's Day. One of the legends says that Valentine was Christian pries who lived in the 3rd century A.D. he was put into prison by roman authorities for his teachings and was beheaded on February cured his jailer’s daughter of her blindness. Before the execution he wrote her a letter signed “From Your Valentine”. Another legend says that the same Valentine wrote to children and friends who loved him from the jail.
According to another legend, Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived at about the same time. He was thrown into prison because he secretly married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman Empire. The legend says that he was burnt at the stake.
February 14 was also a Roman holiday. On this day young men randomly chose the name of the girl to escort to the festival. The custom of choosing a sweetheart on this day became very popular in the medieval Europe. Later this custom spread to American colonies.
Now, St. Valentine's Day is the day of sweethearts. On this day, people show their friends relatives and loved ones that they care. People send candy of flowers to those whom they love. Most people send “valentines”, greeting cards named after St. Valentine's letters written from jail.
Valentines can be sentimental and romantic, or funny and friendly.
Valentines can be anonymous. Valentines can be heard-shaped or can carry hearts on them. People buy valentines or make them themselves.
England
England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities, such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.
Stonehenge is a one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world. This ancient circle of stones stands in Southwest England. It measures 30 meters across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four meters high. Why it was built is a mystery.
Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England.
Chester is a very important town in the north-west of England. In the past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra, meaning “fortified camp”. In Chester there is a famous museum which contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys.
Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was build during the reign of Henry 8 and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford.
Cambridge is the capital of Britain's second oldest university.
York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was build by Romans, conquered by Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the “City of 1500 trades” because of the great variety of its industries.
Ways of Everyday Live
Very often when speaking of English traditions we think first of some curious theatrical ceremonies of the court* or parliament procedure. There come to our mind the medieval uniforms of the guards, the solemn cloaks and wigs of the judges or the top hats (bowlers) and the invariable umbrellas of the clerks of the London City.
But the word “tradition” does not mean only that. First and foremost “tradition” is the generally accepted made or way of living, acting, behaving of just doing things. There are many very good traditions of this kind in the everyday life of the English.
Everything is the Other Way Round
In England everything is the other way round. On Sunday on the Continent even the poorest person puts on his best suit, tries to look respectable, and at the same time the life of the country becomes gay and cheerful; in England even the richest peer or motor-car manufacturer dresses in some peculiar rags, does not shave, and the country becomes dull and dreary.
On the Continent there is one topic, which should be avoided – the weather; in England, if you do not repeat the phrase “Lovely day, isn’t it?” at least two hundred times a day, you are considered a bit dull. On the Continent Sunday papers appear on Monday; in England – a country of exotic oddities – they appear on Sunday.
On a continental bus approaching a request stop the conductor rings the bell if he wants his bus to go on without stopping; in England you ring the bell if you want the bus to stop. On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good table manners.
On the Continent public orators try to learn to speak fluently and smoothly; in England they take a special course in Oxonian stuttering.
On the Continent learned person love to quote Aristotle, Horace, Montaigne and show off their knowledge; in England only uneducated people show off their knowledge, nobody quotes Latin or Greek authors in the course of a conversation, unless he has never read them.
Continental people are sensitive and touchy; the English take everything with an exquisite sense of humour – they are only offended if you tell them that they have no sense of humour.
People on the Continent either tell you the truth or lie; in England they hardly ever lie, but they would not - dream of telling you the truth.
many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a game.
Lunch at 1 o'clock
Many foreigners are sometimes taken aback when they are faced with this typically English custom for the first time.
Whatever one is doing, no matter how important it is, or seems to be – a parliamentary debate or any kind of business routine – as soon as the clock strikes one everybody breaks for lunch.
The time from one to two o'clock is a "sacred" hour in England. And it appears to be not only good for health – having meals at regular times is certainly healthy – but it is very convenient socially as well. Everybody knows that there is no use trying to get in touch with some official, business executive or firm representative at this time. They won't be in. it is no use no waste your time going from one shop to another at one o'clock sharp they will open. For punctuality is also one of the English
traditions.
English Sunday
The so called Sunday Observance laws* prohibiting all kind of public entertainment on Sunday date back to the 17-18 century. The idea was to encourage people to go church and not to allow them “to profane the Lord’s Day” by amusing themselves.
Three hundred years have passed since then. Church services are attended by fewer people now than some decades ago. But the old custom of having a quiet Sunday is still alive. This is another English tradition preserved by law.
On Sunday you may visit a museum or go to a concert but all shops, theaters, dance and music halls are closed. This is rather illogical when compared with the unrestricted variety programs on radio and television or the fact that one can always go to the bingo-club to enjoy himself or to the cinema to see a “thriller” or the latest American “hit”.
Pubs* and restaurants are open only from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 10 p.m. The police are very strict and do not hesitate to withdraw the license from the proprietors who disregard closing time.
English Tea
The trouble with the tea is that originally was quite a good drink. So a group of the most eminent British scientists put their heads together, and made complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it. To eternal glory of British science their labor bore fruit. They suggested that if you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour a few drops of cold milk into it, and no sugar at all, the desired object is achieved. Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was successfully transformed into colorless and tasteless gargling-water, it suddenly became the national drink of Great Britain and Ireland – still retaining, indeed usurping, the high-sounding title of tea.
There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea, otherwise you are judged an exotic and barbarous bird without any hope of ever being able to take your place in civilized society.
If you are invited to an English home, at five o'clock in the morning you get a cup of tea. It is either brought in by a heartily smiling hostes or an almost malevolently silent maid. When you are disturbed in your sweetest morning sleep you must not say: “Madame (or Mabel), I think you are a cruel, spiteful and malignant person who deserves to be shot.” On the contrary, you have to declare with your best five o'clock smile: “Thank you so much. I do adore a cup of early morning tea, especially early in the morning.” If they live you alone with the liquid, you may pour it down the
washbasin.
Than you have tea for breakfast; then you have tea at eleven o'clock in the morning; then after lunch; then you have tea for tea; then for supper; and again at eleven o'clock at night. You mast not refuse any additional cups of tea under the following circumstances: is it is hot; if it is cold; if you are tired; if anybody thinks that you might be tired; if you are nervous; if you are gay; before you go out; if you have just returned home; if you feel like it; if you do not feel like it; if you had no tea for some time; if you have just had a cup…
Fireplaces
In English homes, the fireplace has always been, until recent times, the natural center of interest in a room. People may like to sit at a window on a summer day, but for many months of the year prefer to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames.
In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of large castles were very wide. Only wood was burnt, and large logs were carted in from the forests, and supported as they burnt, on metal bars. Such wide fireplaces may still be seen in old inns, and in some of them there are even seats inside the fireplace.
Elizabethan fireplaces often had carved stone or woodwork over the fireplace, reaching to the ceiling. There were sometimes columns on each side of the fireplace. In the 18th century, place was often provided over the fireplace for a painting or mirror.
When coal fires became common, fireplaces became much smaller. Grates were used to hold the coal. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed photographs.
Pubs
Do you know what a pub is? The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines it as a public house or building where people go to drink and to meet their friends. English men like to get together in the pub in the evening. The usual opening hours for pubs are on weekends from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. On Sundays pubs may remain open for not more than 5 and a half hours.
Pubs usually have two drinking rooms called bars - the public and the saloon bar, which is more comfortable but more expensive. "Bar" also means the counter at which drinks are served.
Pubs serve alcoholic and other drinks and often light meals. The main drink served in pubs, is, of course, beer, light or dark. Light beer is usually called bitter. As for other kinds of alcohol, most pubs serve whiskey, gin and wine. Beer is always sold in pint or half-pint glasses. A pint is equivalent to 0.57 liter No alcoholic drinks may be served to young people under eighteen under British law.
In Great Britain today there are some 80,000 pubs situated in different cities, country towns, villages, and so on. Of London "s 5.000 pubs some of the most interesting are right by the River Thames, downstream as well as up. Every English pub has its own sign and name. Some people refer to pub signs as a great open-air portrait gallery, which covers the whole country.
Some pub signs present different types of transport such as coaches, trams, ships, airplanes and even flying boards. There are signboards depicting animals, birds, fish as well as kings and queens, dukes and lords, sailors, soldiers, fat men and giants. A first class example of an heraldic pub sign is found near Leeds in
Yorkshire at Burley. The Butcher's Arms can be seen in Gloucestershire on a small typical English country pub near Sheepscombe.
At Cheltenham also in the same county you will see a sign showing the head of a horse, the name of the pub being Nags Head. At the village of Slad, also in Gloucestershire you can have a pint of lager in Woolpack and this pub sign shows a horse with two heavy packs of wool slung over it.
In Wales the most attractive sign in a number of pubs share the name of Market Tavern because all of them are on the pubs adjoining the market place.
In London the famous Sherlock Holmes pub with the big portrait of the famous detective smoking his favorite pipe attracts thousands of visitors Northumberland Avenue.
History, geography, fairytales are kept alive by the name or sign of the "local" (the neighborhood pub). As history is being made, so the owners of the pubs - usually the brewery companies - and individual publicans are quick to record it by new signs. A typical example is the "Sir Francis Chichester" named after the first man to sail alone around the world.
Not all British pubs have individual signboards, but a considerable effort is being made now to retain old signs. Jerome K. Jerome, the creator of the internationally known book "Three Men In a Boat" over a hundred years ago revealed himself at probably his most authoritative intro matter or pubs. He clearly was a pub man and you can consider his famous book not only a guidebook to the Thames but as the first of those now familiar surveys of recommended places where to sleep, eat and enjoy beer. But in many pubs one can also enjoy some traditional pub games. There are darts, cards, skittles, coin games and various table games, of which playing darts is the oldest one.
Some of these games are difficult to find, as pubs have updated their amenities by offering TV and video games, such as two-men tennis, fruit machines, pinball machines, and so on. There are also other pub entertainments, such as piano playing, folk-singing, jazz performances and even theaters. However, if such table games as billiards or table football which are played with two or four players as well as cards, dominoes and coin games are known in this country, skittles and darts are less familiar.
Skittles is one of the oldest pub games and dates back to medieval England, the object of the game being to knock down as many skittles as possible with a wooden ball. This pub game has lots of variations all over Britain. Darts is also an old game, " which was played by the Pilgrims in 1620 when they sailed, from England to the New World. That is why it is well known in the USA, too. To play this game one must first of all have a standard dartboard with numbers marked on it to indicate score.The outer ring counts double, the middle one treble while at the very center is the bull (50) with its own outer circle (25).Dart players should stand at least eight feet away from the board. The aim of the game is to score as quickly as possible with the least number, of throws. The actual score a player must get depends on the variety of game he is playing. Many pubs in Great Britain have their own darts teams So, if you come to Britain drop in a pub, enjoy a pint of bitter and a "tongue sandwich, which speaks for itself".
It sounds funny to foreigners but when it is closing time, the pub barman calls "Time!" or "Time, gentlemen, pleaser!"
English Habits of Politeness
English people do not readily ask each other to do anything, they prefer to wait for a service to be offered before asking for it. If they do ask, then they say something like “I don’t really like asking you, but…”
It is considered polite to give up one’s seat a woman who is standing, to open door for her, carry things for her, and so on.
Manners in Public
Our manners in public, like our manners in our homes, are based on self-respect and consideration for other people.
It is really surprising how stingy we are with our “Please” when we ask anyone to do something for us. We unwillingly part with our “Thank you”, as
it was the most difficult and costly thing in the world. We don't stand aside for others to pass us in the trams, buses or the underground. We don't rice to let people pass us to their seats in the theaters or movies.
1.Not to make yourself conspicuous, not to attract unfavourable attention to yourself or others, here are some of the rules for correct behavior in a public place.
2. Not to be conspicuous, don't wear conspicuous clothes.
3. One should not talk loud or laugh loud.
4. No matter how trying the circumstance, do not give way to anger or uncontrolled emotion.
5.Never eat anything in the street, or in a public place (restaurants, buffets and cafes excluded).
6. Do not rudely push your way through crowds.
7. Never stare at people or point at them.
8. Do not ridicule or comment on anyone in public.
9.Reserve “affectionate demonstration” (kissing, embracing, etc.) for appropriate places.
10. Don't monopolise the sidewalk, by walking 3 or 4 abreast, or by stopping in the center to speak with someone.
11. When in the street keep to the right.
british institutes
Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first met in the 13th century. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws. In 1689 Mary II and William III became the first constitution monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. Formally the monarch has a number of roles. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, and should not make political decisions. Nevertheless, the monarch still performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening and dissolving Parliament, singing bills passed by both Houses and fulfilling international duties as head of state. The present sovereign is
Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.
The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts as an advisory council for the House of Commons. As well as having legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal.
The House of Commons consists of members of Parliament who are elected by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies each of which elects one Member of Parliament. The Commons therefore, has 650 Members of Parliament. The party which wins the most seats forms the Government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The functions of Commons are registration and security of government activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker. The government party sits on the Speaker's right while on his left sit the members of the Opposition.
Education in Britain
In England and Wales compulsory school begins at the age of five, but before that age children can go to a nursery school, also called play school. School in compulsory till the children are 16 years old.
In Primary School and First School children learn to read and write and the basis of arithmetic. In the higher classes of Primary School (or in Middle School) children learn geography, history, religion and, in some schools, a foreign language. Than children go to Secondary School.
When students are 16 years old they may take an exam in various subjects on order to have a qualification. These qualifications can be either G.C.S.E. (General Certificate of Secondary education) or “O level” (ordinary level). After that students can either leave school and start working or continue their studies in the same school as before. If they continue, when they are 18, they have to take further examinations which are necessary for getting into university or college.
Some parents choose private schools for their children. They are very expensive but considered to provide a better education and good job opportunities.
In England there are 47 universities, including the Open University which teaches via TV and radio, about 400 colleges and institutes of higher education. The universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge. Generally, universities award two kinds of degrees: the Bachelor's degree and the Master's degree.
Cambridge
Cambridge is situated at a distance of 70 miles from London; the greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by several bridges.
Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns of England. It is very green presenting to a visitor a series of beautiful groupings of architecture, trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The main building material is stone having a pinkish color which adds life and warms to the picture at all seasons of the year.
The dominant factor in Cambridge is University, a center of education and learning. Newton, Byron, Darwin, Rutherford and many other scientists and writers were educated at Cambridge. In Cambridge everything centers on the university and its Colleges, the eldest of which was founded in 1284. They are 27 in number. The college is a group of buildings forming a square with a green lawn in the center. An old tradition does not allow the students to walk on the grass, this is the privilege of professors and head- students only. There is another tradition which the students are to follow: after sunset they are not allowed to go out without wearing a black cap and
a black cloak.
The University trains about 7.000 students. They study for 4 years, 3 teams a year. The long vacation lasts 3 months. They are trained by a tutor; each tutor has 10-12 students reading under his guidance. There is a close connection between the University and colleges, through they era separate in theory and practice.
A college is a place where you live no matter what profession you are trained for; so that students studying literature and those trained for physics belong to one and the same college. However the fact is that you are to be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University.
