Anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe. The struggle for democratization

In the USSR and began with the Polish People's Republic, this was followed by mass protests leading to a change of power in the GDR, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the People's Republic of Bulgaria, as well as reforms carried out at the initiative of the communist authorities in the Hungarian People's Republic. The change of power took place non-violently (except in Romania).

There was a “snowball” effect, and there was no dependence on the presence of economic and social conditions favorable to democracy, but the pace of events accelerated. After the USSR came to terms with the coming to power of non-communist forces in Poland in August 1989, the tide of democratization swept one after another into Hungary in September, the GDR in October, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria in November, and Romania in December. The conditional formula of the English political scientist Timothy Garton-Ash for the duration of events is widely known:

In Poland it took ten years, in Hungary ten months, in East Germany ten weeks, in Czechoslovakia ten days, in Romania ten hours.

Poland

GDR

These demonstrations had a huge impact on the political processes going on in the GDR; they formed first as democratic associations, and then as parties, such organizations as the “New Forum”, “Social Democratic Party”, “Union 90”.

When the Hungarian government announced the opening of borders on September 11, 1989, the Berlin Wall lost its meaning: within three days, 15 thousand citizens left the GDR through Hungarian territory.

As a result of mass protests, the SED leadership resigned (October 24 - Erich Honecker, November 7 - Willy Stoff, November 13 - Horst Sindermann, Egon Krenz, who replaced Erich Honecker as General Secretary of the SED Central Committee and Chairman of the State Council of the GDR, was also removed 3 December 1989). Grigor Gysi became the chairman of the SED, Manfred Gerlach became the chairman of the State Council of the GDR, and Hans Modrow became the chairman of the Council of Ministers.

In October 1990, the lands of the former GDR entered the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Berlin Wall was demolished within a few months. It was decided to preserve only small parts of it as a monument for subsequent generations.

Czechoslovakia

The Czechs witnessed the fall of the so-called Iron Curtain, which came with the fall of the Berlin Wall. In response to events in East Germany, and in the absence of any reaction from the USSR, mass rallies began. On November 17, 1989, clashes between students and police began. On November 27, a general two-hour strike took place in the country; on November 20, the number of demonstrators increased from 200 thousand to half a million. On November 28, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced its renunciation of its monopoly on power.

On December 10, communist leader Gustav Husak accepted the first non-communist government since 1948 and resigned. The dismantling of fortifications on the Czechoslovakian border with West Germany began.

In February 1990, the Bulgarian Communist Party abandoned its monopoly on power and the Marxist-Leninist model of social development. In April 1990, after a party-wide referendum of the Bulgarian communists, the party was transformed into the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), which took social democratic positions.

In June 1990, the first free elections since 1931 were held. They were won by the BSP, which received 211 places out of 400, but it was a Pyrrhic victory. The SDS, which took second place with 144 seats, won in major cities, including the capital. Opposition supporters began a campaign of civil disobedience, and SDS deputies in parliament used obstructionist tactics. The power belonged to the BSP, but it was forced to do what the street, directed by the SDS, dictated. As a result, on July 6, Pyotr Mladenov resigned from the post of president. On July 23, the body of G. Dimitrov was taken out of the mausoleum. On August 1, the parliament elected Zh. Zhelev as president.

On August 26, a strong fire occurred in the building of the Central Committee of the BSP under unclear circumstances. Mutual accusations between socialists and the opposition, not supported by evidence, were accompanied by street clashes. The economic situation worsened, shortages of essential goods grew, and food stamps were introduced in September. New and traditional trade unions held protest rallies. The Socialist government, headed since February 1990 by Andrei Lukanov, was forced to resign on November 29, despite the BSP majority in parliament.

In December, a coalition government of the SDS, BSP and the Bulgarian Agricultural People's Union was formed, headed by the non-party lawyer Dimitar Popov. On February 1, 1991, economic reform began with price liberalization and currency devaluation. The price jump was very strong. The Land Law adopted in February provided for the restitution of land ownership, and cooperatives were subject to liquidation.

On July 12, Bulgaria was the first of the post-socialist countries to adopt a new Constitution. In October, parliamentary elections were held, as a result of which the coalition government was formed by the SDS, which took first place with 110 mandates out of 240, and the Movement for Rights and Freedoms, representing the interests of Turkish-speaking citizens (24 mandates). The BSP came second with 106 deputies.