The students eat their meals in the college dining hall. At some colleges there is a curious custom known as “sooncing”. If a should come late to dinner or not be correctly dressed or if he should break one of the little unwritten laws of behavior, then the senior student present may order him to be “soonced”. The Butler brings in a large silver cup, known as “sconce cup”, filled with offender, who must drink it in one attempt without taking the cup from his lips. (It holds two and half pints). if he
succeeds then the senior student pays for it, if not, the cup is passed round the table at the expense of the student who has been “sconced”. Now the origin of this custom.
Until 1954, undergraduates (students studying for the first degree) had to wear cloaks, called gowns, after dark, but now they are only required to wear them for dinner and some lectures. This tradition is disappearing, but one which is still upheld is that of punting on the Cam. It is a favorite summer pastime for students to take food, drink, guitars (or, alas, transistor radios) and girl friends on to a punt (a long, slim boat, rather like a gondola) and sail down the rive, trying very hard to forget
about exams. Many students feel that they have not been christened into the University until they have fallen into the River Cam. This has almost become a tourist attraction.
Students also have an official excuse to “let themselves loose” once a year (usually in November) on Rag Day*.
On this day, hundreds of different schemes are thought up to collect money for charity, and it is not unusual to see students in the streets playing guitars, pianos, violins, singing, dancing, eating fire, fishing in drains for money, or even just lying in beds suspended over the street swinging a bucket for money to be thrown into.
On May 21st every year, Eton College and King's College, Cambridge, honor the memory of their founder, Henry VI, who died very suddenly, and was almost certainly murdered, in the Tower of London on that day in 1471. he is generally supposed to have been killed whilst at prayer in the Oratory of the Wakefield Tower, and here, on the anniversary, the Ceremony of the lilies and Roses now takes place. Representatives of both colleges walk in procession with Beefeaters and the Chaplain of the Tower, and the short service is conducted by the latter, during which a player composed by Henry himself is said. A marble tablet in the in the Oratory marks the
place where the King is believed to have died, and on each side of it flowers are laid - lilies from Eton bound with pale blue silk, and white roses from King's College, bound with purple ribbon. They are left there for twenty-four hours, and then they are burnt.
Transport in Britain
You can reach England either by plane, by train, by car or by ship. The fastest way is by plane. London has three international airports: Heathrow, largest, connected to the city by underground; Gatwick, south of London, with a frequent train service; Luton, the smallest, used for charter flights.
If you go to England by train or by car you have to cross the Channel. There is a frequent service of steamers and ferry-boats which connect the continent to the south-east of England.
People in Britain drive on the left and generally overtake on the right. The speed limit is 0 miles per hour (50km/h) in towns and cities and 70 mph (110 km/h) on motorways.
When you are in London you can choose from different means of transport: bus, train, underground or taxi. The typical bus in London is a red double decker. The first London bus started running between "> The next to arrive were the trains; now there are twelve railway stations in London. The world's first underground line was opened between Baker St. and the City in 1863. Now there are ten underground lines and 273 underground is also called the Tube, because of the circular shape of its deep tunnels.
british literature
Great Britain gave the world a lot of talented people. Many famous writers and poets were born in Great Britain.
Robert Burns represents the generation of Romantic writers. In his poems he described with love and understanding the simple life he knew.
Among his well-known poems are Halloween, The Jolly Beggars, To a Mouse.
George Gordon Lord Byron. His free-spirited lie style combined with his poetic gift makes him one of the most famous figures of the Romantic Era. His famous works such as Stanzas to Augusta, The Prisoner of Chillon, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Manfred draw readers into the passion, humors and conviction of a poet whose life and work truly embodied the Romantic spirit.
Sir Walter Scott wrote the first examples of historical novel; Lewis Carroll became famous when he published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
Places of Interest in Great Britain
Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the past.
The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city was originated. About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation church.
Liverpool, the “city of ships”, is England’s second greatest port ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its school of Tropical Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it’s the town of “The Beatles”.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably build by Druids, members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King reputed birthplace. Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop o Canterbury, head of the Church of England.
The British Museum is the largest and riches museum in the world. It founded in 1753 and contains one of the world's richest collections of antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some parts of Athens' Parthenon are in the Greek section.
Madam Tussaud's Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started by Madam Tussaud, a French modeler in wax, in the 18th century. Here you can meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal family, the Beatles and many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.
Sports in Great Britain
British people are very fond of sports. Sport is a part of their normal life. The two most popular games are football and cricket.
Football, also called soccer, is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own Football Leagues and national teams. Games are played on Saturday afternoons from August to April. In addition to the FL games there is a competition called the Football Associations Cup. The Cup Final is played at Wembley Stadium(London) in May.
Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are very complicated. Two teams of eleven men each play it, the player at a time tries to hit the ball with a bat.
Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and the most famous golf course in the world, known as a Royal and Ancient Club, is at St. Andrew's.
Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19th century. The most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the last week of June and the fist week of July.
Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many other sports such as rugby, golf, swimming, horse-racing and the traditional fox-hunting.
Conclusion
In conclusion of my work, I want to note that interesting and diverse traditions and customs take place in English-speaking countries. Despite the fact that traditions came from other countries to other “living conditions” due to local characteristics, nevertheless, they are rooted in the distant, controversial past of Great Britain.
It is amazing that for many centuries, they were able to survive, survive and remain relevant in the modern world of high technology. These customs and traditions are still modern and continue to exist in English-speaking countries, which attracts people interested in the history and development of these countries.
Studying the traditions of English-speaking countries helps to better understand and perceive the living conditions of people, their social status, the history of the country or
its individual regions.
Bibliography
1. KoshcheevaH. E. English Reader Part II. English National TraditionsM. 1972.
2. Pinyagin Yu.N. Great Britain: history, culture, way of life - Perm: Perm Publishing House. University, 1996. - 296.
3. Satinova V.M. Reading and talking about Britain and the British. Mn.: Vysh. school, 1997. - 255p.
4. Traditions, customs and habits. M.: INFRA-M, 2001. - 127p.
Introduction
The object of study of my work is the customs and traditions of English-speaking countries. And I want to say that the life of these countries is full of traditions and customs. Some of them are very beautiful, colorful and picturesque, and seem to be quite intelligent; others are curious, sometimes funny, sometimes exist only to attract tourists. Many traditions appeared a very long time ago and passed many centuries, others appeared relatively recently. But some of them have long outlived themselves and become burdensome and remain only because of the well-known English conservatism. There are many traditions associated with historical events, Parliament, courts, university life, as well as traditions and customs that appear in everyday life.
Approximately one third of the world's population speaks English. For some, it is native, for others, due to historical circumstances, it has become the second after the native. In the countries where the English language was introduced, it is distorted and transformed taking into account the new “living conditions” for it, “adapts” to local customs and traditions, taking on various dialect forms.
A similar thing happened with native English traditions. In different places they acquired their own interpretation and gradually changed, and even to such an extent that, when compared, it is hardly possible to find similar features in the old English tradition and in the transformed one.
The purpose of my work is to study the generalized experience of life and traditions of English-speaking countries. For people who are going to travel the world, it is especially important to know the language, customs and traditions of the country they are going to visit. It is impossible, for example, to come to Scotland and laugh at their national dress - plaid skirts; or, for example, to be surprised that the Queen of Great Britain starts her day with breakfast - oatmeal - and this has long been a custom for her. In order to avoid such a situation, before going to any country, you need to familiarize yourself with at least the generally accepted customs of this country.
One of the main traditions of most countries of the world is the celebration of their national holiday. In France it is Bastille Day, in the USA it is Independence Day, in Germany there are two national holidays - Liberation Day and Republic Day. In our country - Sovereignty Day.
What about national holidays in the UK? As an island state, Britain has long influenced the political and socio-economic development of other states. By pursuing a flexible policy, Britain was able to take part in most international military conflicts without allowing hostilities on its territory. All this contributed to the development of a high standard of living and well-being of the English people. The British did not feel much need for national self-affirmation and for a special day to celebrate being British. The people of the United Kingdom did not need to remind themselves and others every year that, for example, the seven-century-old British Parliament was getting a year older, or that the trade unions were the oldest trade unions in the world. True, in the last years of the existence of the British Empire, Empire Day was introduced, but it was not celebrated for long, and the day off was only for schoolchildren and teachers. It was replaced in 1958 by Commonwealth Day, which has been celebrated in June since 1966 as the monarch's official birthday. The English think something like this: "We have already made a strong statement to the world about ourselves, so as not to be repeated every year now." But a national holiday is still necessary for official purposes - for example, abroad, ambassadors are supposed to arrange receptions in honor of the day of their country, they appear on television of the country where they represent their homeland, etc.
The national holiday of the United Kingdom is the birthday of the monarch, which has already been mentioned. And now I want to dwell on something special that is typical for some English-speaking countries.
“Do you speak English?” with this phrase begins the conversation between two people, that speak different languages and want to find a common language.
It's very good when you hear: “Yes I do”, and start talking. People of different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in world trade and technology as well as with each other.
So it is very useful to learn foreign languages. Knowledge of foreign languages helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people.
English is very popular now. It's the language of computers, science, business, sport and politics. It is the official language of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, Australia. There are more than 1 billion speakers of English of the World.
Speaking a foreign language you are read papers, magazines, and original books by great writers, watch satellite TV Programs. If you like traveling you can go anywhere without being afraid that other people will not understand you. English is very important to find a good job.
USA
independence day
On July 4 the Americans celebrate their national holiday-independence Day. The United States gained independence as a result of a gradual and painful process. By the mid 1700’s it became difficult for thirteen British colonies in the New World to be ruled by a kind 3000 miles across the ocean. The British Empire imposed high taxes upon the colonies.
In 1774, the First Continental Congress drew up a list of grievances against the British crown. This document was the first draft of the document that would formally separate colonies from England. In 1755, the Revolutionary War began. On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress presented a second draft of the list of grievances. On July 4 the Continental Congress approved the declaration of Independence. But the War of independence lasted until 1783. After the war Independence Day became an official holiday.
On July 4, Americans have holiday from work. People have a day-long picnic with favorite foods like hot dog, hamburgers, potato salad, baked beans. Lively music is heard everywhere. People play baseball or compete three-legged races or pie-eating or water-melon-eating contests. Some cities have parades with people dressed as the original founding fathers who march to the music of high school bands. In the evening people gather to watch firework displays. Wherever Americans are around the globe they will get together to celebrate Independence Day.
Sport
Americans’ interest in sport seems excessive to many foreign visitors. Television networks spend millions of dollars arranging to telecast sport events. Publications about sports sell widely. In the US professional athletes can become national heroes.
Sports are associated with educational institutions in a way is unique. High schools have coaches as faculty members, and school teams compete with each other.
Nowhere else in the world are sports associated with colleges and universities in the way they are in the States. College sports, especially football, are conducted in an atmosphere of intense excitement and pageantry. Games between teams attract nationwide television audiences
The sport that is most popular in most of the world-soccer-is not well known in the US. The most popular sports are football and baseball, games that are not played in a large number of countries.
Spots play such an important role in American life that the sociology of sport, sport medicine, and sport psychology have become respectable specializations.
Many Americans jog every day, or play tennis or bridge two or three times a week. They go on ski trips and hunting expeditions that require weeks of planning and organizing. In Americans’ view, all these activities are worth the discomfort they may cause because they contribute to health and physical fitness. That is probably why Americans are known as a healthy nation.
Americans are very fond of sport. The most popular sports in USA are football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey.
American football derives from the English game of rugby. It started at Harvard University in the1870's. It is a game for two teams of eleven men on the field. The object of the game is to have control of the ball and to score points by carrying it across the goal-line.
Baseball is a team game derived from the English game of cricket. It is played with a bat and ball by two teams of nine players each, on a field with four bases. Baseball is the national game in the USA and it is very popular in Canada too.
Basketball is a game which nowadays is popular all over the world. It was invented in 1891. During the ‘20s the first US league championship was organized. In the '70s the American Championship was divided into two leagues: the ABA (American Basketball Association), which does not exist any longer and which played with a blue, red and white ball and NBA (National Basketball Association).
The NBA is a professional league which still plays.
There are more activities which Americans take part in such as golf, swimming, tennis, aerobics, wrestling, etc.
halloween
Halloween is a festival that takes place on October 31. In the us children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many of them carve jack-o'-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling about ghosts and witches are popular activities.
Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the dead. Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints' Day so that people could continue to celebrate their festivals. The Mass said on All Saints' Day was called Allhallowmass. The day before All Saints Day was known all hallows Eve or Halloween.
The main Halloween activity for children is trick-or-treating. Children dress in costumes and masks and go from door to door saying “trick or treat”. The neighbors give children such treats as candy, fruit and pennies so that children do not play tricks on them.
Jack-o'-lanterns are hallowed-out pumpkins with face carved into one side. Most jack-o-lanterns contain a cantle inside. An Irish legend says that jack-o'-lanterns are named after the man called jack. He could not enter heaven because he was a miser, and he could not enter hell because he had played jokes on devil. As a result, Jack has to walk on the earth with his lantern until Judgment Day.
Fortunetelling an important part of Halloween. For example, a coin, a ring, and thimble were baked into a cake. It was believed that the person who found the ring would marry soon. And the person who found the thimble would never get married. Today people practice cardreading or palmistry.
People once believed that there were many ghosts and witches on the Earth and that they met on October 31 to worship the devil. Today, people do not believe in ghosts and witches but they like to tell stories about them on Halloween.
thanksgiving
Almost in every culture in the world there is a celebration of thanks for rich harvest. The American Thanksgiving began as a feast of thanksgiving almost four hundred years ago.
In 1620, a religious community sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to settle in the New World. They settled in what is now known as the state of Massachusettes. Their first winter in America was difficult. They arrived too late to grow a rich harvest. Moreover, half the colony died from disease. The following spring the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow corn. Indians showed them also how to grow other crops and how to hunt and fish.
In the autumn of 1621 they got a beautiful harvest of corn, barley, beans and pumpkins. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so they planned a feast. Local Indian chief and ninety Indians were present. The colonists learned from Indians how to cook cranberries and dishes of corn and pumpkins.
In the following years many of the colonists celebrated the harvest with a feast of thanks. After the United States gained independence, Congress recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole country. Later George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Than, after the civil war, Abraham Lincoln suggested the last Thursday in November to be the day of thanksgiving.
On Thanksgiving Day, family members gather at the house of an older relative, even if they are far away. All give thanks for everything good they have. Charitable organizations offer traditional meal to homeless.
Foods, eaten at the first thanksgiving, have become traditional. The traditional thanksgiving meal consists of roast turkey stuffed with herb-flavored bread, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, pumpkin pie. Other dishes may vary as to region: ham, sweet potatoes, creamed corn.
Christmas
Christmas is a Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. For millions of Christmas throughout the world it is the happiest and the busiest time of the year. No one knows the exact date of Christ’s birth but most Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25. The world Christmas comes from Christes maesse, an early English phrase that means Mass of Christ.
People of different countries celebrate Christmas in various ways. People in the United States and Canada decorate their homes with Christmas trees, wreaths and ornaments. City streets are filled with colored lights; the sound of bells and Christmas carols can be heard everywhere.
Children write letters to Santa Claus and tell him what presents they would like to get. Many department stores hire people to a Santa Claus costume and listen to children’s requests. People send Christmas cards to relatives and friends. Many companies give gifts to their employees.
A Christmas tree is one of the main symbols of Christmas in most homes. Relatives and friends may join in trimming the tree with lights, tinsel, and colorful ornaments. Presents are placed under the tree. On Christmas Eve or Christmas morning, families open their presents. Many children believe that Santa Claus arrives on Christmas Eve in a sleigh pulled by reindeer and brings present. Some children hang up stockings so Santa Claus can fill them with candy, fruits and other small gifts.
In many parts of the United States and Canada groups of people walk from house to house and sing Christmas carols. Some people give singers money or small gifts or invite them for a warm drink. Many people attend church services on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning. They listen to readings from Bible and singing Christmas carols.
A traditional Christmas dinner consists of stuffed turkey, mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce a variety of other dishes. Some families have ham or roast goose instead of turkey. Pumpkin pie, plum pudding, and fruitcake are favorite desserts.
Valentine's Day
There are several legends about St. Valentine's Day. One of the legends says that Valentine was Christian pries who lived in the 3rd century A.D. he was put into prison by roman authorities for his teachings and was beheaded on February cured his jailer’s daughter of her blindness. Before the execution he wrote her a letter signed “From Your Valentine”. Another legend says that the same Valentine wrote to children and friends who loved him from the jail.
According to another legend, Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived at about the same time. He was thrown into prison because he secretly married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman Empire. The legend says that he was burnt at the stake.
February 14 was also a Roman holiday. On this day young men randomly chose the name of the girl to escort to the festival. The custom of choosing a sweetheart on this day became very popular in the medieval Europe. Later this custom spread to American colonies.
Now, St. Valentine's Day is the day of sweethearts. On this day, people show their friends relatives and loved ones that they care. People send candy of flowers to those whom they love. Most people send “valentines”, greeting cards named after St. Valentine's letters written from jail. Valentines can be sentimental and romantic, or funny and friendly. Valentines can be anonymous. Valentines can be heard-shaped or can carry hearts on them. People buy valentines or make them themselves.
England
England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities, such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.
Stonehenge is a one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world. This ancient circle of stones stands in Southwest England. It measures 30 meters across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four meters high. Why it was built is a mystery.
Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England.
Chester is a very important town in the north-west of England. In the past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra, meaning “fortified camp”. In Chester there is a famous museum which contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys.
Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was build during the reign of Henry 8 and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford. Cambridge is the capital of Britain's second oldest university.
York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was build by Romans, conquered by Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the “City of 1500 trades” because of the great variety of its industries.
Ways of Everyday Live
Very often when speaking of English traditions we think first of some curious theatrical ceremonies of the court* or parliament procedure. There come to our mind the medieval uniforms of the guards, the solemn cloaks and wigs of the judges or the top hats (bowlers) and the invariable umbrellas of the clerks of the London City.
But the word “tradition” does not mean only that. First and foremost “tradition” is the generally accepted made or way of living, acting, behaving of just doing things. There are many very good traditions of this kind in the everyday life of the English.
Everything is the Other Way Round
In England everything is the other way round. On Sunday on the Continent even the poorest person puts on his best suit, tries to look respectable, and at the same time the life of the country becomes gay and cheerful; in England even the richest peer or motor-car manufacturer dresses in some peculiar rags, does not shave, and the country becomes dull and dreary.
On the Continent there is one topic, which should be avoided – the weather; in England, if you do not repeat the phrase “Lovely day, isn’t it?” at least two hundred times a day, you are considered a bit dull. On the Continent Sunday papers appear on Monday; in England – a country of exotic oddities – they appear on Sunday.
On a continental bus approaching a request stop the conductor rings the bell if he wants his bus to go on without stopping; in England you ring the bell if you want the bus to stop. On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good table manners.
On the Continent public orators try to learn to speak fluently and smoothly; in England they take a special course in Oxonian stuttering.
On the Continent learned person love to quote Aristotle, Horace, Montaigne and show off their knowledge; in England only uneducated people show off their knowledge, nobody quotes Latin or Greek authors in the course of a conversation, unless he has never read them.
Continental people are sensitive and touchy; the English take everything with an exquisite sense of humour – they are only offended if you tell them that they have no sense of humour.
People on the Continent either tell you the truth or lie; in England they hardly ever lie, but they would not - dream of telling you the truth.
many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a game.
Lunch at 1 o'clock
Many foreigners are sometimes taken aback when they are faced with this typically English custom for the first time.
Whatever one is doing, no matter how important it is, or seems to be – a parliamentary debate or any kind of business routine – as soon as the clock strikes one everybody breaks for lunch.
The time from one to two o'clock is a "sacred" hour in England. And it appears to be not only good for health – having meals at regular times is certainly healthy – but it is very convenient socially as well. Everybody knows that there is no use trying to get in touch with some official, business executive or firm representative at this time. They won't be in. it is no use no waste your time going from one shop to another at one o'clock sharp they will open. For punctuality is also one of the English traditions.
English Sunday
The so called Sunday Observance laws* prohibiting all kind of public entertainment on Sunday date back to the 17-18 century. The idea was to encourage people to go church and not to allow them “to profane the Lord’s Day” by amusing themselves.
Three hundred years have passed since then. Church services are attended by fewer people now than some decades ago. But the old custom of having a quiet Sunday is still alive. This is another English tradition preserved by law.
On Sunday you may visit a museum or go to a concert but all shops, theaters, dance and music halls are closed. This is rather illogical when compared with the unrestricted variety programs on radio and television or the fact that one can always go to the bingo-club to enjoy himself or to the cinema to see a “thriller” or the latest American “hit”.
Pubs* and restaurants are open only from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 10 p.m. The police are very strict and do not hesitate to withdraw the license from the proprietors who disregard closing time.
English Tea
The trouble with the tea is that originally was quite a good drink. So a group of the most eminent British scientists put their heads together, and made complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it. To eternal glory of British science their labor bore fruit. They suggested that if you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour a few drops of cold milk into it, and no sugar at all, the desired object is achieved. Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was successfully transformed into colorless and tasteless gargling-water*, it suddenly became the national drink of Great Britain and Ireland – still retaining, indeed usurping, the high-sounding title of tea.
There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea, otherwise you are judged an exotic and barbarous bird without any hope of ever being able to take your place in civilized society.
If you are invited to an English home, at five o'clock in the morning you get a cup of tea. It is either brought in by a heartily smiling hostes or an almost malevolently silent maid. When you are disturbed in your sweetest morning sleep you must not say: “Madame (or Mabel), I think you are a cruel, spiteful and malignant person who deserves to be shot.” On the contrary, you have to declare with your best five o'clock smile: “Thank you so much. I do adore a cup of early morning tea, especially early in the morning.” If they live you alone with the liquid, you may pour it down the washbasin.
Than you have tea for breakfast; then you have tea at eleven o'clock in the morning; then after lunch; then you have tea for tea; then for supper; and again at eleven o'clock at night. You mast not refuse any additional cups of tea under the following circumstances: is it is hot; if it is cold; if you are tired; if anybody thinks that you might be tired; if you are nervous; if you are gay; before you go out; if you have just returned home; if you feel like it; if you do not feel like it; if you had no tea for some time; if you have just had a cup…
Fireplaces
In English homes, the fireplace has always been, until recent times, the natural center of interest in a room. People may like to sit at a window on a summer day, but for many months of the year prefer to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames.
In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of large castles were very wide. Only wood was burnt, and large logs were carted in from the forests, and supported as they burnt, on metal bars. Such wide fireplaces may still be seen in old inns, and in some of them there are even seats inside the fireplace.
Elizabethan fireplaces often had carved stone or woodwork over the fireplace, reaching to the ceiling. There were sometimes columns on each side of the fireplace. In the 18th century, place was often provided over the fireplace for a painting or mirror.
When coal fires became common, fireplaces became much smaller. Grates were used to hold the coal. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed photographs.
Pubs
Do you know what a pub is? The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines it as a public house or building where people go to drink and meet their friends. English men like to get together in the pub in the evening. The usual opening hours for pubs are on weekends from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. On Sundays pubs may remain open for not more than 5 and a half hours.
Pubs usually have two drinking rooms called bars - the public and the saloon bar, which is more comfortable but more expensive. "Bar" also means the counter at which drinks are served.
Pubs serve alcoholic and other drinks and often light meals. The main drink served in pubs, is, of course, beer, light or dark. Light beer is usually called bitter. As for other kinds of alcohol, most pubs serve whiskey, gin and wine. Beer is always sold in pint or half-pint glasses. A pint is equivalent to 0.57 liter No alcoholic drinks may be served to young people under eighteen under British law.
In Great Britain today there are some 80,000 pubs situated in different cities, country towns, villages, and so on. Of London "s 5.000 pubs some of the most interesting are right by the River Thames, downstream as well as up. Every English pub has its own sign and name. Some people refer to pub signs as a great open-air portrait gallery, which covers the whole country.
Some pub signs present different types of transport such as coaches, trams, ships, airplanes and even flying boards. There are signboards depicting animals, birds, fish as well as kings and queens, dukes and lords, sailors, soldiers, fat men and giants. A first class example of an heraldic pub sign is found near Leeds in
Yorkshire at Burley. The Butcher's Arms can be seen in Gloucestershire on a small typical English country pub near Sheepscombe.
At Cheltenham also in the same county you will see a sign showing the head of a horse, the name of the pub being Nags Head. At the village of Slad, also in Gloucestershire you can have a pint of lager in Woolpack and this pub sign shows a horse with two heavy packs of wool slung over it.
In Wales the most attractive sign in a number of pubs share the name of Market Tavern because all of them are on the pubs adjoining the market place.
In London the famous Sherlock Holmes pub with the big portrait of the famous detective smoking his favorite pipe attracts thousands of visitors to Northumberland Avenue.
History, geography, fairytales are kept alive by the name or sign of the "local" (the neighborhood pub). As history is being made, so the owners of the pubs - usually the brewery companies - and individual publicans are quick to record it by new signs. A typical example is the "Sir Francis Chichester" named after the first man to sail alone around the world.
Not all British pubs have individual signboards, but a considerable effort is being made now to retain old signs. Jerome K. Jerome, the creator of the internationally known book "Three Men In a Boat" over a hundred years ago revealed himself at probably his most authoritative intro matter or pubs. He clearly was a pub man and you can consider his famous book not only a guidebook to the Thames but as the first of those now familiar surveys of recommended places where to sleep, eat and enjoy beer. But in many pubs one can also enjoy some traditional pub games. There are darts, cards, skittles, coin games and various table games, of which playing darts is the oldest one.
Some of these games are difficult to find, as pubs have updated their amenities by offering TV and video games, such as two-men tennis, fruit machines, pinball machines, and so on. There are also other pub entertainments, such as piano playing, folk-singing, jazz performances and even theaters. However, if such table games as billiards or table football which are played with two or four players as well as cards, dominoes and coin games are known in this country, skittles and darts are less familiar.
Skittles is one of the oldest pub games and dates back to medieval England, the object of the game being to knock down as many skittles as possible with a wooden ball. This pub game has lots of variations all over Britain. Darts is also an old game, " which was played by the Pilgrims in 1620 when they sailed, from England to the New World. That is why it is well-known in the USA, too. To play this game one must first of all have a standard dartboard with numbers marked on it to indicate score.The outer ring counts double, the middle one treble while at the very center is the bull (50) with its own outer circle (25).Dart players should stand at least eight feet away from the board.The aim of the game is to score as quicklyas possible with the least number, of throws.The actual score a player must get depends on the variety of game he is playing.Many pubs in Great Britain have their own darts teams So, if you come to Britain drop in a pub, enjoy a pint of bitter and a "tongue sandwich, which speaks for itself".
It sounds funny to foreigners but when it is closing time, the pub barman calls "Time!" or "Time, gentlemen, pleaser!"
English Habits of Politeness
English people do not readily ask each other to do anything, they prefer to wait for a service to be offered before asking for it. If they do ask, then they say something like “I don’t really like asking you, but…”
It is considered polite to give up one’s seat a woman who is standing, to open door for her, carry things for her, and so on.
Manners in Public
Our manners in public, like our manners in our homes, are based on self-respect and consideration for other people.
It is really surprising how stingy we are with our “Please” when we ask anyone to do something for us. We unwillingly part with our “Thank you”, as if it were the most difficult and costly thing in the world. We don't stand aside for others to pass us in the trams, buses or the underground. We don't rice to let people pass us to their seats in the theaters or movies.
1.Not to make yourself conspicuous, not to attract unfavourable attention to yourself or others, here are some of the rules for correct behavior in a public place.
2. Not to be conspicuous, don't wear conspicuous clothes.
3. One should not talk loud or laugh loud.
4. No matter how trying the circumstance, do not give way to anger or uncontrolled emotion.
5.Never eat anything in the street, or in a public place (restaurants, buffets and cafes excluded).
6. Do not rudely push your way through crowds.
7. Never stare at people or point at them.
8. Do not ridicule or comment on anyone in public.
9.Reserve “affectionate demonstration” (kissing, embracing, etc.) for appropriate places.
10. Don't monopolise the sidewalk, by walking 3 or 4 abreast, or by stopping in the center to speak with someone.
When in the street keep to the right.
british institutes
Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first met in the 13th century. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws. In 1689 Mary II and William III became the first constitution monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. Formally the monarch has a number of roles. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, and should not make political decisions. Nevertheless, the monarch still performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening and dissolving Parliament, singing bills passed by both Houses and fulfilling international duties as head of state. The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.
The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts as an advisory council for the House of Commons. As well as having legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal.
The House of Commons consists of members of Parliament who are elected by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies each of which elects one Member of Parliament. The Commons therefore, has 650 Members of Parliament. The party which wins the most seats forms the Government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The functions of Commons are registration and security of government activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker. The government party sits on the Speaker's right while on his left sit the members of the Opposition.
Education in Britain
In England and Wales compulsory school begins at the age of five, but before that age children can go to a nursery school, also called play school. School in compulsory till the children are 16 years old.
In Primary School and First School children learn to read and write and the basis of arithmetic. In the higher classes of Primary School (or in Middle School) children learn geography, history, religion and, in some schools, a foreign language. Than children go to Secondary School.
When students are 16 years old they may take an exam in various subjects on order to have a qualification. These qualifications can be either G.C.S.E. (General Certificate of Secondary education) or “O level” (ordinary level). After that students can either leave school and start working or continue their studies in the same school as before. If they continue, when they are 18, they have to take further examinations which are necessary for getting into university or college.
Some parents choose private schools for their children. They are very expensive but considered to provide a better education and good job opportunities.
In England there are 47 universities, including the Open University which teaches via TV and radio, about 400 colleges and institutes of higher education. The universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge. Generally, universities award two kinds of degrees: the Bachelor's degree and the Master's degree.
Cambridge
Cambridge is situated at a distance of 70 miles from London; the greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by several bridges.
Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns of England. It is very green presenting to a visitor a series of beautiful groupings of architecture, trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The main building material is stone having a pinkish color which adds life and warms to the picture at all seasons of the year.
The dominant factor in Cambridge is University, a center of education and learning. Newton, Byron, Darwin, Rutherford and many other scientists and writers were educated at Cambridge. In Cambridge everything centers on the university and its Colleges, the eldest of which was founded in 1284. They are 27 in number. The college is a group of buildings forming a square with a green lawn in the center. An old tradition does not allow the students to walk on the grass, this is the privilege of professors and head-students only. There is another tradition which the students are to follow: after sunset they are not allowed to go out without wearing a black cap and a black cloak.