Although Todor Zhivkov was put on trial in 1991, he avoided the fate of Nicolae Ceausescu.

Romania

In Romania, unlike other Eastern European countries, there was not even limited de-Stalinization. In November 1989, 71-year-old Nicolae Ceausescu was re-elected to another 5-year term as leader of the ruling Romanian Communist Party.

As Mikhail Gorbachev later argued, the USSR's consent to the unification of Germany was given in exchange for a promise that the countries of Eastern Europe would not be included in NATO. Western powers reject the fact of such a promise.

Notes

See term usage Autumn of Nations in English-language publications, as well as the Polish term Jesień Ludów or Jesień Narodow V Polish-language publications.
Foreign press:
Huntington S. Third wave. Democratization at the end of the 20th century. - M.: ROSSPEN, 2003.
History of anti-communist revolutions of the late 20th century: Central and South-Eastern Europe / Executive editor Yu. S. Novopashin. - Science, 2007.
Alexander Smolyar. Polish radicals are in power. “Pro et Contra”, Moscow Carnegie Center, No. 5-6, 2006
International historical magazine No. 7, 2000 N. Bukharin. Internal factors of the Polish revolution 1989
Laszlo Kontler. History of Hungary. Millennium in the center of Europe. - M.: The whole world, 2002. - P. 612.
Dmitry Travin, Otar Margania. Chapter 6. Hungary: Small steps of big changes// European modernization. - AST, 2004.
Friedensgebete und Montagsdemonstrationen auf jugendopposition.de(Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung / Robert-Havemann-Gesellschaft e.V.). August 10, 2010
Vgl. Bahrmann, Hannes; Links, Christoph: Chronik der Wende. Die DDR zwischen 7. Oktober und 18. December 1989. Ch. Links Verlag, Berlin 1994, S. 32 und 47, dort wird die Anzahl der Besucher bei der zweiten Demonstration auf "über 300000" geschätzt.
Theguardian. Christianity ended the cold war peacefully
« We, the Heads of State and Government of the States participating in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, have gathered in Paris at a time of profound change and historical expectations. The era of confrontation and division in Europe is over. We declare that from now on our relations will be based on mutual respect and cooperation.» / Charter of Paris
“Modern Russia” database. Press
A. Lebed. “Russia was given a dead cat”

1. Poland in 1989

In 1989, Poland experienced a peaceful transfer of power from the communists to the opposition, representing a desire for democracy and independence. It became possible This was possible due to the fact that the communist authorities realized the failure of their economic policies and the impossibility of further exercising power due to growing resistance from the people. The ground for these changes was prepared by government negotiations with representatives of the Solidarity trade union, which took place from September 16, 1988 at the conference center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Magdalenka. In the photo: informal negotiations between oppositionists Lech Walesa (left) and Adam Michnik (center) with government representative General Czeslaw Kiszczak (right). Like “Pole with Pole.”

As a result of these discussions, a “Round Table” was organized, which was attended by representatives of the government, the opposition and the Catholic Church. The term "Round Table" originates from the special shape of the table, which symbolizes the unity of the nation and the absence of differences between "us" and "them" (since there is no opposite side to the round table).

Round table negotiations

Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes Poland's first post-communist prime minister after World War II

December 28– adoption by parliament of the so-called “Balcerowicz Plan”, a package of reforms that introduced changes to the country’s economic system
December 29- Parliament changed the name of the state, which on December 31, 1989 became known as the Republic of Poland, it also replaced the term “socialist state” with “democratic state”, since then Poland began to be called the Third Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The article below contains the opinion of journalist and columnist Stefan Bratkovsky, who was a participant in the Round Table in 1989. There are clippings from his article: “There was no one there who was silent.”