The University trains about 7.000 students. They study for 4 years, 3 teams a year. The long vacation lasts 3 months. They are trained by a tutor; each tutor has 10-12 students reading under his guidance. There is a close connection between the University and colleges, through they era separate in theory and practice.
A college is a place where you live no matter what profession you are trained for; so that students studying literature and those trained for physics belong to one and the same college. However the fact is that you are to be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University.
The students eat their meals in the college dining hall. At some colleges there is a curious custom known as “sooncing”. If a should come late to dinner or not be correctly dressed or if he should break one of the little unwritten laws of behavior, then the senior student present may order him to be “soonced”. The Butler brings in a large silver cup, known as “sconce cup”, filled with offender, who must drink it in one attempt without taking the cup from his lips. (It holds two and half pints). If he succeeds then the senior student pays for it, if not, the cup is passed round the table at the expense of the student who has been “sconced”. Now the origin of this custom.
Until 1954, undergraduates (students studying for the first degree) had to wear cloaks, called gowns, after dark, but now they are only required to wear them for dinner and some lectures. This tradition is disappearing, but one which is still upheld is that of punting on the Cam. It is a favorite summer pastime for students to take food, drink, guitars (or, alas, transistor radios) and girl friends on to a punt (a long, slim boat, rather like a gondola) and sail down the rive, trying very hard to forget about exams. Many students feel that they have not been christened into the University until they have fallen into the River Cam. This has almost become a tourist attraction.
Students also have an official excuse to “let themselves loose” once a year (usually in November) on Rag Day*.
On this day, hundreds of different schemes are thought up to collect money for charity, and it is not unusual to see students in the streets playing guitars, pianos, violins, singing, dancing, eating fire, fishing in drains for money, or even just lying in beds suspended over the street swinging a bucket for money to be thrown into.
On May 21st every year, Eton College and King's College, Cambridge, honor the memory of their founder, Henry VI, who died very suddenly, and was almost certainly murdered, in the Tower of London on that day in 1471. he is generally supposed to have been killed whilst at prayer in the Oratory of the Wakefield Tower, and here, on the anniversary, the Ceremony of the lilies and Roses now takes place. Representatives of both colleges walk in procession with Beefeaters and the Chaplain of the Tower, and the short service is conducted by the latter, during which a player composed by Henry himself is said. A marble tablet in the in the Oratory marks the place where the King is believed to have died, and on each side of it flowers are laid - lilies from Eton bound with pale blue silk, and white roses from King's College, bound with purple ribbon . They are left there for twenty-four hours, and then they are burnt.
Transport in Britain
You can reach England either by plane, by train, by car or by ship. The fastest way is by plane. London has three international airports: Heathrow, the largest, connected to the city by underground; Gatwick, south of London, with a frequent train service; Luton, the smallest, used for charter flights.
If you go to England by train or by car you have to cross the Channel. There is a frequent service of steamers and ferry-boats which connect the continent to the south-east of England.
People in Britain drive on the left and generally overtake on the right. The speed limit is 0 miles per hour (50km/h) in towns and cities and 70 mph (110 km/h) on motorways.
When you are in London you can choose from different means of transport: bus, train, underground or taxi. The typical bus in London is a red double decker. The first London bus started running between Paddington and the City in 1829. It carried 40 passengers and cost a shilling for six kms.
The next to arrive were the trains; now there are twelve railway stations in London. The world's first underground line was opened between Baker St. and the City in 1863. Now there are ten underground lines and 273 underground is also called the Tube, because of the circular shape of its deep tunnels.
british literature
Great Britain gave the world a lot of talented people. Many famous writers and poets were born in Great Britain.
Robert Burns represents the generation of Romantic writers. In his poems he described with love and understanding the simple life he knew. Among his well-known poems are Halloween, The Jolly Beggars, To a Mouse.
George Gordon Lord Byron. His free-spirited lie style combined with his poetic gift makes him one of the most famous figures of the Romantic Era. His famous works such as Stanzas to Augusta, The Prisoner of Chillon, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Manfred draw readers into the passion, humors and conviction of a poet whose life and work truly embodied the Romantic spirit.
Sir Walter Scott wrote the first examples of historical novel; Lewis Carroll became famous when he published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
Places of Interest in Great Britain
Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the past.
The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city was originated. About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation church.
Liverpool, the “city of ships”, is England’s second greatest port ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its school of Tropical Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it’s the town of “The Beatles”.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably build by Druids, members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King Arthur's reputed birthplace. Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop o Canterbury, head of the Church of England.
The British Museum is the largest and riches museum in the world. It was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world's richest collections of antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some parts of Athens' Parthenon are in the Greek section.
Madam Tussaud's Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started by Madam Tussaud, a French modeler in wax, in the 18th century. Here you can meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal family, the Beatles and many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.
Sports in Great Britain
British people are very fond of sports. Sport is a part of their normal life. The two most popular games are football and cricket.
Football, also called soccer, is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own Football Leagues and national teams. Games are played on Saturday afternoons from August to April. In addition to the FL games there is a competition called the Football Associations Cup. The Cup Final is played at Wembley Stadium(London) in May.
Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are very complicated. Two teams of eleven men each play it, the player at a time tries to hit the ball with a bat.
Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and the most famous golf course in the world, known as a Royal and Ancient Club, is at St. Andrew's.
Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19th century. The most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the last week of June and the fist week of July.
Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many other sports such as rugby, golf, swimming, horse-racing and the traditional fox-hunting.
Scotland
Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of the United Kingdom. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the highlands and islands. A lot of places in Scotland are a natural paradise, still untouched by man.
The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle. Glasgow is the industrial capital of Scotland. It us the third largest city in Great Britain. The typical products of Scotland are timber, whiskey, salmon. Golf is the Scottish natural sport it seems to have originated in this country.
Scottish Traditions
The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland. This is how, according to a curious legend, this plant came to be chosen as a badge, in preference to any other. Many years ago the Vikings once landed somewhere on the east coast of Scotland. The Scots assembled with their arms and took their stations behind the River Tay. As they arrived late in the day, weary and tired after a long march, they pitched their camp and rested, not expecting the enemy before the next day. The Vikings, however, were near: noticing that no guards were protecting the camp, they crossed the Tay, intending to take the Scots by surprise. For this purpose they took off their shoes so as to make the least possible noise. But one of them stepped on a thistle. The sudden and sharp pain he felt caused him to shriek. The alarm was given in the Scots" camp. The Vikings were put to fight, and as an acknowledgment for the timely and unexpected help from the thistle, the Scots took it as their national emblem.
The Scottish national costume (Highland dress) includes a kilt worn by men. For day wear, the kilt is worn with a tweed jacket, plain long socks, a beret and a leather sporran, that is, a pouch hanging from a narrow belt round the hips. The Scottish beret - tam-o"-shanter - is a woollen cap without a brim but with a pompon or a feather on top, traditionally worn pulled down at one side. It got its name after Tam o" Shanter, the hero of Burns "s poem of that name.
The Clan
The Gaelic word "clan" means "children", and the central idea of a clan is kinship. Nowadays it refers, as a rule, only to Highland families, in Scotland. A clan is a family, and theoretically the chief is the father of it, although not every clansman can be a direct descendant of the founder.
Many people in Scotland today will be surprised to learn that those who founded the present clans were not themselves always Highlanders, but included Normans (Gordon, Eraser), Bretons (Stuart), Flemings (Murrey, Sutherland). Irish (MacNeil), and Norsemen (MacLeod), Mac meaning "son of". Concerning that early period of their settlement, which was between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, we must not be dogmatic on the subject of nationality; the important point is that all these were "incomers" to the Highlands.
When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good many people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed into a family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the protection of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with him. In course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how far this kinship was nominal and how far real.
Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the sixteenth century, the order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after the chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons and grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by blood or not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for the help and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and their arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was, in theory at least, the "chief of chiefs", and as the royal power spread through the Highlands the chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their clansmen. Among the most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro, Cameron, Stewart, Murray, MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.
The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the eighteenth century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745 completed the destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland and, perhaps more "bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are acquiring land and property in their respective clan countries, financing magazines, establishing museums to preserve the relics, founding educational trusts, and - perhaps above all - keeping alive the family spirit.
The Tartan
Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark of the Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that as long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, the Highlanders wore brightly colored striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called "breacan". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such. Traditionalists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they could recognize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like many theories, this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break down. Even though the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they could not easily be recognized at a distance.
On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in the Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A district tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into small communities. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of tartan worn in a district were connected with the predominant local clan. But the study of the portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan even in the early eighteenth century. Members of the same family are found wearing very different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men are seen to wear the kilt of one tartan and a Jacket of another. The history of development of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing of Highland dress was forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.
In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to collect authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to have been very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the amazing spectacle of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822,and demands for clan tartan poured into the manufactures. The wave of enthusiasm for tartan outstripped the traditional knowledge of the Highlanders, and it was at this time and in response to popular demand that a great many of familiar present-day tartans became associated with their respective clans. Some of the patterns hadpreviously been identified by numbers only, while some were invented on the spot, as variations of the old traditional patterns.
The term "Highland dress"" has not always meant the same thing. In theseventeenth century the ki1t was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion covered the wearer"s shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century, this belted plaid was superseded by the kilt. Modern Highland dress consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker tartan, worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material, possibly in a brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of accessories .
food and drink
What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger? Scotland produces a number of dishes: Scots collops - a savory dish popularly known as "mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the immortal haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies, creams, jellies, and trifles.
The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and long connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine soups, such as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep’s Head Broth. Hotch Potch or Harvest Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavored with toasted oatmeal and Cullen Skink is made with a smoked haddock.
Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal and milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring water, and served with thin cream or rick milk, is food for the gods. Lastly there is the national oatcake, which is described as “a masterpiece” by the French gastronomes.
As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat the best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna. There is an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with buttermilk, girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday breakfast is complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that melts in the mouth, buns of every size and shape! They are on offer in every bakery.
The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she gets it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the Scottish butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different from England and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but what is Nine Holes? Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's eye?
And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the mealy puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis! I once asked a Scot: "What"s in a haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you should. All you need to know is that it should be served with mashed potatoes and bashed neeps (turnips), and you must drink whiskey with it. You will discover that the oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whiskey, and so you can drink more of it. What else do you need to know?" "A recipe of haggis", was my answer. "Hell, well, here you are", said my friend: B ounces of sheep"s liver, 4 ounces of beef suet (fat) , salt and pepper, 2 onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver and onions in water for 40 minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the liver finely, and chop the onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal. Combine all the ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which the liver and onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with grease-proof paper and steam for 2 hours.
Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that the English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the Lowlands of Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is universally known that the glory of the country is whiskey. scotch whisky was a by-product of traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers, rather than waste their surplus barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it, producing a drink at first called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life", and now simply called whiskey. No one knows when the Scots learned the art of distilling, though it may have been before they arrived from Ireland in the fifth century AD, for in Irish legend St Patrick taught the art. The first mention in Scottish records of a spirit distilled from grain does not occur before 1494.
Today there are two kinds of Scotch whiskey - the original malt whiskey, made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been "mailed" or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whiskey, made from maize as well as matted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of Scotch whiskey are blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The technique of blending was pioneered in Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste for the new, milder blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to the rest of the world.
Barley is the raw material of the malt whiskey distiller. The first process in making whiskey is mailing - turning barley into malt. Mailing begins when the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in September or October, soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in grain form, and must be ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn moldy and make properly controlled mailing impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and soaked for two or three days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the malting floor, where it germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which makes the starch in barley soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The barley is regularly turned over to control its temperature and rate of germination. The warm, damp, sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln for drying, which stops germination. It is spread on a base of perforated iron and dried in the heat of a peat fire. Distillery kilns have distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open ventilator at the top draws hot air from the peat fire through the barley. This gives it a smoky flavour, which is passed on to the whiskey. The barley has now become malt - dry, crisp, peat-flavored, different from the original barley in all but appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the process - mashing. It is stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure that the right amount of malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground. The malt, grit, There the grist is mixed with hot water and left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun. This process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a different temperature.
For centuries, Scotch whiskey has been made from mailed barley mixed with yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot stills. The early Highland farmers who distilled their own whiskey heated their pot stills in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the peat added to the whiskey's flavor. Big modern distillers use basically the same technique. The vapor that rises in the still is condensed by cooling to make whiskey. The shape of the still affects the vapor and so helps to give the whiskey its taste. The most important single influence on the taste of Scotch whiskey is probably the Scottish water. This is why distilleries are located in narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.
The whiskey comes colorless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into oak casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards is spirit with 37.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of water.
Scotch whiskey cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has matured in casks for at least three years. The time a whiskey takes to mature depends on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the spirit is stored and the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good malt whiskey may have been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer. Air enters the oak casks and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the whiskey loses its coarseness and becomes smooth and mellow.
Thereare more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whiskey made in each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of their spirit and sell it as a single whiskey; but most whiskies go to a blender. As many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up the whiskey that is eventually sold. So specifically associated with Scotland has whiskey he-come that the mere adjective SCOTCH requires no noun to be supplied in order that people should know what is meant.
Burns Night (25 January)
The anniversary of the poet's birth, is celebrated in every corner of Scotland, and indeed wherever a handful of Scots is to be found. There are hundreds of Burns Clubs scattered throughout the world, and they all endeavor to hold Burns Night celebrations to mark the birth of Scotland's greatest poet. The first club was founded at Greenock in 1802. The traditional menu at the suppers is cock-a-leekie soup (chicken broth), boiled salt herring, haggis with bashed neeps (turnips), and champit tatties (mashed potatoes) and dessert. The arrival of the haggis is usually heralded by the music of bagpipes. The haggis is carried into the dining room behind a piper wearing traditional dress. He especially then reads a poem written for the haggis! "The Immortal Memory" is toasted, and the company stand in silent remembrance. Then lyrics fellows dancing, pipe music, and selections from Burns's, the celebration concluding with the poet's famous Auld tang Syne.
Loch Ness and the Monster
Whatever it is that stirs in Loch Ness, it is no newcomer. An inscription on a fourteenth-century map of the loch tells vaguely but chillingly of "waves without wind, fish without fins, islands that float". "Monster" sightings are not limited to Loch Ness: Lochs Awe, Rannoch, Lomond and Morar have all been said to contain specimens. The Loch Ness Monster owes its great fame to the opening of a main road along the north shore of the loch in 1933. Since then, distant views of "four shining black humps", "brownish-gray humps" have kept visitors flocking to the loch. People who have seen the phenomenon more closely say that it is "slug-like" or "eel-like", with a head resembling a seal"s or a gigantic snail"s, while the long neck is embellished with a horse"s mane. Its length has been estimated at anything between 8 and 23 meters, and its skin texture la "warty" and "slimy". Close observers, too, particularly Hr George Spicer and his wife who saw it jerking across a lochside road in 1933 , have declared it "fearful".
It is not surprising that such waters, cupped in savage hills, should produce legends. Loch Ness is part of the Great Glen, a geological fault that slashes across Scotland like a sword-cut. The loch itself is 24 miles long, about a mile broad and has an average depth of 400 feet. Loch Ness has one direct outlet to the sea, the shallow River Ness, and it is fed by eight rivers and innumerable streams, each of which pours the peaty soil of the hills into the loch. consequently, the water is dark. Divers working with powerful arc lamps 15 meters below the surface have been unable to see for more than 3 meters around them.
Over the past 40 years, sightings have been claimed by more than 1000 people. Most of the sightings were in bright sunlight conditions of flat calm, and several of the witnesses were trained observers - soldiers, doctors, seamen. Though many of the sightings were from a distance, witnesses have been convinced they were looking at a large animal, most of whose body was hidden beneath the water.
If it exists, it is most unlikely that the Loch Ness monster is a single animal. A prehistoric creature, living alone in Loch Ness, cut off from others of its kind, would have to be millions of years old. For the species to survive there must be quite a large colony. The colony theory is also supported by nearly simultaneous sightings in different parts of the loch. According to naturalists, the chances of the creature being a reptile are remote. Though Loch Ness never freezes, its temperature never rises above 6°C and this would be too cold for any known species. Also, reptiles breathe air, and would have to surface more frequently than the monster appears to. Though most zoologists deny the possibility that a large and unknown animal might be living in Loch Ness, it is remarkable that the mystery continues; and it is perhaps more exciting than any final scientific solution.
Scottish Weddings
Everybody knows about Gretna Green, the famous Scottish village just beyond the border. In the old days runaway couples escaped from England to Gretna Green to get married. The practice started in the year 1774. In that year a bill was passed in England for bidding marriages of person under eighteen without their parents’ consent. In Scotland the legal age limit was sixteen - and still is for that matter. What is more, until the year 1856 the young couple could be married at once at any place in Scotland, without having to stay there for some time.
You may ask why all those young people chose Gretna Green for their wedding. After all, there are many romantic places in Scotland. The answer is simple. Gretna Green was the nearest village across the Scottish border, only ten miles of Carlisle, on the main highway. To get there took the least time and the least money.
The blacksmith at Gretna Green was always ready to perform the marriage ceremony at a small fee. The formalities were very simple. All that was needed was a declaration made by the young couple in the presence of two witnesses. Visitors of Gretna Green can still see the old blacksmith's shop and the famous marriage room in it.
The old tradition is still remembered. Many young couples who cannot get married in England because they are under age still think it romantic to go to Gretna Green. But today they must have enough money to stay there for three weeks.
highland games
Perhaps the most distinctive event at a Highland Gathering is “Tossing the Caber” - or, as the sixteenth-century writer called it, “throwing the bar”. The caber is the trunk - of a fir tree 20 feet long and ten inches (25 cm) thick at the bigger end. Its weight is about 100 kilos and it needs two or three men to lift it upright with the thick end at the top. The competitor then lakes hold of it and rests it against his shoulder. He takes two or three steps and then throws it so that it turns a complete somersault. The straightest throw, that is nearest to 12 o'clock in direction, gets the most points. If none of the competitors is able to toss the caber, a bit is sawn off the end, and then, if necessary, another bit, until at last one competitor succeeds.
Another feat of strength is throwing the hammer. This has a long handle and weighs ten kilos. The competitor is not allowed to run, he stands still and sweeps it round and round his head several times.
For all events, except races, the kilt must be worn. For highland dances, of which there are many varieties, the competitors wear full highland dress. This includes a smart jacket worn with colored buttons and a “sporran” or purse made of fur, which hangs at the waist. The mast difficult and intricate of the dances is the sword-dance, performed over a pair of crossed swords which must not be touched by the dancer's feet.
Wales
Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and coal-mining area in the south. The landscape is beautiful. Many English people move to Wales when they retire.
Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales in 1955, mainly because of its size. Since 1536, Wales has been governed by England and the heir to the throne of England has the title of Prince of Wales, but Welsh people have strong sense of identity. There is a Welsh National party which wants independence from the United Kingdom and the Welsh language is still used in certain parts of the country.
Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, similar to Breton, spoken in Brittany, France. In the 60's Welsh was given equal status with English as an official language and is used in the law courts. It is taught in school and some TV program is broadcast in Welsh. However, only about 20% of the population speaks Welsh.
St. David's Day (1st March)
Dewi (“David” in English), was the son of a Welsh chieftain. He was brought up as a Christian and went abroad to learn more about the life of a monk. Then he returned to Wales and founded many monasteries which became centers of religion and learning in the Welsh countryside. The monks lived a simple life of player, growing their own herbs and vegetables and offering generous hospitality to anyone in need. Because David's holiness and his inspiring teaching, he was made a bishop. The center of his bishopric was in the settlement we now know as St. David's on the Western tip of the country of Dyfed .
David is thought to have died on 1st march, AD 589, and his shrine at St. David's was a place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. Later, when people of North and South Wales became one nation, he was chosen as the patron saint of Wales.
A legend tells how David suggested that his people should wear a leek in their bonnets during battles so that they could be easily recognized; Welsh Guards are still distinguished by a green and white plume in their black bearskins. At Windsor, on the Sunday nearest St. David's day, it is now a tradition that every member of the Brigade of Welsh Guards is given a leek by a member of the Royal Family. However, as St. David' Day is celebrated at the beginning of Spring when daffodils, are blooming, this flower has become a second, more graceful emblem of Wales. David's own emblem is a dove.
It is said that David had a sweet singing voice. He encouraged his monks to sing as well as possible for the glory of God, and perhaps this was the beginning of the Welsh tradition of fine made-voice choirs.
Many churches are dedicated to David in southwest Wales, and if you are traveling there, you might visit the cathedral at St. David's. Other places too are called after the saint, and you may visit Llandewi or Capel Dewi or Ffynor Dewi
The Welsh "national" costume
Seen on the dolls and postcards is largely a myth created for tourism. Certainly, the seventeenth-century country women wore long colored skirts, a white apron and a tall black hat, but so did English women at that time. In the nineteenth century, the idea of a national costume was born and this pleased both tourists and locals, although there is no evidence at all of a long-lost costume.
The Welsh Eisteddfodau
No country in the world has a greater love of music and poetry than the people of Wales. Today, Eisteddfodau are held at scores of everywhere Wales, particularly from May to early November. The habit of holding similar events dates back to early history, and there are records of competitions for Welsh poets and musicians in the twelfth century. The Eisteddfod sprang from the National Assembly of Bards. It was held occasionally up to 1B19, but since then has become an annual event for the encouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of the Welsh language and ancient national customs.
The Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales is held annually early in August, its actual venue varying from year to year. It attracts Welsh people from all over the world. The program Includes male and mixed choirs, brass-band concerts, many children's events, drama, arts and crafts and, of course, the ceremony of the Crowning of the Bard.
Next in importance is the great Llangollen International Music Eisteddfod. held early in July and attended by competitors from many countries, all wearing their picturesque and often colorful national costumes. It is an event probably without parallel anywhere in the world. There are at least twenty-five other major Eisteddfodau from May to November. In addition to the Eisteddfodau, about thirty major Welsh Singing festivals are held throughout Wales during the same period of time.
lovespoons
Lovespoons were given by suitors to their sweethearts in Wales from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. The custom of giving lovespoons died out in the nineteenth century but they continued to be carved especially in some country districts. Making lovespoons became something of an art form and woodwork competitions and Eisteddfoday often had examples of the genre.
In recent years, interest in lovespoons has reawakened and many peopleseek them out as desirable keepsakes. Visitors to Wales, particularly from overseas, wanting something uniquely Welsh to remind them of their visit often choose a lovespoon. There is also a growing trend for Welsh people themselves to give lovespoons as gifts to commemorate special occasions - a new baby, a birthday, an impending marriage, a retirement or to celebrate a success of some kind. Lovespoons also make excellent Christmas gifts. Today, when most people have neither the tine nor the inclination to carve their own lovespoons, the accepted practice is to buy a ready-made example of the craft or to commission one of the woodcarver specialists to make one.
Since pre-history, beautiful, hand-carved objects have had ceremonial, romantic and religious significance: long incense and cosmetic spoons, for example, have survived from Egyptian times. In theMiddle Ages, a pair of knives in a sheath was considered a worthy gift and it was common for a bridegroom to present his bride with one: such sets were known as "wedding knives".
The history of kitchen utensils and the spoon belongs to Western culture. The history of the lovespoon belongs to Welsh romantic folklore.
From the mid-seventeenth century, lovespoons were carved from wood in Wales and there is one dated 1677 in the collection at the Welsh Folk Museum in Cardiff. It is amazing that it has survived because wooden objects are not particularly durable.
From the seventeenth century, the custom grew for a young man to give a spoon to the lady who took his fancy. Thus, particularly attractive young ladies might be given a number of spoons from aspiring suitors. It may be that modern word, "spooning" indicating a closer development of a relationship, is derived from this practice of giving a love token.
Early lovespoons were carved from sycamore which was readily available in the low-lying country districts of Wales. The main tool used was a pocket knife. Those who made such spoons were amateurs and it was a way of passing the time on long winter evenings. Imagine a young man busily shaping a spoon in a small room lit only by candlelight or the glow of a fire.
Numerous examples of lovespoons have been found throughout Wales but the giving and receiving of a spoon did not develop into "a ritual of betrothal". Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that giving a lovespoon expressed a desire for a relationship and was not an affirmation that a relationship had already begun.
Some young men did not have the time or the skill to carve their own spoons and professional lovespoon carters emerged. It was again, a question of demand and supply. Spoons were bartered for or purchased from these skilled craftsmen and a tradition of spoons made by the same wood worker grew in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was no wonder then, that the spoon became more decorative and elaborate.
A number of design factors should be mentioned in relation to spoon carving including size, weight, color and the nature of the completed artifact. As far as size is concerned, the earliest spoons were little bigger than the modern teaspoon, their use was limited, and larger spoons soon came to be carved. This meant that the handles, in particular, could be more and more elaborate. As they became more decorative, the spoons were displayed by hanging them on the wall in the living room or parlour. The weight and type of wood used for such a spoon depended on the setting in which it was to be displayed. Softwoods were often preferred and the color selected so that it would look good against a wall.
A great deal of imagination was used in the creation of lovespoons. This development was gradual. Two or even three bowls were carved instead of one to make it more interesting and attractive. Eventually, the bowl became less important and attention turned first to the handle and then to embellishments or additions to the handle. Sometimes the handle was enlarged or made rectangular in shape. At other times, filigree was added. The handle was pierced, cutting designs in fretwork or carving in relief were devices to add interest and meaning to the spoon. In this way, symbols were incorporated: hearts, locks, keys, shields, anchors and wheels were favored themes.
A heart or a series of hearts was the most popular expression of love used on spoons. These might be single or entwined to suggest that the boy and his girl would soon feel the same way about each other. As the spoons became more decorative, their utilitarian use ceased altogether and they were used more for display. The heart was also an attractive and convenient device for suspending the spoon on a wall. Indeed, most spoons have a device for hanging them up, indicating that they were decorative rather than functional.
Anchors in particular were popular: the suitor has found a berth where he wished to stay. Many lovespoons were the work of seafarers who whiled away the tedium of a voyage by whittling. Besides anchors, ropes and cable designs often appear, as do vessels, steering wheels and various other nautical emblems.
Locks (keeping love or a lover safe), keys (unlocking love), miniature cottages and houses are recurrent themes with associations of lovers making a life together. The key may have a triple significance for it may indicate unlocking the door to the heart, it may indicate maturity (reaching 21 and the key to the door theme) or it may mean "let"s live in marriage together".
Chain links look very difficult to carve and are another development of the whittler's art showing the woodworker's skill. Suggestions are that the links symbolically "link" the sweethearts together in love and possibly matrimony.
It must be stressed that many assumptions have been made about the meanings of the motifs which appear on lovespoons. Imagery is always difficult to explain and certain motifs may have had more personal significance for the donor than can be appreciated by the casual observer. Spoons were not mass-produced but made by one individual for another and many relied on personal nuances other than symbols to convey meaning.
Some spoons are dated. If the couple eventually marry, they then become a keepsake of the suitor's original interest. Other spoons are personalized either by initials or by an emblem of the occupation or the interests of the donor or donor. Often a carver wishes to incorporate a date , a monogram, a motto, a name or a quotation into a carving.
Nationalistic emblems such as a daffodil, a leek, the word Cymru or even a dragon are sometimes used, but they are usually to be found on modern spoons. Some spoons are intended to be in the nature of Valentines and to be anonymous. It is difficult to understand, though, that someone who had spent many hours creating such a gift would not want his work to be appreciated. Others are decorated with dual initials, those of the suitor and his lady or with a single initial when we are left to guess whether this represents the donor or the donor. But we must try not to read too much into the minds of the carvers of earlier days. Whatever we think, we cannot help being amazed by the consummate skill of these lovespoon craftsmen.
The Welsh National Game
Rugby is a form of football. It is named after Rugby School in Warwickshire where it was developed, though the exact date (1823 or later) is in dispute.
Rugby is the national game of Welsh team was thought to be the best of the world. The rules of the game are rather complicated but mainly involve the carrying of an egg-shaped ball over your opponents’ line and pressing it firmly on the ground to score a try. A team consists of fifteen players, eight of whom are usually much bigger and heavier than the rest. Their job is to win the ball so that the three-quarters can run forward over the line, trying to avoid the tackles of the opposing team. Often the heavy forwards can be seen pushing together in a scrum, trying to kick the ball backwards. Although the game seems to be similar to American football, the players are not allowed to throw the ball forward. Other point can be won by kicking the ball between the special “H” – shaped goal – posts.
When the Welsh side are playing at home at Cardiff Arms Park their supporters often try to encourage them to play better by singing the Welsh National anthem, “Land of My Fathers”. The sound of thousands of Welsh voices singing this famous song usually helps the Welsh side to score another try to win the game. Naturally they are especially pleased when this is against the English!
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the capital, Belfast. Belfast is also the mast important port and commercial and industrial centre. Some parts of the territory, those that are not close to capital, have remained mainly rural.
The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and the Catholics. The Protestants are of British origin. They are descendants of British settlers who came to Ireland in the 15th and 17th centuries, during and after the Reformation. The Catholics are mostly natives of Ireland.
The Protestants were the majority and dominated the Catholics with strong discrimination. In1968 the Catholics began the movement for equal civil rights.
The fightings between the two groups of the population continue to this day.
Canada
Canada is the second largest country in the world. Only Russia has a greater land area. Canada is situated in North America. Canada is slightly larger than the United States, but has only about a tenth as many people. About 28 million people live in Canada. About 80% of the population live within 320 km of the southern border. Much of the rest of Canada is uninhabited or thinly populated because of severe natural conditions.
Canada is a federation of 10 provinces and 2 territories. Canada is an independent nation. But according to the Constitution Act of 1982 British Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is recognized as Queen of Canada. This symbolizes the country's strong ties to Britain. Canada was ruled by Britain completely until 1867, when Canada gained control of its domestic affairs. Britain governed Canada's foreign affairs until1931, when Canada gained all independence.
Canada's people are varied. About 57% of all Canadians have some English ancestry and about 32% have some French ancestry. Both English and French are the official languages of the country. French Canadians, most of whom live in the provinces of Quebec, have kept the language and customs of their ancestors. Other large ethnic group are German, Irish and Scottish people. Native people-American Indians and Eskimos-make up about 2% of the country's population. 77% of Canada's people live in cities or towns. Toronto and Montreal are the largest urban areas. Ottawa is the capital of the country.