“I think 1989 should be written down in history. What happened in Poland then did not happen in any other country and has never been described in history: the transition od from a totalitarian regime and a vassal state to democracy and sovereignty - a preliminary peace agreement and in the future - only deliberate steps that do not stop for a day. This action disrupted the global status quo between the two great camps, changed the system and alliances, and brought national sovereignty, all without war or firing a single shot.” These changes were not preceded by a long process of suppressing the conflict. On the contrary, the changes were preceded by a desperate attempt to change the course of history by introducing martial law. But on the other hand, the changes were prepared by the stubborn resistance of society, which, thanks to the social movement "Solidarity" and thanks to the unification of those who shape public opinion, organized its own association, headed by a person who was able to conclude an agreement (with the invaluable support of the church ). One should also appreciate the fact that the ruling class, to which all organs of power were subordinated - the secret police, the army, the administration, and the economic apparatus - decided to recognize the choice of the majority of the nation on June 4, 1989. With “Big Brother” behind him, calmly, without jerks, but without any enthusiasm, power was transferred to democratic forces. The loyalty of the generals to the new government ensured peace in the country for 1/5 of the population - for the former ruling class, and the rapid stabilization after the coup in Poland made a decisive contribution to the collapse of other people's democracies and transformations in the former socialist camp."

1989 laid the legal basis for the abolition of the fundamental principles of socialism, such as: centralized management of the economy (non-market and managed by the public sector), the leading role of the Marxist-Leninist party and “socialist internationalism” in foreign policy, the political union of people's democracies under the control of the Soviet Union. The abolition of these foundations was to be carried out gradually and much later, and one of its foundations was the “Balcerowicz Plan” - a plan developed by the Minister of Finance Leszek Balcerowicz. He proposed a major overhaul of the country's economy at all levels.

General information:

Average salary: PLN 107,000
Dollar value: 2900 – 3000 zlotys

2. Poland after 1989 – basic facts

November 25/December 9, 1990 – first completely free, general presidential election, won by Lech Walesa

December 22, 1990 – oath of office of the new President Lech Walesa ( in the photo below); the last president of Poland (in exile), Ryszard Kaczorowski, presents Walesa with the presidential insignia.

Oath of office of the new President Lech Walesa

October 27, 1991 – first completely free parliamentary elections since World War II

April 9, 1991.– September 17, 1993– the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Poland began after a 48-year stay. (Note the symbolic date of September 17, the date when the last Russian soldier left Polish territory after the farewell ceremony for President Lech Walesa, and 54 years ago, on the same day, September 17, 1939, the Soviet Union occupied the eastern territories of the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth).

Farewell ceremony for Soviet troops at the Świętoszów garrison

April 2, 1997– the entry into force of the Polish constitution, which states that the Polish political system is based on the principle of separation and balancing of the legislative (Sejm and Parliament), executive (President of the Republic and Council of Ministers) and judicial powers (courts and judicial authorities), and the basic economic system – a market economy based on economic freedom and private property

- Population turnout: 58.85%
- for: 77.45%
- against: 22.55%

July 23, 2003, President Aleksander Kwasniewski signs the document confirming Poland's accession to the European Union

Also worth a look:

Prague: February 1989

Vaclav Havel was sentenced to nine months in prison. Repressions are intensifying in Czechoslovakia.

Budapest: February 1989

The Hungarians followed the example of Poland. The Communist Party declared its multilateral policy. The introduction of free organizations is allowed. In May, the end of the “Iron Curtain” policy along the borders of the EU and Austria begins. The beginning of the end for the Iron Curtain. Intensification of protests in Berlin (East Germany) and Prague (Czechoslovakia).

Destruction of fences on the Hungarian-Austrian border

Budapest: September 1989

In September, Hungary opened its borders with Austria for German refugees from the eastern territories (GDR). A huge flow of refugees followed, mainly to West Germany. A completely new train timetable is being established throughout Western Europe.

Berlin: October 1989

USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev is on an official visit to East Berlin and warns its leadership that the reforms put aside will seriously hit the country. The Chairman of the State Council of the GDR, Erich Honecker, did not believe him and in several cities ordered the police to confront the demonstrators.

Brussels: October 1989

The EU embassies, especially the German embassy, were overcrowded with refugees. In Prague and Warsaw this leads to an unbearable situation. The EU Commission (EU Government) presents a “surprise” for everyone, showing that power in the European Union belongs only to it. EU trains transport new citizens directly through (still then) communist countries to member countries.