Today, maintaining a sense of community is one of major problems in Canada because of different among the provinces and territories. Many Canadians in western and eastern parts of the country feel that the federal government does not pay enough attention to their problems. 80% of Quebec's population are French Canadians. Many of them believe that their province should receive a special recognition in the Canadian constitution.
History of Canada
Canada's history is an exciting story of development of a vast wilderness into a great nation. Most experts believe that the first people who lived on this land came from Asia about 15000 years ago. They came over a land bridge that once connected Asia and North America. Their descendants are known today as Indians. The ancestors of the Eskimos came to Alaska after them probably about 5000 years ago.
In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of England, found rich fishing grounds off Canada’s south-east coast. His discovery led to the European exploration of Canada. France set up a colony in Eastern Canada in the early 1600's. Great Britain gained control of the country in 1763, and thousands of Britain emigrants came in Canada. In 1867, the French and English-speaking Canadians helped to create a united colony called the Dominion of Canada. The two groups worked together to settle the country and to develop its great mineral deposits and other natural resources.
Canada gained its independence from Britain in 1931. During the middle of the 20th century, hard-working Canadians turned their country into an economic giant. Today Canada is a leading producer of wheat, oats, barley. Canada also ranks among the world's top manufacturing countries, and it is a major producer of electronic power.
Throughout its history, Canada has often been troubled by lack of unity among its people. French Canadians, most of them live in the province of Quebec, have struggled to preserve their own culture. They have long been angered by Canadian policies based on British traditions. Many of them support a movement to make Quebec a separate nation. People in Canada’s nine other provinces also frequently local needs over national interests.
Australia
Australia is the only country in the world that is also a continent. It is sixth large country and the smallest continent. Australia lies between the South Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is located about 11000 km southwest of North America and about 3200 km southeast of mainland Asia. The name of the country comes from the Latin word “australis” which mean southern. The country's official name is Commonwealth of Australia.
The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation of states. Australia has six states-new South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. Each state has its government. Australia has two territories-the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. The capital of the country is Canberra.
Australia is a constitutional monarchy like Great Britain. The nation is administered under written constitution. The British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is also queen of Australia and country's head of state. But the queen has little power in the Australian government. She serves mainly as a symbol of a long historical tie between Great Britain and Australia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations which is an association formed by Britain and some of its former colonies.
Australia is one of the word's developed countries. Australia has modern factories, highly productive mines and farms, and busy cities. It is the world's leading producer of wool and bauxite. It also produces and exports large amounts of other minerals and farm goods. Income from the export enables Australian to have a high standard of living. The most important trading partners of Australia are Japan and the United States.
Saint George or William Shakespeare?
The national holiday of the English is April 23, the day of St. George, their patron saint. On this day, solemn ceremonies are held at St. Paul's Cathedral in Windsor, as well as in some other local churches. But April 23, in addition, is the birthday and memorial day of William Shakespeare, and it is celebrated much more widely.
The center of this holiday is a small (20 thousand inhabitants) town of Stratford on the River Avon, where the poet was born in 1564. The town lives with the memory of Shakespeare all year round, in fact, he himself is a museum consisting of a dozen "halls": this is the house where the poet was born, the grammar school where he studied, the houses of his mother, wife, daughter, the house where Shakespeare spent the last years of his life, the parish church where he is buried. And, of course, the Shakespeare Center, the Shakespeare Institute and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The city is always lively. There are clear routes for excursions, many hotels, parking lots are open, performances are constantly going on. Actually, the whole life of the city is subordinated to the reception of guests.
But the most important day of the year is April 23rd. Even the day before, orchestras, amateur ensembles gather, ambassadors and diplomats of foreign states arrive. Sprigs of fragrant evergreen rosemary are sold everywhere, which are inserted into buttonholes and worn as a sign of memory. In the morning, a reception is organized at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. (The huge red brick building looks very modern, but does not violate the general patriarchal landscape at all - a river, low chapels, stone houses lined with oak boards; people sitting on the grass right next to the theater look natural, of course, if the day is sunny.) theater, in accordance with a strictly developed ritual, a solemn procession follows to the house where Shakespeare spent his childhood. In this house there is a cradle, an iron hoop - a prototype of a children's playpen, a desk, dishes. Most likely, the future genius did not use these things, and the phrase about “the stored warmth of his hands” would have sounded out of place. Nevertheless, the creators of the museum managed to achieve a more or less authentic, albeit slightly embellished, atmosphere, to arouse reverent awe among visitors. Behind the house there is a garden where you can find flowers and trees mentioned in Shakespeare's works. Further, the procession moves past the grammar school, where classes have been going on (without stopping!) since Shakespeare's times, past the Shakespeare Institute, where literary scholars from all over the world come together, past the house where Shakespeare's daughter Susanna lived when she married and where his granddaughter Elizabeth was born.
Here is the Stratford Church of the Holy Trinity, in which Shakespeare is buried. He preferred this place to all others on earth… Participants of the procession lay flowers, wreaths, bouquets on the tombstone of the poet. This is the end of the celebration. And its culmination is the ceremony of raising the flags of the nation. On the central street of the city, flags flutter on high flagpoles, among which, for more than 60 years, ours, the Soviet one. In the evening, the theater is waiting for everyone again. The theater season in Stratford lasts eight months, and the audience is offered several plays by Shakespeare. In the repertoire of one of the seasons of the play "Henry Y", "Richard 111", "Hamlet", "The Merchant of Venice", "Love's Labour's Vain". The Royal Shakespeare Sámi Theater has the largest team in the world! In Stratford itself there are now three branches with two hundred seats each. In London, the theater has two more premises, both in the large cultural center of the Barbican. In addition, the Royal Shakespeare Theater tours a lot. Shakespeare's plays are also shown in other theaters, for example, in the Mermaid, in the Bank Side. In Regens Park, in the open summer theater, you can watch A Midsummer Night's Dream or The Windsor Gossips against the backdrop of unusual scenery - live chestnuts. However, the strongest impression leaves the acting in Stratford. And the viewer, as once the author, chooses this town ...
Days to Eat Haggis
Saint Andrew is considered the patron saint of Scotland, so Saint Andrew's Day - November 30 - is a Scottish national holiday. It is celebrated by all Scots - both in Scotland itself and far beyond its borders. Before the Reformation, St. Andrew's Day was a religious holiday, but now it is secular.
Early in the morning, the entire male population, young and old, goes hunting to shoot hares and squirrels. Having coped with this matter with honor, the men no less bravely deal with the festive dinner, the basis of which is their hunting trophies. If the hare manages to avoid its sad fate, the unfortunate hunters still do not remain hungry: after all, in addition to the hare, other dishes appear on the festive menu. Among them, there is certainly a baked lamb's head and traditional haggis, the very one to which Robert Burns dedicated one of his poems. Haggis is something like a huge meatball made from chopped lamb lungs, heart and liver, mixed with oatmeal; the mixture is put into the beef tripe and boiled. The taste of the dish is specific, you need to get used to it, but for a Scot there can be nothing tastier.
portly, dense, round-sided,
You rise like a distant hill
And under you is a wide tray
Almost crackles.
But how your juices caress
Our appetite!
( Translation by S. Marshak)
If in England Shakespeare competes with St. George and defeats him in popularity, then in Scotland the situation is similar: the birthday of Robert Burns, who was born on January 25, 1759, is celebrated no less widely than the day of St. Andrew. In 1802 the first Burns Club was formed in Greenock, Renfrewshire. Since then, hundreds of such clubs have sprung up and continue to exist, both in Scotland and in many other countries. They say that no matter where the Scots go, on January 25 they will definitely get bagpipes, cook haggis and celebrate the birthday of their favorite poet.
In Scotland, Burns Night brings together farmers and trade unionists, artists, priests, politicians and university professors. All of them willingly show their gratitude to the poor Ayshire farmer, then to the modest excise official - the national poet of Scotland, who left them a rich poetic legacy and gave them a reason to gather on this January evening. As you know, both the British and the Scots met on some solemn occasion, first they eat and drink, and then, not on an empty stomach, they make speeches, read poetry, sing songs, dance.
The ceremony starts at 7:30 pm. Everyone is sitting at the table, next to each is a book with songs by Burns. The president of the club reads "Zazdravny toast":
Those who have what they have, sometimes they cannot eat,
And others can eat, but sit without bread.
And here we have what we have, but at the same time we have what we have, -
So we have to thank the sky
(Translated by S. Marshak)
The waitresses bring in tureens of hot rooster and leek soup. After the soup has been eaten and the plates removed, the traditional bagpipes begin to play in the respectful silence that reigns. The drum major of the local orchestra enters the hall, followed by the chef with a large haggis on a silver platter. Following the "commander of all the hot puddings in the world," smaller haggis roll in on the tables, accompanied by mashed potatoes and crushed turnips. They raise their glasses to the queen, they sing the national anthem. Then a toast “for eternal memory” is necessarily proclaimed, followed by a minute of silence. There are patriotic appeals, jokes, songs, poems by Burns himself and dedicated to him. And the bagpipes play again. And it all ends with a song to the words of Robert Burns "Old Friendship":
Forget old love
And not be sad about her?
Forget old love
And the friendship of the old days? ...
We trampled together with you
Grass of native fields,
But not one steep climb
We took from a young age.
We swam many times
With you across the stream
But the sea tore us apart
Comrade of youth...
And here we are with you again,
Your hand is in mine.
I drink to old love
For the friendship of former days!…
(Translated by S. Marshak)
What is aistetvod?
1 March is St. David's Day, a national holiday in Wales, when many Welsh, as we have already said, wear their national emblem - a narcissus or a leek - in their buttonholes. But there is another day of great importance for the nation. This is the main event of the year, its culmination, a reminder of the evergreen tree of folk life. National Eisteddfod (theNationalEisteddfod), according to the Welsh, is the most Welsh thing in Wales. The Welsh word eisteddfod means "meeting", and the holiday itself is a competition of folk singers, bards. This is one of the oldest Welsh customs and was recorded in the 6th century.
Eistetfod is a "wandering" holiday: it takes place alternately in the south, then in the north of Wales, but the time of the event is the same - the first week of August each year. Welsh people from all over the world come to this biggest folk festival in Europe. All procedures are conducted in the Welsh language - after all, the purpose of the holiday is to develop national culture and the national language, which was prohibited by the act of accession of Wales to England. The struggle for the preservation of the ancient cultural heritage was carried out in various forms and was picked up by the aistetvod. The program includes performances by choirs - male and mixed, brass bands, harp girls, drama performances, exhibitions of painting, other arts, crafts, activities for children. Performances are held in a huge portable pavilion that can accommodate ten thousand spectators - like the Albert Hall in London! The festival sells records of Welsh pop music, Welsh biographical directories, and national souvenirs. The peak of the celebration is the Coronation of the Bard, which we will talk about a little later.
The next most important is the International Music Eisteddfod. It is held in Langollen in July. It is attended not only by the Welsh, but also by representatives of many countries, all in picturesque and colorful national costumes. There, with a huge confluence of participants and spectators, competitions of folk songs and dances are held.
In 1947, in South Wales, in Portkaw, another eystetvod appeared - a mining one. It represents an important event in the life of miners both culturally and socially. Good old friends meet here, new acquaintances are made. Many families come for the whole day and watch all the competitions from beginning to end, that is, 10-12 hours in a row - the benefit of food is taken with them enough! Eistetvod served as a "launching pad" for many singers and singing groups, who later received worldwide recognition.
Well, now about the crowning of the bard. In the center of a huge clearing, a circle of stones is formed, in the middle - an "altar stone". Druids settled here - of course, not the ancient priests-judges themselves, but the bards of the Druid Order, honorary citizens - doctors, philosophers, priests, writers, politicians. Dressed in long white robes, they surround the platform with an honorary throne for the future bard. The throne is the prize for winning a poetry competition, a tradition that dates back to 940. Here are nymphs in green, harpists in blue, women in red with a golden cornucopia from the Cardiff Museum. Now they will pronounce the name of the winner - the hero of the nation. A year ago, the theme was determined and a poetry competition was announced. Professional poets and amateurs took part in the competition. They have already proven themselves in creativity and received a poetic bardic pseudonym - this is a prerequisite. The poets worked for a year, and the council of druids had to solve a difficult task: to choose the most worthy and justify their choice. All works are carefully studied by the council in advance, and the decision has already been made, but is still kept secret. The monetary reward for the poet is small - only 20 pounds, but the honor and gratitude are immeasurable and priceless. Mysterious preparations are underway: harps are playing, elves are dancing, a giant sword is being taken out of its scabbard and plunged into them again. Finally, the chief druid addresses the audience three times: "Is there peace here?" They answer “Peace!” three times. The trumpeters blow the trumpets, the organ rattles, the beam of the spotlight, running through the rows, snatches the winner. Accompanied by the elder druids, he heads for the throne. He is dressed in a purple robe trimmed with white fur, and is crowned with a jagged crown, made especially for this occasion and especially for him. The bard's poem sounds...
Orange marches
and Memorial Day 1916
Ireland's national holiday, St Patrick's Day, is celebrated on March 17th. As we have already said, on this day in the buttonhole of every Irishman there is a shamrock. Two thirds of Northern Ireland are Protestants, descendants of the English and Scots who moved here at the very beginning of the 17th century. On March 17, they celebrate because "now they feel Irish."
In addition to the holidays celebrated throughout the United Kingdom, there are two other holidays in Ireland, and both are political. It is solemnly celebrated on July 12, the day of the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne, in which the Irish Protestants, led by King William III of Orange, defeated the Catholics supporting the exiled King James II. It happened in 1690, but the memory of the battle is sacredly revered by the Orangemen. This is how members of the order, created in 1795 in honor of William of Orange, call themselves. The creation of the order pursued both religious and political goals: support for Protestantism and protection of British monarchism. Today, this far-right society is considered a secret society, but prominent unionists, politicians, landowners and businessmen openly participate in the Orange marches. Throughout Northern Ireland, drums rumble and flutes blare in July. Masterfully spinning the wand, the master of ceremonies steps forward in front of each procession. Behind him stride men with orange trains thrown over their frock coats. In general, the spectacle is impressive, but for Catholics it looks intimidating. Having marched through the streets, the formation heads out of town to hold an Orange rally, and then have fun, waving the English flag, singing Orange songs, blaspheming and cursing the Catholics. Often the holiday ends with pogroms in Catholic areas. The “security forces”, theoretically impartial, inevitably end up on the side of the unionists: after all, their task is to ensure the protection of the Protestant population at any cost.
There is also a third holiday - the Day of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin, which, it would seem, has nothing to do with politics, but Catholic nationalists have chosen it as their day. On August 15, something similar to the Orange march takes place, but, so to speak, in reverse. This is Memorial Day 1916, when the so-called Easter Rising in Dublin took place, one of the most significant events in the history of the struggle against the colonial policy of Britain. Now other communities are celebrating, and other songs are being sung - nationalist, anti-Orange.
These are the holidays... Age-old religious and political enmity does not allow ordinary Irish people to unite to fight for their true interests. As for the representatives of the elite, whether they are Orangists or nationalists, it only plays into their hands.