October – East Germany

On October 9, 1989, heavily armed police and army defend against a huge group of demonstrators in Leipzig. The situation foreshadows disaster, but the secretary of the local party prohibits the use of violence. A few days later, Honecker is replaced by Egon Krenz. He flies to Moscow to ask for support for reforms, but it was too late. People from all over Europe come to the Berlin Wall. By November 4th there were about a million visitors in East Berlin, who kept coming. The number of people was much greater than the population of West Berlin.

Berlin, meeting of the People's Chamber, chairman Egon Krenz

The incredible happened! The Berlin Wall (“Iron Curtain”) has fallen: Germany becomes one country again. In Western Europe, representatives of the young-spirited older generation (the sixties) simply went crazy. Their motto was: “Here they are - the fruits of the 60s!”, and when the older generation warned, saying that someone would have to pay for this, the answer was: “We, finally Europe lives!” So the Western part fell.

Berlin Wall, December 1989, people waiting for the wall to “fall”

The beginning of the Velvet Revolution. In December, Husak transferred to a non-communist government, from which he resigned as president. Alexander Dubcek, who tried to save socialism in 1986, becomes chairman of the new parliament. Vaclav Havel becomes President. How big is a small power that makes a velvet revolution and then elects a writer to the post of President?

Vaclav Havel during the Velvet Revolution, Prague, November 1989

Sofia: December 1989

Hundreds of thousands of Bulgarians take part in demonstrations in support of democracy.

Ceausescu opposes killings during demonstrations, but he was booed while speaking from his balcony, and on Christmas Day he and his wife were shot.

Revolutionaries, Bucharest, late December 1989

Vilnius: December

Gorbachev flies to the Baltics to convince the Baltic states not to secede from the Union. He fails. The genies have been released from the bottles! The population of the Baltic states, hand in hand, has built a human chain along the Baltic Sea - from the border with the EU (Finland) to the southern border of the EU (with Poland). They sang: “let us join too.” After this, the Soviet Empire began to disintegrate. Turkey, Belarus, Ukraine and several Caucasus states such as Georgia wanted to become members or wanted to improve relations with the EU.

The Baltic chain in Lithuania stretches to the border with Latvia

On the one hand, the EU Commission was afraid of overloading the European Union, and on the other hand, they thought that a refusal would be wrong. For each state that wanted to join the EU, rules were formulated that they had to comply with. Free press, free financial markets, no laws that conflict with EU laws, free markets, respect for human rights, no discrimination, a democratic parliament that must respect EU institutions, etc. With the exception of Turkey (on some issues), these states remained silent. However, all this started the discussion: “What are the cultural boundaries of Europe?” The Dutch had a simple answer. The borders of Europe are considered to be the Polar Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. In the east the borders are blurred. According to people today, the cultural boundary of the east is as follows: Europe is the area where there are more churches and where there is a clear separation between Church and State. Not a bad result for a complex public debate.

Bonn: March 1990

Germany proposes to negotiate a monetary union with East Germany so that there is a single currency. In the first free elections in the GDR in March, Christia won National Democratic Union (CDU) with a proposal to make a single German mark. East German representative Lothar de Maizière (CDU) formed a coalition government which, in accordance with Article 23 of the West German constitution, asked for the reunification of the two countries. On July 1, the German mark came into circulation in East Germany, but the problem of reunification remained. The status of the “new” Germany was formed using the formula 2 plus 4. 2 is Germany (East and West), and 4 is the occupiers (USA, UK, France and the Soviet Union). But the key question remained whether a united Germany would be a member of NATO (the US position). In the picture: “united” brand.

Moscow: July 1990

In mid-July, West German Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl travel to Moscow to meet with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. The Germans confirm that Germany recognizes the German-Polish borders (a precondition of the US, EU and USSR). During a trip to Gorbachev's dacha, which was located in the Caucasus, on behalf of the EU they promised that they would provide financial assistance for the withdrawal of Russian troops. Faced with a serious crisis in the country, Gorbachev supports German membership in NATO.

On October 3, 1990, the reunification of Germany was formally recorded.

Baltics: January 1991

The year 91 begins with “bloody resurrection” in Vilnius. Soviet troops acted brutally against Lithuanian citizens who defended a television station with their bodies. 15 Lithuanian residents were killed. After this incident, the collapse of the Soviet Union accelerates. At the end of February, the Warsaw Pact ceased to exist. Boris Yeltsin becomes President of Russia (not the dying Soviet Union). More and more Soviet republics want to secede from the Union. In August, the Soviet army tries to carry out a coup d'etat in Moscow, but it fails. Thanks to the Internet, the army was unable to control the flow of information (and civilian communications). In the photo on the left: Russian tanks on the streets of Vilnius.

Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union, therefore the USSR no longer exists. People from EU countries, before the New Year, sing right in the streets. (Frodo is alive!)

Black Period Pages

At a time when all of Europe was watching the “East”, it did not pay attention to the “South”. Unexpectedly, the Serbian-Yugoslav army entered Slovenia and Croatia. Today there are a large number of terrifying stories that tell about the events of that time. A peace agreement was signed on the Brijuni Islands and later in The Hague, but the EU did not want to extend it to the Yugoslav states. The consequence was a brutal civil war in the former Republic of Yugoslavia.

July, 1991 Tanks of the Yugoslav People's Army in Slovenia, when it left the Federal Yugoslavia

This time, financial aid or any other assistance for change in Yugoslavia did not work. The European Union failed. All states kept their armies ready to send them to the East (the Soviet Union was very unstable), and no one at that time was ready to send them to the South. It was Russia that supported Serbia. It was only when information about the terrible events that took place in Yugoslavia (meaning the southern part of Yugoslavia) appeared in the daily newspapers that a military response followed (very late, very slow and, moreover, insignificant). The West wanted and decided, although it was not initially intended, to send troops in order to ensure peace in the country. Since Russia was too unstable, the danger of a war on two fronts was great, so the Balkans again created a problem for Europe.

Renata Glusek / Han Tigelar

Translation into Russian: Igor Buzikov

Photo: Wikipedia Commons, public domain, gover. pl, DPA / Forum, 10 bkpanc. wp. pl, Renata Glushek

In the summer of 1980, worker protests began in Poland, the reason for which was another price increase. Gradually they covered the cities of the northern coast of the country. In Gdansk, on the basis of the inter-factory strike committee, the trade union association “Solidarity” was formed.

Under the banner of Solidarity

Its participants presented “21 demands” to the authorities. This document contained both economic and political demands, including: recognizing free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, ending persecution for beliefs, expanding access of public and religious organizations to the media, etc. The head of the All-Polish Commission electrician L. Walesa was elected by the trade union "Solidarity".

The expanding influence of the trade union association and its beginning to develop into a political movement pushed the government to introduce martial law in the country in December 1981. The activities of Solidarity were banned, its leaders were interned (subjected to house arrest). But the authorities could not eliminate the emerging crisis.

In June 1989, parliamentary elections were held in Poland on a multi-party basis. Solidarity won them. The new coalition government was headed by Solidarity representative T. Mazowiecki. In December 1990, L. Walesa was elected president of the country.

Lech Walesa born in 1943 into a peasant family. He graduated from the school of agricultural mechanization and began working as an electrical mechanic. In 1967 he became an electrician at the shipyard named after. Lenin in Gdansk. In 1970 and 1979-1980. - Member of the shipyard strike committee. One of the organizers and leaders of the Solidarity trade union. In December 1981 he was interned and in 1983 he returned to the shipyard as an electrician. In 1990-1995 - President of the Republic of Poland. The extraordinary political fate of L. Walesa was generated both by time and by the personal qualities of this man. Publicists noted that he was a “typical Pole,” a deeply religious Catholic, and a family man. At the same time, it is no coincidence that he was called the “flexible man of iron.” He was distinguished not only by his pronounced abilities as a political fighter and speaker, but also by his ability to choose his own path, to perform actions that neither his opponents nor his comrades expected of him.

1989-1990s: big changes

Panorama of events

August 1989- the first Solidarity government was formed in Poland.
November - December 1989- mass uprisings of the population and the displacement of the communist leadership in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria.
By June 1990 as a result of multi-party elections in all countries of Eastern Europe (except Albania), new governments and leaders came to power.
March - April 1991- the first parliamentary elections on a multi-party basis in Albania, a coalition government has been in power since June.

In less than two years, power has changed in eight Eastern European countries. Why did this happen? This question can be asked regarding each country separately. One might also ask: why did this happen in all countries almost simultaneously?