Pub - a favorite haunt of the British
About how a pub differs from a club and a pub, about the opportunity to drink a mug of beer, talk
blowing with the celebrity that the best guide to pubs is J.K Jerome's book, about the pleasure of sitting in the world's only non-alcoholic pub, and about what you can't afford in crypts, but you can in pubs. An English pub is very reminiscent of a club, but only for those who come to the country for the first time. For the British themselves, these are completely different institutions and concepts.
The history of the emergence of pubs is probably banal to some extent. For centuries, this formerly small pub or tavern played an important role in the social life of the country. Both in the countryside and in the city, it was the center where tired travelers could rest, have a bite to eat, find an overnight stay, warmly and, of course, drink a mug of beer or something stronger. In those early days, pubs were a place to hear the latest news, argue about different topics, just sit and listen to what others were talking about, find out what rumors were circulating around the country. Today, in many English pubs, you will see signs on the wall informing visitors that a long time ago (or just a few years ago) a certain celebrity sat in this pub and drank beer along with other regulars.
Beer is a favorite drink of the inhabitants of the UK, apparently also because it is the cheapest (not everyone can afford stronger ones). Pub-goers always have the opportunity to have a glass or two of beer in "their" pub or sit there with friends. Each pub consists of several, at least two halls. Usually these are small rooms, which is probably one of the attractive features of the pub. The halls are called bars, however, one of them - the "salon" - is a little cozier and more comfortable, and, therefore, a little more expensive. Social differences and the material level of visitors are also noticeable here. In one of the rooms, somewhere in the far corner, there is a long counter with or without high chairs; not only beer is sold here, but also other drinks. The bartender pours them into glasses or mugs with a capacity of a pint (0.47 liters) or half a pint. English pubs traditionally do without waiters, visitors serve themselves. The atmosphere in pubs has always been distinguished by warmth, comfort and some kindness. Representatives of different strata of the population, different classes, political parties come here. They go to the pub not to drink, but to chat, see friends, and perhaps just sit and talk with a stranger. A mug of beer can last an entire evening. The interior of English pubs, especially in rural areas, often recreates the atmosphere of old pubs: cozy fireplaces, long benches on either side of logged tables, stylized mugs, low ceilings.
In pubs, there are many rules that the British follow strictly. In particular, visiting pubs in England is allowed from the age of 14 and must be accompanied by an adult; Young visitors are only allowed to drink soft drinks, fruit juices or Coca-Cola. Those who want to try beer or whiskey have to wait for the day when they "knock" 18, the law is harsh here. You can only go to the pub during strictly fixed hours. So, in the village, pubs open at 10.30 am and close at 2.30 am. In cities, they open at 11 am and close at 3 pm. Evening hours of operation are as follows: in villages and small towns from 6 am to 10.30 am, and in cities from 5.30 am to 11 am. Usually, 10 minutes before closing, the owner reminds: "Last orders, please." Visitors drink their last glass of beer, and at 11 o'clock (or at 10.30) a bell is heard (in more modern pubs, just an electric bell), announcing that it is time to go home.
The popularity of pubs is also evidenced by their number: even in a small town, where there are no more than 50 thousand inhabitants, there are at least a hundred pubs, and each retains only its inherent style. The British believe that at first it is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence of pubs. If a person has entered the same pub several times, he is already considered a regular, and the owners greet him as an old acquaintance.
I must say that the owners of pubs are incredibly busy people. They have to serve a lot of people, and they have to work every day, trying to please all the visitors. In other countries there are numerous bars, taverns, wine cellars, and all of them are attractive in their own way. The tradition of the British pub is such that here you can strike up a conversation with a stranger without fear of being rude or being misinterpreted.
The names of the pubs are also interesting. Usually, signs at the entrance are full of the most unexpected names, concepts and symbols, images of various animals, elements of folklore, and history. Paying tribute to the past, the owners like to include the word royal - royal. Each name has its own story, which is necessarily associated with some kind of joke.
Drinking establishments in the UK have free access to alcoholic beverages. This cannot but worry those who have decided to lead a non-alcoholic lifestyle, and there are more and more of them every day. Therefore, many began to bypass the traditional English institution, which, under other circumstances, they would choose to meet friends.
Thanksgiving Day
In everything give thanks, for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you.
Apostle Paul in the Epistle to the Thessalonians.
I would like the eagle not to be the symbol of our country: it is a bird with bad morals, like those among people who live by robbery ... The turkey is a much more respectable bird, and, besides, it is really a native inhabitant of North America.
Benjamin Franklin
Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday on which all people who survived earthquakes, fires, deaths, overeating, etc. in the past year thank God for his favor.
Elbert Hubbard
Thanksgiving Day. Today, everyone offers sincere and humble praises to God - everything except turkeys. In the Fiji Islands they don't eat turkeys, they eat plumbers. But who are you and I to defame the customs of Fiji?
Mark Twain
There is no more American holiday than ThanksgivingsDay. There is no less political holiday than Thanksgiving. The very idea of celebrating autumn and the end of the harvest dates back to the deepest antiquity, but for Americans these days are also directly connected with the history of the development of new lands.
On December 26, 1620, after a two-month voyage to the shores of Massachusetts, the ship Mayflower landed at Cape Cod. Most of the passengers belonged to the persecuted sect of the Puritans in England. The newly-appeared pilgrims embarked on such a dangerous journey in the hope of founding a colony in the New World, where they could finally find the freedom they longed for.
At the end of the voyage, before leaving for uncharted land, the ship's passengers - the new settlers - signed a document known as the Mayflower Agreement, to which American historiography attaches momentous significance as the beginning of constitutional self-government, the basis of American life and the manifestation of the inner freedom of the spirit, which brought with them religious dissidents, oppositionists who challenged the medieval fanatical old Europe.
The Pilgrims faced incredible hardships. The first winter they had to endure on Novaya Zemlya was severe and cruel, out of 102 settlers, only 56 survived.
And on April 1 of the following year, a significant event occurred. To the Plymouth settlement, as it was then called, came out two Indians - Samoset (Samoset) and Squanto (Squanto). Squanto from the Patuxet tribe was an unusual Indian - about ten years ago he was forcibly taken to England, returned in 1614, but was soon kidnapped again and taken to Spain. At the end of 1619, he returned to his homeland again, however, he did not find his tribe - most likely, his relatives died out from infections brought by the conquerors. He nailed to another tribe, and when a small colony settled on the shores of America, he convinced his fellow tribesmen to make peace with the pilgrims. He already knew the world of Europe and understood that the future belongs to European civilization, and by fighting with the settlers, the natives can only achieve their own death.
So, April 1, 1621. Samoset and Squanto informed the Plymouth colonists of the arrival of Massasoit, the leader of the Wampanoag tribes who lived in what is now the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. A peace treaty and a military alliance were concluded with him.
And Squanto became not just a friend and translator of the Plymouth colonists, but their guardian angel. He taught the pilgrims small but vital "tricks" of life on the new earth. For example, he taught the peculiarities of growing corn in hilly conditions, using fish as fertilizer, how to catch wild turkeys, taught how to grow tobacco, beans and pumpkins, distinguish edible plants from poisonous ones, showed springs with drinking water, hunting trails and fishing places.
Thanks to his help, the harvest in October was very plentiful, and the Plymouth people were able to stock up with enough food for the whole winter. They had plenty of corn, fruits and vegetables, dried fish and smoked meat.
But most importantly, Squanto was an intermediary in negotiations with neighboring Indian tribes, providing the colonists with their friendly attitude and help. We can say with absolute certainty that without his participation the first colony of Europeans would not have survived on the new earth.
And the governor of the pilgrims, William Bradford, established a Thanksgiving day for all the colonists and their good neighbors - the Indians. In addition to Samoset and Squanto, the leader of the tribe came to the celebration, and with him another 90 daredevils. For three days the drums rattled, and the salute from the guns was heard. But this day did not become the prototype of the modern holiday.
The second summer in the new place was not so successful, and the third turned out to be completely dry. Then Bradford appointed a day of fasting and prayer, and soon after it began to rain! To celebrate this wonderful event, Thanksgiving Day was established.
For a long time, the holiday was unofficial in New England. It wasn't until 1777 that the Continental Congress declared the official national celebration of Thanksgiving in December. George Washington in 1789 proclaimed this holiday a national event and, at the request of Congress, set the date - November 26, Thursday. In his interpretation, it was the Thanksgiving of the Americans of their constitution.
But Thanksgiving was made a full national holiday in 1863, during the Civil War, when President Abraham Lincoln announced that the fourth Thursday in November would henceforth be celebrated as Thanksgiving.
The final transfer of the holiday to the last Thursday of November happened in 1939, thanks to Roosevelt's decree. It is said that he did this for purely economic reasons. After giving the ever-busy citizens of his country two extra days of rest, he correctly assumed that they, first of all, would go to stock up on gifts for Christmas. And four days of nationwide shopping will have a positive impact on the American treasury.
Thanksgiving Day is a family holiday, relatives and friends come from all over the country to sit at a common table filled with traditional treats. On the eve of all the airports in America are overcrowded, and the roads are clogged with cars. It seems that the whole country is on the move in order to catch up to the hearth, where generations meet, insults are forgotten and the best that happened in a year is remembered.
At the table and children. As long as they remember themselves, they also remember the leisurely generosity of Thanksgiving, its special peaceful spirit. After eating, one of the adults will definitely say: “What are we grateful for this year?” - and each will think about his own, and then in turn say: “I am grateful that ...”
The answers are impossible to predict. They can be serious or playful, practical or sentimental, with tears in their eyes or with an ironic smile. Probably, it’s not even what you say that matters, but what you think about and how you respond to the question - with an open soul, as if being in an invisible temple for a second.
Every schoolchild here heard about the pilgrims who came to America almost four hundred years ago on the Mayflower ship. Having experienced troubles and hardships, they learned to appreciate simple pleasures. Therefore, a tasty and hearty lunch on this day is not just food, but also a special ritual, a symbol of worldly pleasures and connection with the earth that brings its fruits to people.
There is always someone to be thankful for. Do not complain, but rejoice. Do not grieve for the lost, but admire the gift. And believe in the best.
The American Thanksgiving has its own well-defined traditions: food (the must-have turkey, sweet potato yams with whipped flower sauce, cranberry sauce, spiced bread cubes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, pumpkin pie and gravy), two days off, more food, watching football games on TV, food again, local parades and more food. The week after Thanksgiving is celebrated by eating leftovers.
If someone is left without a festive dinner, then charitable organizations will invite him. The president himself will find time in his tight schedule and go on this day to help feed the homeless, the poor and the elderly, laying generous portions on their plates. It is clear that they would have managed without his help, but this is also his role - to show the country an example of charity.
Another tradition is the solemn ceremony of pardoning the turkey. Harry Truman installed it over fifty years ago. In accordance with this tradition, at least one turkey must avoid the fate of being on the festive table. In the form of a half-jokingly-half-serious recognition of the role of the turkey, as well as the role of mercy, the American president, on the eve of the holiday, declares a pardon for a particular turkey, which is shown with him on television on the White House lawn. The President reads the decree and carefully strokes the alarmed bird. Later, she is sent to the zoo, where she lives until old age.
There are parades on Thanksgiving itself. The first parade walked along the western edge of Central Park in 1924, since then every year the procession has been sponsored by the shopping monster Macy's. The Christmas season begins with it, red SALE posters are hung out, shopping becomes hectic.
There is a procession along the autumn streets, but unlike European carnivals, not dolls of medieval characters are piled up above the crowd, but the many-meter-long dog Snoopy bursting with hot air, Garfield the cat, Piggy the pig and other characters of American history. Once a huge Cat In Hat escaped from the hands of the guides, crashed into a lamppost and brought down its crossbar on the head of one of the two million participants in the parade. Marked by fate, Kathleen Coronna sued the city, the pole makers, Macy's, and the cat, demanding $395,000,000 in compensation.
In 2001, the outgoing mayor of New York, Rudolph Giuliani, decided to put movie stars to work for the good of the city. He invited the most famous actors in Hollywood to take part in an advertising campaign designed to demonstrate the unbending spirit of New York and attract tourists to the city.
Woody Allen, Robert De Niro and Billy Crystal took part in the annual Thanksgiving Day parade. New York native Woody Allen delighted passers-by with his skating skills at Rockefeller Center, while de Niro and Crystal played unusual roles: Billy appeared as a turkey and De Niro as a pilgrim.
In addition, de Niro gave a dinner for 500 people for firefighters and rescuers working on the rubble of the World Trade Center. As you know, the actor is a very successful restaurateur and owns a large establishment in Manhattan. "Manhattan has always been the heart and soul of the city," de Niro said. "And whatever they do to us, we won't let the terrorists change that."
Unfortunately, history is rich in cruel paradoxes, one of which was bitterly stated by the famous American writer Washington Irving: “the tread of civilization left behind traces soaked in the blood of the natives.” But on that holy day - they were together, at the same table - the first colonists and the "last Mohicans". What they talked about, how they understood each other and what songs they sang - we can only guess ...
Chronicle of the events of the life of the first colonists
September 16, 1620 The ship Mayflower with the first colonists left the port of Plymouth (England). There were 102 passengers on the ship, including three pregnant women. During the voyage, Elizabeth Hopkins gave birth to a son, who was named Oceanus (Ocean).
November 16, 1620 Three days before the Pilgrims saw land, a boy named William Butten died.
November 21, 1620 Mayflower Agreement signed. Anchored in Provincetown Harbor and landed.
Dec 17-20 1620 While the Pilgrims were looking for a site for a settlement, Susanna White, another woman who sailed pregnant, also had a son, who was named Peregrine (meaning "one who travels to uncharted lands").
December 14, 1620. Edward Thomson dies: first death since landing.
December 16, 1620 The third party went to reconnaissance in the sloop. Jasper More has passed away.
17 December 1620 G . Dorothy (May) Bradford drowned.
December 18, 1620. James Chilton has passed away. First meeting with the Indians. Landed on Clark's Island at night.
December 20, 1620 The third party spent Sunday on Clark's Island. The colonists belonged to the Christian religious sect of the Puritans, dating back to John Calvin (1509-1564) and Calvinism. In particular, they observed the biblical Sabbath on Sunday and never worked on this day.
December 21, 1620. Ancestral Day. A third party landed at Plymouth Rock and reconnoitered land.
December 25, 1620 The Mayflower sailed from Cape Cod towards Plymouth Rock, but was forced to turn back due to a change in wind direction.
December 29, 1620 One reconnaissance party landed on land, while the other set off in a sloop. Jones River discovered.
December 30, 1620. The decision was made to settle near what is now called Burial Hill (Burial Hill).
December 31, 1620. Richard Britteridge has died: the first death since landing at Plymouth.
January 1, 1621. Mary Allerton, the third woman to embark on the arduous journey pregnant, had a dead baby boy aboard the Mayflower.
January 7, 1621 The colonists were divided into 19 families. Lots of land were broken up for construction.
January 14, 1621. Myles Standish with the party discovered wigwams, but the Indians were not met. The colonists did not know that they had landed at the place where the Indians of the Patuxet tribe had previously lived. A few years before the arrival of the colonists, all the Indians died during the epidemic.
18 January 1621 G . Christopher Martin has passed away.
22 January 1621 G . Peter Brown and John Goodman got lost in the woods.
February 26, 1621 The Indians took the tools left by Myles Standish and Francis Cooke in the forest.
February 27, 1621 A meeting was held to declare military order. Myles Standish was elected commander.