Let's look at specific situations.

German Democratic Republic

Dates and events

1989

October- mass anti-government demonstrations in different cities, their dispersal, arrests of participants, the rise of a social movement for the renewal of the existing system.
November 9- The Berlin Wall fell.
By the end of November Over 100 political parties and social movements emerged in the country.
December 1- Article 1 of the GDR Constitution (on the leading role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany) was repealed.
December- mass exit of SED members from the party; by January 1990, out of the previous 2.3 million, 1.1 million people remained in the party.
December 10-11 and 16-17- extraordinary congress of the SED, transforming it into the Party of Democratic Socialism.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

1990

March- parliamentary elections, victory of the conservative bloc "Alliance for Germany" led by the Christian Democratic Union.
April- a “grand coalition” government was formed, half of the posts in which were occupied by representatives of the CDU.
July 1- the agreement between the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany on an economic, monetary and social union came into force.
October 3- The Treaty of German Unification came into force.

Czechoslovakia

Events named subsequently "velvet revolution", began on November 17, 1989. On this day, students organized a demonstration in Prague in connection with the 50th anniversary of the anti-Nazi protest of Czech students during the years of German occupation. During the demonstration, demands were made for the democratization of society and the resignation of the government. Law enforcement forces dispersed the demonstration, detained some participants, and injured several people.

November 19 A protest demonstration took place in Prague with anti-government slogans and calls for a strike. On the same day, the Civil Forum was established - a social movement that put forward demands to remove a number of the country's leaders from their posts, and the Socialist Party (dissolved in 1948) was restored. Following public protest, Prague theatres, including the National Theatre, canceled performances.

November 20 In Prague, a 150,000-strong demonstration took place under the slogans “End the rule of one party!”, demonstrations began in different cities of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The government had to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament abolished the constitutional articles on the leading role of the Communist Party in society and the determining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. On December 10, a coalition government was created, which included communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties. Some time later, A. Dubcek became the chairman of the Federal Assembly (Parliament). V. Havel was elected president of the country.

Vaclav Havel born in 1936. Received an economic education. In the 1960s he began working in the theater and became known as a playwright and writer. Participant in the “Prague Spring” of 1968. After 1969, he was deprived of the opportunity to practice his profession and worked as a laborer. Between 1970 and 1989 he was imprisoned three times for political reasons. Since November 1989 - one of the leaders of the Civil Forum. In 1989-1992 - President of the Czechoslovak Republic. Since 1993 - the first president of the newly formed Czech Republic (he held this post in 1993-2003).

Romania

While major changes had already taken place in neighboring countries, the XIV Congress of the Communist Party was held in Romania from November 20-24, 1989. The five-hour report by Party Secretary General Nicolae Ceausescu on the successes achieved was met with endless applause. The slogans “Ceausescu and the people!”, “Ceausescu - communism!” were heard in the hall. With wild joy the congress greeted the news of Ceausescu's election to his post for a new term.

From publications in Romanian newspapers of that time:

“We respond to the imperialist forces that are increasing their efforts to undermine and destabilize socialism, speaking of its “crisis,” with deeds: the whole country has turned into a huge construction site and a blooming garden. And this is because Romanian socialism is the socialism of free labor, not the “market”, it does not leave fundamental problems of development to chance and does not understand improvement, renewal, restructuring as a restoration of capitalist forms.”
“The unanimous commitment to the decision to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of Secretary General of the RCP is a political vote for the continuation of a proven, life-confirmed creative course, as well as recognition of the heroic example of a revolutionary and patriot, the leader of our party and state. Together with the entire Romanian people, writers with a sense of full responsibility join the proposal to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu as head of our party.”

A month later, on December 21, at an official rally in the center of Bucharest, instead of toasts, shouts of “Down with Ceausescu!” were heard from the crowd. The actions of army units directed against the demonstrators soon stopped. Realizing that the situation was out of control, N. Ceausescu and his wife E. Ceausescu (a well-known party leader) fled from Bucharest. The next day they were arrested and put on trial by a tribunal, conducted in strict secrecy. On December 26, 1989, the Romanian media reported on the court that sentenced the Ceausescu couple to death (they were shot 15 minutes after the verdict was announced).

Already on December 23, Romanian television announced the creation of the Council of the National Salvation Front, which assumed full power. The Chairman of the Council of the Federal Tax Service was Ion Iliescu, once a Communist Party leader who was repeatedly removed from party posts in the 1970s for opposition sentiments. In May 1990, I. Iliescu was elected president of the country.

The overall result of the events of 1989-1990. was the fall of communist regimes in all countries of Eastern Europe. Communist parties collapsed, some of them transformed into parties of the social democratic type. New political forces and leaders came to power.

At a new stage

The “new people” in power were most often liberal politicians (in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic). In some cases, for example in Romania, these were former communist party leaders who switched to social democratic positions. The main measures of the new governments in the economic sphere included a transition to a market economy. Privatization (transfer into private hands) of state property began, and price controls were abolished. Social expenditures were significantly reduced and wages were frozen. Breaking the pre-existing system was carried out in a number of cases using the most severe methods in the shortest possible time, for which it was called “shock therapy” (this option was carried out in Poland).

By the mid-1990s, the economic and social costs of reforms became apparent: a decline in production and the ruin of hundreds of enterprises, mass unemployment, rising prices, stratification of society into a few rich and thousands of people living below the poverty line, etc. Governments responsible for the reforms and their consequences, began to lose popular support. In the elections of 1995-1996. in Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria, representatives of the socialists won. The position of the Social Democrats in the Czech Republic has strengthened. In Poland, as a result of changes in public sentiment, the most popular politician in the early 1990s, L. Walesa, lost the presidential election. In 1995, Social Democrat A. Kwasniewski became the country's president.

Changes in the foundations of the social system could not but affect national relations. Previously, rigid centralized systems connected each state into a single whole. With their fall, the way opened not only for national self-determination, but also for the actions of nationalist and separatist forces. In 1991 -1992 The Yugoslav state collapsed. Two of the six former Yugoslav republics remained within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia became independent states. However, state demarcation was accompanied by an exacerbation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.

Bosnian crisis. An intractable situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Historically, Serbs, Croats and Muslims coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population that converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were complemented by religious ones: in addition to the division between Christians and Muslims, the fact that the Serbs belonged to the Orthodox Church, and the Croats to the Catholic Church, was reflected. In the single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (for Serbs) and Latin (for Croats).

Throughout the 20th century. strong central authority in the Yugoslav kingdom and later in the federal socialist state contained national contradictions. In the republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which separated from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular severity. The Serbs, who made up half of Bosnia's population, refused to recognize secession from the Yugoslav federation and then proclaimed a Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992-1994. An armed conflict broke out between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among the combatants, but also among the civilian population. People were killed in prisoner camps and populated areas. Thousands of residents left their villages and cities and became refugees. To contain the internecine fighting, UN peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped through the efforts of international diplomacy.

In 2006, Montenegro separated from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.

IN Serbia after 1990, a crisis arose related to the autonomous region of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims by religious affiliation). The restriction of the region's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the “Republic of Kosovo”. An armed conflict broke out. In the late 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the Serbian leadership and the leaders of the Kosovo Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO - intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO troops began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale.

The peoples have chosen a different way to resolve national problems Czechoslovakia. In 1992, as a result of a referendum, a decision was made to divide the country. The partition procedure was thoroughly discussed and prepared, for which publicists called this event “divorce with a human face.” On January 1, 1993, two new states appeared on the world map - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

The changes that took place in Eastern European countries had significant foreign policy consequences. In the early 1990s, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact ceased to exist. In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary, East Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries - primarily the European Union and NATO - have become the center of attraction for the countries of the region. In 1999, Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004, 7 more states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia). Also in 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007, Romania and Bulgaria.

At the beginning of the 21st century. In most countries of Central-Eastern Europe (as the region began to be called), left and right governments and state leaders alternated in power. Thus, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government had to cooperate with President W. Klaus, who occupies a right-wing position (elected in 2003); in Poland, the left-wing politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as president of the country by a representative of the right-wing forces, L. Kaczynski (2005-2010). It is noteworthy that both “left” and “right” governments, in one way or another, solved the common problems of accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and economic systems into line with European standards, and resolving social problems.

Used literature:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General History. XX - early XXI centuries.