March 3, 1621 Cannons were placed on top of the hill. William White, William Mullins and two other colonists died.
7 Martha 1621 G . Mary (Norris) Allerton has passed away.
March 17, 1621. Having lost half of the colony over the winter, the remaining inhabitants of Plymouth, in fear that they might share the fate of their comrades, made the first plantings of grain in the abandoned fields of the Patuxet tribe. It soon became clear that wheat and barley crops would not give the expected result, while the corn crop expected to be very rich.
March 26, 1621 A new meeting devoted to military order was interrupted by the appearance of the Samoset Indian, the leader of the Abnaki tribe, who could speak English quite well.
March 31, 1621 Another meeting devoted to law and order was again interrupted by the appearance of the Indians. The carpenter rebuilt the sloop to "carry everyone from overseas".
1 April 1621 The next meeting devoted to public affairs was again interrupted by the appearance of the Samoset and Squanto Indians, who announced the arrival of Massasoit (Massasoit (? 1580-1661) - the leader of the Wampanoag tribes that lived in today's Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Also known as Wawmegin ( "yellow pen"). A peace treaty and a military alliance were concluded with him.
The help of the Indian Squanto, who taught the pilgrims the small but vital "tricks" of life on the new earth, is invaluable. For example, the peculiarities of growing corn in hilly terrain, using fish as fertilizer, methods of catching wild turkeys ... But most importantly, Squanto was an intermediary in negotiations with neighboring Indian tribes, providing the colonists with their friendly attitude and help.
It is safe to say that without his participation, the first colony of Europeans would not have survived on the new earth.
April 2, 1621 The formulation of laws and order is completed. John Carver was elected governor the following year.
April 12, 1621 Governor Carver certified a copy of William Mullins' will, which was sent back to England on the Mayflower.
May 22, 1621 Edward Winslow married Susanna White (Fuller): the first wedding in the colony.
August 24, 1621 The commander of the Standish, with a detachment of armed colonists, went to Namasket to avenge the supposed death of Squanto.
September 28, 1621 Commander Standish with 9 British, as well as Squanto with 3 other Indians, went on a visit to Massachusetts.
October 1621 The colonists celebrated, according to the customs of England, their first harvest festival. The holiday was necessary to boost the morale of the 50 survivors and cement their friendship with new friends - the natives of the Wampanoag tribe. Among the 90 invited Indians of this tribe was their leader Massasoit.
St.Patrick 's Day
March 17 is St. Patrick's Day, the national Irish holiday that has become popular all over the world. It is believed that every person on this day can become an honorary Irishman - if he only wants to.
The official version says that, presumably, on March 17, 415 AD in Wales, a boy, Maewyn Succat, was born into a family of Roman citizens Calfurnius and Conchessa. Mavin's father was a small landowner and deacon of the local church, but he held this position mainly for money, so young Patrick was not particularly deeply religious.
At about the age of 16, he was captured by pirates and brought to Ireland, where he fell into the service of a leader named Milchu. Young Patricius was forced to become a shepherd and spent days on end with a herd of sheep. It was then that he believed in God and began to pray.
Once home, Patrick, despite the joy of the family, who again found a son, firmly decided to take the spiritual path. He met the French Bishop Germanus (Saint-Germain), who strengthened him in this endeavor. And later he returned to Ireland as a missionary on behalf of Pope Celestine I.
In Ireland, he is revered as a saint who brought the Christian faith to Ireland. True, Christian monasteries existed before him, but ... apparently, no one before him could reach the harsh hearts of the descendants of the Celts and Druids. He died, again - presumably - on March 17, 493.
Unofficially, Patrick's birthplace is Bannaviem Taberniae. Historians wonder where to look for this estate or county, they put forward a different point of view regarding the location of this county. It could be the territory of Ancient Britain, and the territory of Scotland, or maybe even some kind of western country. No one knows.
No one knows the date of his return to Ireland, it is not known whether he was alone or came with his comrades. And, finally, was the shamrock brought by Patrick to Irish soil, or was this flower attributed to the saint only after his death? Some scholars dare to suggest that St. Patrick as such did not exist, but, most likely, it was a group of three monks.
And they were not the first missionaries in Irish land. Before them, there were already records of the appearance of the first missionaries, for example, the name of the British Celt Congar, who is associated primarily with the holding of the first Christian Liturgy in the history of Ireland, is known. A little later this event will be attributed to St. Patrick.
There is a story about another missionary, Paladius, who introduced Christianity to Ireland in 380, but he did not please the Church and was excommunicated from it. Most importantly, he bore the title "Patricius"! Paladius had a follower, also from the Celts - Zukat. And he also bore the title "Patricius". The biography of this monk is like two drops of water similar to the biography of St. Patrick.
Historians also remember another Paladius, who was engaged in missionary activities, but was not a monk. That is - Patrick, quite possibly, is not a specific person, but a collective image of several missionaries who left a noticeable mark on the history of the Christianization of Ireland. And the name of Patrick is not a name at all, but a Roman title, which over time acquired the meaning of a name.
However, be that as it may, many legends are associated with the name of St. Patrick, for example, that he used a three-leaf clover (shamrock) to explain to people the concept of the Holy Trinity. “Just as three leaves can grow from one stem, so God can be one in three persons,” this phrase of the saint has already become a textbook. And in Ireland there is a tradition to attach a shamrock leaf to clothes, symbolizing the cross, the color of Catholicism, and the symbolic color of the "emerald country" itself. There is also a church hymn, which tells that St. Patrick, with the help of a shamrock, interrupted a pagan ritual that was performed in the village of Tara, the royal capital of Ireland at that time.
They say that somehow the druid Lokru began to offend the saint, and with him the whole Christian faith in the most inappropriate terms. Naturally, a devout Christian could not endure such blasphemy and prayed to the Lord with a request to punish the pagan. Suddenly, Lokru was lifted into the air, and then fell to the ground, crushing his head on a stone.
Once during Lent, Saint Patrick fasted for forty days and nights on the top of Mount Crow Patrick. God was afraid that he might die and leave his life's mission unfinished, so he asked Patrick to stop fasting, but he agreed to this only under three conditions: the Irish should not live permanently under oppression, the country will be flooded seven years before the end of the world to avoid destruction, and that Patrick himself be allowed to judge everyone on the last day. After that, this mountain was called Croagh Patrick.
Every year, tens of thousands of pilgrims, many of whom are barefoot, climb the holy mountain "Croagh Patrick", 765m high. above sea level. Tradition says that it was on this mountain that St. Patrick performed one of his miracles - he commanded snakes from all over the Irish land to gather at his feet, and then drove them out.
According to legend, one large and cunning snake did not want to leave the Emerald Isle. The saint had to resort to cunning. He built a big box and told the snake that there was no way she could fit in it. The stubborn reptile succumbed to a sense of contradiction and began to argue with the missionary. As soon as the snake climbed into the box, the saint quickly covered it and threw it into the sea.
Perhaps the legend exaggerates something. But there is a real fact - there are no snakes in Ireland (although skeptics say that they were never born there).
Thanks to the mission of the saint, Ireland became the "Isle of Saints", the land of monks and the homeland of missionaries who carried the light of Christianity to other countries. There are indications that they reached the lands of present-day Russia. From the writings of St. Patrick, his autobiography has been preserved - "Confession", one message and a prayer "Shield of St. Patrick" ("Supplication of a deer"). According to legend, the Saint read this prayer when he walked with his disciples past the ambush set by the pagan king, wanting to interfere with the mission of Patrick. Instead of travelers, the soldiers in ambush saw only a herd of reindeer passing by. By pious conviction, one who faithfully repeats this prayer of the saint will be protected from all evil.
Saint Patrick is one of the most revered Saints in the world. The Western Church celebrates his memory on March 17, in a number of Orthodox Churches his memory is honored on March 30 according to the new style (March 17 according to the old style).
But St. Patrick's Day also has pagan motives. So, one of his indispensable heroes are leprechauns - fabulous shoemakers who own a hidden pot of gold. If a lucky treasure hunter manages to catch a leprechaun, then this creature must tell the person where his treasures are hidden. However, if you suddenly catch a shoemaker, then remember that you should not completely believe him - these little men are malicious and mischievous and can easily deceive a gullible treasure seeker.
It is said that leprechauns entered the celebration of St. Patrick's Day quite recently - companies that sell postcards for this holiday needed a cute character that could appear in the drawings. And the stern, albeit kind, preacher Saint Patrick was not quite suitable for this role. In the drawings, leprechauns are usually dressed in a pointed hat and a leather apron.
Happiness on St. Patrick's Day can be found in another way - you just have to find a four-leaf shamrock. Such a leaf of clover always brings good luck, but on St. Patrick's Day such happiness is doubled. It is not clear what to do to the inhabitants of the northern countries, where this holiday falls on the cold beginning of spring, when there is no clover in the meadows.
Traditionally, parades are held on St. Patrick's Day. People dressed in extravagant costumes take to the streets, as well as brass bands that cannot do without the famous bagpipes. Popular rumor says that this tradition was born in Ireland. But it seems that this is not entirely true.
In any case, New York and Boston contest the palm. New Yorkers claim that the first parade took place in 1762 in their city. Then Ireland was under the rule of the British, and it is quite possible that the inhabitants of the recalcitrant North American colonies expressed their solidarity with them in this way.
But since then, one of the most magnificent festivities on this day has been held in New York. Boston, the most Irish city in the United States, gets only 1802. Although, some argue that the first St. Patrick's Day celebration was organized in the United States by the Irish Mercy Association of Boston, in 1737.
Currently, hundreds of millions of people around the world celebrate the St. Patrick's Day festival parade. On this day the whole world - from Dublin to Sydney and from New York to Moscow and St. Petersburg - becomes Irish.
Irish people and their friends remember national music and dances, performances and cheerful celebrations. But, above all - parades with a procession of brass bands, extravagant costumes, folk art and laughing faces.
On St. Patrick's Day, every American turns into an honorary Irishman, everything around turns green, even that which cannot turn green in principle. Bars serve green beer, shops sell green bagels, and in Chicago they go even further and dye the water in the river green.
But in Spain it goes unnoticed, with the exception of the cities of Lorca and Murcia - because in 1452, on March 17, on St. Patrick's Day, Christian knights from Lorca and Murcia defeated a detachment of Mauritanian knights from Muslim Granada at the Battle of Alporchon. According to many historians, it was from this time that the last stage of the conquest of Christian lands from the Muslims began, which ended in 1492 with the surrender of Granada.
King Castilian Juan II of Spain gave Lorca the title of Noble City and his own coat of arms. And as a sign that the victory was won on St. Patrick's Day, Pope Clement VII blessed the construction of St. Patrick's Church in Lorca, which to this day is one of the main attractions of the city.
On St. Patrick's Day it is supposed to drink at least a glass of alcohol in some Irish bar: on this day all bars become Irish, and all musicians become Irish. You can arrange a competition (without abusing) glasses of drink, in honor of St. Patrick and the Emerald Country. There is a so-called "Patrick's Cup" - a unit of measure for whiskey that was drunk on St. Patrick's Day. Tradition prescribes that before drinking a glass of whiskey, it is necessary to put a leaf of "shamrock" (sour) in the glass. Since then, the people say "Drain the Shamrock" ("Drowning the shamrock").
In Ireland itself, the St. Patrick's Day parade is held in more than 30 cities, including the main parades taking place in Cork, Galway, Limerick and, of course, Dublin with its grandiose festivities.
It's funny that in Ireland this holiday was considered exclusively religious for a long time, and until the seventies of the last century, Irish laws ordered all pubs to close on March 17!
Now, festive processions are taking place on the main streets of Dublin, live music is playing in the pubs. Residents of the city put on red wigs and green caps that are sold in stores, take pots of shamrock (one of the symbols of Ireland is a four-leaf clover) and national flags. And in the evening they arrange fireworks and fireworks. The holiday is always held in unrestrained fun.
The parades in honor of St. Patrick are stretched and scattered like the Irish themselves, who are scattered all over the world.
Conclusion
In conclusion of my research work, I want to note that interesting and diverse traditions and customs take place in English-speaking countries. Despite the fact that in other countries the traditions found themselves in different “living conditions” due to local characteristics, nevertheless, they are rooted in the distant, controversial past of Great Britain. It is amazing that for many centuries, they were able to survive, survive and remain relevant in the modern world of high technology. These customs and traditions are still modern and continue to exist in English-speaking countries, which attracts people interested in the history and development of these countries.
Studying the traditions of English-speaking countries helps to better understand and perceive the living conditions of people, their social status, the history of the country or its individual regions.
Bibliography
1. Koshcheeva N.E. English Reader Part II. English National Traditions M. 1972.
2. Pinyagin Yu.N. Great Britain: history, culture, way of life. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. University, 1996. - 296.
3. Satinova V.M. Reading and talking about Britain and the British. Mn.: Vysh. school, 1997. - 255p.
4. Traditions, customs and habits. M.: INFRA-M, 2001. - 127p.
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………2
USA ……………………………………………………………………………………4
Independence Day……………………………………………………………………..4
Sport………………………………………………………………………………………5
Halloween…………………………………………………………………………………7
Thanksgiving………………………………………………………………………………8
Christmas………………………………………………………………………………..9
Valentine’s Day……………………………………………………………………………10
England ………………………………………………………………………………….11
Ways of Everyday Live……………………………………………………………………12
Everything is Other Way Round………………………………………………………...12
Lunch at 1 o’clock……………………………………………………………………….13
English Sunday…………………………………………………………………………..14
English Tea…………………………………………………………………………………14
Fireplaces……………………………………………………………………………...15
Pubs………………………………………………………………………………………16
English Habits of Politeness……………………………………………………………...17
Manners in Public………………………………………………………………………...18
British Institutes…………………………………………………………………………..20
Education in Britain………………………………………………………………………….21
Cambridge……………………………………………………………………………………21
Transport in Britain………………………………………………………………………..23
British Literature…………………………………………………………………………..24 Places of Interest in Great Britain…………………………… ………………………………25
Sports in Great Britain………………………………………………………………………..26
Scotland ………………………………………………………………………………….27
Scottish Traditions…………………………………………………………………………27
The Clan……………………………………………………………………………………28
The Tartan……………………………………………………………………………….29
Food and Drink…………………………………………………………………………….30
Burns Night………………………………………………………………………………...34
Loch Ness and the Monster………………………………………………………………...36
Highland Games……………………………………………………………………………37
Wales ……………………………………………………………………………………….37
St. David’s Day…………………………………………………………………………….38
The Welsh “national” costume………………………………………………………………..39
The Welsh Eisteddfodau……………………………………………………………………39
Lovespoons…………………………………………………………………………………40
The Welsh National Game…………………………………………………………………….44
Northern Ireland ………………………………………………………………………44
Canada ……………………………………………………………………………………...45
History of Canada…………………………………………………………………………..46
Australia ……………………………………………………………………………………47
Saint George or William Shakespeare?………………………………………………...48
Days to Eat Haggis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What is aistetvod?……………………………………………………………………...53
Orange Marches and Remembrance Day 1916
The pub is the favorite haunt of the British……………………………………………………...57
Thanksgiving………………………………………………………………………...59
Saint Patrick's Day……………………………………………………………………..70
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………79
List of used literature………………………………………………………..80