To a certain extent, they were associated with the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned
Stalin’s personality cult and concluded that it was necessary to take into account the national characteristics of each country. Internal prerequisites - dogmatism of the leadership, difficult socio-economic situation, political crisis.
In Poland in 1955

industrial production quadrupled its pre-war level. But the situation in light industry and agriculture was catastrophic. Plans for complete collectivization were thwarted by dissatisfied peasants, so cooperatives united only 9% of land. The financial situation of the majority of the population was extremely difficult. In March 1956, mass protests took place in Poznan and other cities, which showed the inability of the leadership to overcome the socio-economic and political crisis and lead reforms; the demand to return W. Gomulka to power became widespread. In October 1956, the plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP dismissed almost the entire leadership of the party. The new composition of the Politburo was headed by the urgently rehabilitated V. Gomulka, who announced reforms aimed at saving and renovating socialism.
The concept of building socialism in Polish conditions was formulated, which included a revision of agrarian policy, normalization of relations with the Catholic Church, development of workers' self-government, establishment of more equal relations with the USSR, etc.
Forced collectivization was stopped, and individual peasant farms began to dominate in the agricultural sector. Emphasis was placed on the development of simple forms of cooperation.
The head of the Polish Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal S. Wyszynski, who was isolated in one of the monasteries, was released. At the request of their parents, children could study the law of God in special catechism centers.
Under the new election law, voters were given the right to choose from several candidates, and the representation of non-communist parties, secular Catholics and non-partisans in the Sejm increased. But the elections were still not free, because Candidates could only be nominated by the People's Unity Front, in which the PUWP reigned supreme.
It was possible to resolve some difficult issues in Polish-Soviet relations. More than 1,00 thousand Poles were given the opportunity to return from the USSR to Poland, the status of the Northern Group of Soviet Forces in Poland was determined, etc.
In general, the October 1956 crisis in Poland was resolved peacefully, although the threat of the use of Soviet troops existed.
Events in Hungary were more tragic. In the fall of 1956, a broad political bloc emerged in the country, whose activities were aimed at eliminating the existing socio-political system. There was widespread sharp condemnation of the repressions of the M. Rakosi regime, revealed after the 20th Congress of the CPSU. On October 23, 1956, a mass student demonstration took place in Budapest, which outlined its demands in the Opposition Manifesto: radical democratic reforms, overcoming mistakes and excesses, and a return to the leadership of the previously repressed Imre Nagy. The demonstration grew into an uprising. I. Nagy was hastily appointed head of government, and J. Kadar - first secretary of the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party. At the request of the party and state leadership, Soviet tank divisions were introduced into the capital and took control of strategic objects. This strengthened anti-Soviet sentiments and led to the emergence of the slogan of the struggle for national independence. The troops were withdrawn, but clashes in the city continued, turning into violence and terror against supporters of socialism. I. Nagy called on the rebels to lay down their arms, but on October 28 he unexpectedly called the events a people's democratic revolution. In an atmosphere of chaos and anarchy, the VPT decided to dissolve itself, and I. Nagy announced the liquidation of the one-party system and the formation of a cabinet of ministers from representatives of the parties active in 1945-1948. A number of new anti-Soviet parties emerged, and the leadership of the Catholic Church began to play a huge role. Western powers sent weapons and emigrants to Hungary. Under pressure from anti-socialist forces, the government announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet leadership and leaders of other socialist countries characterized the Hungarian events as a “counter-revolutionary rebellion.” Some leaders of the VPT (J. Kadar and others) went underground and created a Provisional Revolutionary Workers' and Peasants' Government. Formally, at his request, but in fact, at the earlier decision of the leaders of the socialist camp, Soviet troops were reintroduced into Budapest on November 4, 1956, and within four days they suppressed the uprising. More than 4 thousand Hungarian citizens and 660 Soviet military personnel died.
Power passed into the hands of the government of J. Kadar. The Communist Party was re-established under a new name - the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party. I. Nagy, who was hiding with other members of the government in the Yugoslav embassy, was arrested, accused of treason and shot.
On the one hand, the events of 1956 in Poland and Hungary showed a desire for fundamental renewal and democratization of socialism. On the other hand, the Soviet Union's intervention in the Hungarian events demonstrated its determination to preserve the established model of socialism in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe.